0.1.

Solutions
1. a) The function f : N Z,
1

n is an even number
n,
2
f (x) =

1 (n + 1), n is an odd number

2
is a bijection.
b) The function f : N N N
f (m, n) = 2m (2n + 1) 1
is a bijection.
Injectivity: Suppose that f (m, n) = f (p, q), m, n, p, q N
2m (2n+1) = 2p (2q+1) m = p and 2n+1 = 2q+1 (m, n) = (p, q).
Surjectivity. Take an arbitrary x N. Then there exists a unique
pair (m, n) N such that x + 1 = 2m (2n + 1) f (m, n) = x f is
surjective.
c) We prove that the interval [0, 1] is not countable. Suppose by contradiction that there exists a bijection f : N [0, 1] and let f (n) = xn ,
n N. We divide I0 = [0, 1] in three subintervals with the same length.
Then at least one of them contains x1 , say x1 I1 = [a1 , b1 ]. Now, dividing I1 in three intervals of the same length we denote I2 = [a2 , b2 ] the
interval which contains x2 , and so on. We obtain a decreasing sequence
1
(In )n0 of interval, In = [an , bn ], with bn an = n , n N. Then, in view
3
of the principle of nested intervals,

In = {},

n=0

[0, 1].

Chapter 0
Since f is a bijection, it follows that there exists n N such that

xn = . But In+1 and xn 6 In+1 , contradiction. Therefore R is not

countable.
2. a) Let cn = 1 +

1
1
+ . . . + ln n, n 1. we have
2
n

xn := e1+ 2 +...+ n+1 e1+ 2 +...+ n = e1+ 2 +...+ n (e n+1 1)

1

cn +ln n

=e

(e

1
n+1

n
e n+1 1
1) = e

.
1
n+1
n+1
cn

It follows lim xn = ec .
n


1
1
an
1
+
+ ... +
ln 2 = ,
b) xn := n
n+1 n+2
2n
bn
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
ln 2,
n+1 n+2
2n

an =

bn =

1
,
n

n 1.

Since an 0, bn 0, bn+1 < bn , n 1, by Stolz-Cesaro lemma

follows
1
1
1
+

1
an+1 an
= lim 2n + 1 2n + 2 n + 1 = .
lim
1
1
n
n bn+1 bn
4

n+1 n
c) Let xn = n(cn c) =
We have:

cn + c
1
and an = cn c, bn = , n 1.
1
n
n

1
ln(n + 1) + ln n
an+1 an
= lim n + 1
lim
1
1
n
n bn+1 bn

n+1 n
1
1
1
1

+
ln(x + 1) + ln x
2
(x + 1)
x+1 x
= x
lim x + 1
= x
lim
1
1
1
1
xR
xR

2
x+1 x
x
(x + 1)2

3
x
1
=
2x + 1
2

= x
lim
xR

StolzCesaro

1
an
= .
n bn
2

lim xn = lim

1p + 2p + . . . + np
(n + 1)p
=
lim
n
n (n + 1)p+1 np
np+1

d) lim

np + Cp1 np1 + . . . + 1
1
1
= 1 =
.
2
1
p1
p
n Cp+1 n + Cp+1 n
+ ... + 1
Cp+1
p+1


1
1
1
4
6
e) 2
=6
+

=
1 + 22 + . . . + k 2
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
k k + 1 2k + 1
= lim

xn :=

n
X
k=1

=6

n
X
1
k=1

n
X
k=1

12

22

1
+ . . . + k2

n
X
1
1
4
k+1
2k + 1
k=1

!
,

n 1.

We have:
n
X
1
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
k=1

= cn + ln n,

1
= cn+1 + ln(n + 1) 1
k+1

2n+1
n
X 1 X
1
1
1
=

1 = c2n+1 + ln(2n + 1) (cn + ln n) 1,

2k + 1
k k=1 2k
2
k=1

hence
xn = 6(3 + cn + cn+1 + ln n(n + 1) 4c2n+1 4 ln(2n + 1) + 2cn + 2 ln n)
n3 (n + 1)
= 6 3 + 3cn + cn+1 4c2n+1 + ln
(2n + 1)4


lim xn = 6(3 4 ln 2).

Chapter 0
f) lim

a+

a + ... +
ln n

an

a1
n ln(n + 1) ln n
n+1

= lim

a n+1 1
1
= lim

n+1 = ln a.
1
n
1
ln 1 +
n+1
n
3. a), b) follows by Stolz-Cesaro lemma and its consequence.
an+1
4. Let xn =
, n 1.
an
an+1
a) By lim
< 1 follows that there exists n0 N such that an+1 <
n an
an , n n0 . Since (an )nn0 is lower bounded it follows that there exists
lim an = a, a R. Letting n in an+1 = an xn a = al a = 0.
an+1
> 1 n0 N such that an+1 > an , n n0
b) lim
n an
lim an = a, a R, a > 0. If we suppose a 6= by an+1 = an xn

follows a = a l a = 0, contradiction with an+1 > an , n n0 .

Hence lim an = .
n

1
1
+ . . . + , n 1. It follows:
2
n
an
an+1 an
n+1
lim
= lim
= lim
n(an+1 an ) = l.
n bn
n bn+1 bn
n
n

5. a) Let (bn )n1 , bn = 1 +

Then
an
an
lim an = lim bn
= lim bn lim
= .
n
n
n
n bn
bn


an+1
an+1
n(an+1 an )
b) n(an+1 an ) = nan
1
1=
,
an
an
nan

an+1
n 1 lim
= 1 lim n an = 1.
n an
n
6. a) By induction follows an (0, 1), n 1, hence (an )n1 is a
bounded sequence. On the other hand, an+1 an = a2n < 0, n 1,
(an )n1 is monotonically decreasing sequence. Denote lim an = a, a
n

[0, 1]. Letting n in an+1 = an (1 an ) a2 = a(1 a) a = 0.

5
b) lim nan = lim
n

= lim

n Stolz
n+1n
= lim
1
1
1
n

an
an+1 an
1

1
1

an (1 an ) an

= lim (1 an ) = 1.
n

1
n
n(1 nan )
an
c) lim
= lim nan
= lim nan
n
n
n
ln n
ln n
1
1
1

1
n
an+1 an
Stolz
an
lim
= lim
n+1
n ln n
n
ln
n
1
an
1
n = 1.

= lim
= lim nan
n+1
n
n
1 an
1
(1 an ) ln
ln 1 +
n
n
 
 
a2 (0, 1) 0,
and by induction follows
7. a1 0,
2
2

an (0, 1), n N , so (an )n1 is bounded. On the other hand

an+1 an = sin an an < 0, n 1
(the inequality sin x < x, n > 0 is best known). Therefore (an )n1
is convergent, put lim an = a, a [0, 1). Letting n in an+1 =
n

sin an a = sin a a = 0. We have

v
p
u n

2
a an = nan = u
t 1
a2n
 
1
1
Since
is increasing and 2 , it follows
2
an n1
an
lim

n Stolz
n+1n
1
= lim
= lim
1
1
1
1
1
n
n

2
2
a2n
an+1 a2n
sin an a2n

Chapter 0

2
a2n sin2 an
x4
sin x
x2 sin2 x
= lim 2
= lim 2
= lim 2
x0 x sin2 x
n a sin2 an
x0 x sin2 x
x
n
xR

2
x3
sin x
x
lim
lim
=3
= lim
x0 x + sin x x0 x sin x x0
x

lim n an = 3.
8. The solution is analogous to problem 7.
9. For 0 the limit is obviously zero. Let > 0 in what follows.

Applying Lagranges theorem to the function


x
1
f (x) = 1 +
, x (0, )
x
on the interval [n, n + 1], n N , it follows that cn (n, n + 1) such
that
f (n + 1) f (n) = f 0 (cn ).
Taking account of
0

f (x) =

1
1+
x

x  


1
1
ln 1 +

x
1+x

we get:
c  


1 n
1
1
lim n (f (n + 1) f (n)) = lim n 1 +
ln 1 +

n
n
cn
cn
1 + cn

c n    


1
n
1
1
= lim 1 +
cn ln 1 +

n
cn
cn
cn
1 + cn
 


1
1
= lim cn ln 1 +

,
n
cn
1 + cn
in view of n < cn < n + 1 and cn .


1
1
 


ln 1 +

1
1
cn
1 + cn
lim cn ln 1 +

= lim
1
n
n
cn
1 + cn
cn

7
ln(1 + x)
= lim

x0
xR+

11. a) sn =

1
1
x

1 + x = lim 1 + x (1 + x)2
x&0
x1

1
1
lim
x&0 (1 + x)2 x2

n
X
(1)k1
k=1

0,
<2

1
=
,
=2

+, > 2.

1
1
, cn = 1 + + . . . + ln n, n 1. We have:
2
n

1 1 1
1
1
+ + ... +

2 3 4
2n 1 2n


1 1
1
1 1
1
= 1 + + + ... +
2
+ + ... +
2 3
2n
2 4
2n


1 1
1
1
1
= 1 + + + ... +
1 + + ... +
2 3
2n
2
n

s2n = 1

= (c2n + ln 2n) (cn + ln n) = c2n cn + ln 2

s2n+1 = s2n +

1
2n + 1

It follows
lim s2n = ln 2,

1
= ln 2,
n 2n + 1

lim s2n+1 = lim s2n + lim

therefore
lim sn = ln 2

b) sn =

n
X
k=1

=2

2n
X
1
k=1

n=1

1
=
k(2k 1)

n
X
1

k k=1 2k

X
(1)n1

n 
X
k=1

2
1

2k 1 k

= ln 2.


=2

n
X
k=1

X1
1

2k 1 k=1 k

!
(cn + ln n) = 2(c2n + ln 2n) 2(cn + ln n)

Chapter 0

= 2c2n 2cn + 2 ln 2

n=1

1
= 2 ln 2.
n(2n 1)

c) For every a (1, 1) we have

1 + a + a2 + . . . + an =

an+1 1
.
a1

Differentiating the previous relation we get

1 + 2a + 3a2 + . . . + nan1 =
a + 2a2 + . . . + nan =

nan+1 (n + 1)an + 1
(a 1)2

nan+2 (n + 1)an+1 + a
(a 1)2

Now letting n and taking account of lim nan = 0 we get

n

nan =

a
.
(a 1)2

n 2 an =

a(a + 1)
.
(1 a)3

n=1

Analogously

X
n=1

d) sn =

Pn

k=0

a cos kx, tn =

n
X

ak sin kx, n N. We have:

k=0

sn + itn =

n
X

a (cos kx + i sin kx) =

k=0

ak (cos x + i sin x)k

k=0

=
=

n
X

1 an+1 (cos x + i sin x)n+1

1 a(cos x + i sin x)

1 an+1 cos(n + 1)x ian+1 sin(n + 1)x

.
1 a cos x ia sin x

Since
|an+1 cos(n + 1)x| |a|n+1 ,

|an+1 sin(n + 1)x| |a|a+1

9
it follows that
lim (sn + itn ) =
n

1 a cos x + ia sin x
1
=
1 a cos x ia sin x
1 2a cos x + a2

and
lim sn =

e) sn =

n
X
k=1

1X
p k=1

1 a cos x
,
1 2a cos x + a2

lim tn =

a sin x
.
1 2a cos x + a2

X1
(k + p) k
1
=

k(k + 1) . . . (k + p) k=1 p k(k + 1) . . . (k + p)

1
1

k(k + 1) . . . (k + p 1) (k + 1)(k + 2) . . . (k + p)


1
=
p

1
1

p! (n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + p)

1
1
= lim sn =
.
n(n + 1) . . . (n + p) n
p p!

n=1

f) sn =

Pn

k=1

X 1
ak+p ak
1
=

ak ak+1 . . . ak+p
pr ak ak+1 . . . ak+p
k=1
n

1 X
=
pr k=1

1
1

ak ak+1 . . . ak+p 1 ak+1 ak+2 . . . ak+p

1
=
pr

1
1

a1 a2 . . . ap an+1 an+2 . . . an+p

X
n=1

1
1
=
,
an an+1 . . . an+p
pra1 a2 . . . ap

where r is the ratio of the arithmetic progression (an )n1 .

n
X
1
g) sn =
arctan 2 , n N . Taking account of the formula
2k
k=1
arctan a + arctan b = arctan

a+b
,
1 ab

ab < 1

10

Chapter 0

it follows
arctan

1
(2k + 1) (2k 1)
2
= arctan
= arctan
2
2
2k
1 + (4k 1)
1 + (2k + 1)(2k 1)
= arctan(2k + 1) arctan(2k 1),

hence
sn = arctan(2n + 1) arctan 1
h) sn =

n
X
k=1

.
4

k
1 3 . . . (2k + 1)

n
X
1


1
1

=
2
1

3
.
.
.
(2k

1)
1 3 . . . (2k + 1)
k=1


1
1
1
=
1
lim sn = .
n
2
1 3 . . . (2n + 1)
2

X 2n1
2n1
2n1
2n
1
i)
=

.
,
n

n
n1
n1
n1 =
2
2
2
2
a1
1+a
a
1 a 1
1+a
n=1
(a + 1)(a + 2) . . . (a + n)
,n1
j) Let an =
(b + 1)(b + 2) . . . (b + n)
an =

a+n
an1 , a0 = 1
b+n

an (b + n) = an1 (a + n)
an ((a + n + 1) + b a 1) = an1 (a + n)
1
an =
(an1 (a + n) an (a + n + 1)).
ba1
n
n
X
X
1
((a + k)ak1 (a + k + 1)ak )
sn =
ak =
b a 1 k=1
k=1
a + 1 (a + n + 1)an
=
ba1


a+1
(a + 2)(a + 3) . . . (a + n + 1)
=
1
.
ba1
(b + 1)(b + 2) . . . (b + n)

11
We prove that
xn :=

(a + 2)(a + 3) . . . (a + n + 1)
0.
(b + 1)(b + 2) . . . (b + n)

We have


 

1
ba1
ba1
ba1
= 1+
1+
... 1 +
xn
a+2
a+3
a+b+1


1
1
1
+
+ ... +
> (b a 1)
a+2 a+3
a+n+1
but

lim

1
1
1
+
+ ... +
a+2 a+3
a+n+1


= lim xn = 0.
n

It follows
lim sn =

k) sn =

n
X
k=1

k3
=
k!
=

n
X
k=1

k(k 1)(k 2) + ak(k 1) + bk

k!

n
X
k(k 1)(k 2) + 3k(k 1) + k

k!

k=1

n
X
k=3

a+1
.
ba1

n
n
X
X
1
1
1
+3
+
(k 3)!
(k 2)! k=1 (k 1)!
k=2

= En3 + 3En2 + En 5e,

1
1
1
where En = 1 + + + . . . + , n 1.
1! 2!
n!
12. a) Since a, c > 0 there exists n0 N such that
n

an + b
an :=
> 0 for every n n0 .
cn + d
We have:
lim

a
an = .
c

12

Chapter 0
Then for a < c the series is convergent and for a > c the series is

divergent in view of Cauchys root test.

n
bd
bd
For a = c lim xn = lim 1 +
= e a 6= 0 therefore
n
n
an + d
the series is divergent.
(n!)2 n
b) an =
a , n 1. We have:
(2n)!
((n + 1)!)2 an+1 (2n)!
a
an+1
a(n + 1)
= lim

= .
= lim
2
n
n
n an
n 2(2n + 1)
(2n + 2)!
(n!) a
4
lim

For a < 4 the series is 

convergent,for a > 4 the
 series is divergent.

an
2n + 1
1
1 = lim n
1 = ,
For a = 4 lim n
n
n
an+1
2(n + 1)
2
so the series is divergent in view of Raabe-Duhamel test.
an n!
c) an = n , n 1. We have
n
an+1
an+1 (n + 1)! nn
= lim
n
n an
n (n + 1)n+1
a n!
lim

nn
= a lim 
n (n + 1)n
n

= a lim

a
n = .
e
1
1+
n

Then for a < e the series is convergent and for a > e the series is
divergent.
For a = e

an+1
= 
an

e
1
1+
n

n > 1, n 1, since (en )n1 ,

n
1
en = 1 +
is an increasing sequence. Hence an+1 > an > 0, n 1
n

an = +.


n=1

d) an = aln n , n 1. DAlembert ratio test is not efficient.



n
an
1 = lim n(aln n+1 1)
lim n
n
n
an+1

13

n
n
n
aln n+1 1
ln
= ln a.
= lim
n
n
n+1
ln
n+1
1
1
The series is convergent for a < , divergent for a > .
e
e

X
1
1
an =

an = .
For a =
e
n

n=1

1 3 . . . (2n 1)
e) an =
, n 1;
2 4 . . . 2n


an+1
2n + 1
lim
= lim
= 1,
n an
n
2n + 2
DAlembert ratio test fails. Then:





an
2n + 2
lim n
1 = lim n
1
n
n
an+1
2n + 1


1
1+
1

n
2n + 1
= lim
= ,

1
n
2n + 1
2
2n + 1
therefore the series converges for > 2 and diverges for < 2 in view of
Raabe-Duhamel test.
For = 2 we obtain
an+1
=
an
Taking bn :=

and
test.

X
n=1

2n + 1
2n + 2

2

1
> n+1.
1
n

1
, n 1, the inequality
n
an+1
bn+1

, n1
an
bn

bn = implies

X
n=1

an = , according to the second comparison

14

Chapter 0

f) an =

ln n
n


, n 1. For 0,
(
lim an =

hence

, < 0
1,

=0

an = . Let > 0 in what follows. The sequence (an )n1 is

n=1

decreasing for n 3, so

an is convergent if and only if

n=1

2n a2n is

n=1

convergent, in view of Cauchys condensation test. We have:

2 a2n =

n=1

n=1

Denoting bn =

2(1)n

ln 2n
2n

= (ln 2)

X
n=1

n
2(1)n

, n 1, it follows

bn+1
(n + 1) 2(1)n
1
= lim (1)(n+1)
= 1 .

n bn
n 2
n
2
lim

The series

bn is convergent

n=1

Finally

1
21

< 1 > 1.

an converges > 1.

n=1

g) Solution analogous to f); the series converges for > 1 and diverges
for 1.
i) an = (2

e)(2

e) . . . (2

e), n 2. DAlembert ratio test

and Raabe-Duhamel test are not efficient. We prove that:

an+1
=2
an

n+1

1
e > n , n 2.
1
n1

15
Indeed
2

n+1

n1
n+1
e>

>
n
n

n+1


e

1
1+
n

n+1
> e,

the last inequality is best known.

X
an+1
bn+1
1
, n 2. Since

, n 2 and
bn = +
Let bn :=
n1
an
bn
n=2

X
it follows
an = +, according to the second comparison test.
n=2

1
j) an = e 1 +
n

n
> 0, n 1. We compare the series

X
1
for an appropriate value of , > 0. We have:
n
n=1

n
1
e 1+
1
an
e (1 + x) x
n
 
lim
= lim
= lim
n 1
n
x&0
x
1
n
n

1
x

ln(1+x)

ee
x&0
x

= lim

= lim e
x&0

ln(1+x)
1
x

1e
ln(1 + x)
1
x

In conclusion

X
X
an
e
1
= and
=
an = +,
n 1
2
n
n=1
n=1

according to the third comparison test.

n=1

ln(1 + x)
1
x

1
1
ln(1 + x) x
1
+
x
= e lim
= e lim
x&0
x&0 ( + 1)x
x+1

+, > 1

e
e
1
,
=1
=
lim
=
2
+ 1 x&0 x1 (1 + x)

0,
< 1.

lim

an to

16

Chapter 0
k) an =

1+

1
1
, n 1. Let bn = , > 0, n 1. We

n
n
2 + ... + n

have:
n
(n + 1) n
an

= lim
=
lim

n 1 +
n bn
2 + . . . + n n n n+1 n + 1
lim

+, > 1
1,

0,

=1

< 1.

X
an
an = + according to the third
=1
By the relation lim
n 1
n=1
n
comparison test.

l) an = sin n2 + 1 = sin(n + ( n2 + 1 n)) = sin(n + bn )

|
{z
}
bn

= sin n cos bn + cos n sin bn = (1)n sin ( n2 + 1 n)

= (1)n sin

.
n2 + 1 + n

The series
convergesaccording to Leibniz test for alternating series.
( n + 1 n)
m) an =
, n 1. We have
n2
an =

n( n + 1 + n)

2+
2

!,
1
1+ +1
n

1
an
=
1
2
2+
2
n

X
X
1

an converges if and only if

converges > 2.
2+
n 2
n=1
n=1
lim

17
n) an =

1 3 . . . (2n 1) 1
, n 1. Then
2 4 . . . 2n
n
r
2n + 1
n
an+1
=
, n1
an
2n + 2 n + 1

and easily follows

1
an+1
n + 1 , n 1.
1
an
n
Hence, according to the second comparison test, results

an = .

n=1

a(a + 1) . . . (a + n 1) 1
, n 1. We will use Raaben!
n
Duhamel test:






an
n+1 n+1
lim n
1 = lim n
1
n
n
an+1
a+n
n
o) an =



n+1
n+1 n+1
+
1
= lim n

n
n
a+n a+n




n+1
1
1a
= lim n
1+
1 +
n
a+n
n
a+n



1
1+
1
n + 1
n(1 a)
n
= + 1 a 6= 1.
= lim

1
n
a+n
a+n
n


n+1
a+n

The series converges for > a and diverges for < a.

1
1
p) xn = cos n sin , n 1. Take an = sin , bn = cos n and let
n
n
sn = b1 + b2 + . . . + bn , n 1.

18

Chapter 0
The following relation
sin
cos x + cos 2x + . . . + cos nx =

leads to
sin
sn =

nx
(n + 1)x
cos
2
2
,
x
sin
2

n
n+1
cos
2
2 ,
1
sin
2

sin

x
6= 0
2

n 1,

hence
1

, n 1.
1
sin
2
Now, taking account of the boundedness of (sn )n1 and of an & 0,

X
it follows the convergence of
xn , in view of Abel-Dirichlet test of
|sn |

n=1

convergence.

q) an = sin( n2 + an + b) = sin(n + ( n2 + an + b n))

(an + b)
= (1)n sin ( n2 + an + b n) = (1)n sin
.
2
n + an + b + n
We have
lim a2n = sin

a
a
and lim a2n+1 = sin ,
n
2
2

so lim an exists if and only if

n

a
a
= sin
a = 2k, k Z.
2
2

X
1. If a 6= 2k, k Z @ lim an
an is divergent.
sin

2. If a = 2k, k Z we obtain

n=1

an = sin((n + k) + ( n2 + 2kn + b (n + k)))

= (1)n+k sin ( n2 + 2kn + b (n + k))

19
= (1)n+k sin

b k2
,
n2 + 2kn + b + n + k

n 1.

Now by Leibniz test for alternating series follows the convergence of

an .

n=1

13. a) Let sn = a1 + a2 + . . . + an , n 1 and lim sn = s, s R.

n

We have
a1 + 2a2 + . . . + nan = s1 + 2(s2 s1 ) + . . . + n(sn sn1 )
= s1 s2 . . . sn1 + nsn
and


s1 + s2 + . . . + sn1
a1 + 2a2 + . . . + nan
lim
= lim
+ sn
n
n
n
n
= s + s = 0.
b) tn =

n
X
k=1

a1 + 2a2 + . . . + kak
k(k + 1)

= a1

1
1
1
+
+ ... +
12 23
n(n + 1)


1
1
1
1
+2a2
+
+ ... +
+ . . . + nan
23 34
n(n + 1)
n(n + 1)






1
1
1
1
1
= a1 1
+ 2a2

+ . . . + nan

n+1
2 n+1
n n+1
= a1 + a2 + . . . + an
= sn

a1 + 2a2 + . . . + nan
n+1

a1 + 2a2 + . . . + nan
n

,
n
n+1

n 1.

Now, the conclusion follows taking account of a).

20

Chapter 0
n
X
ak

, n 1. Suppose, by contradiction, that

sk
is convergent. Then (tn )n1 is a Cauchy sequence, so for = 1

14. a) Let tn :=

k=1

(tn )n1

there exist n0 N such that

|tn+p tn | < 1, n n0 , p N.
On the other hand
tn+p tn =

an+1
an+p
an+1 + . . . + an+p
+ ... +

sn+1
sn+p
sn+1

sn+p sn
sn+p sn
>
,
sn+1
sn
For n = n0 and p N follows
=

tn0 +p tn0 >

n, p N .

sn0 +p
1, p N
sn0

and since lim sn0 +p = + we get

p

lim (tn0 +p tn0 ) = +

contradiction with (1).

n
X
ak
, n 1. We have:
b) Let tn :=
s2
k=1 k
a1 a2
an
s1 s2 s1
sn sn1
+ 2 + ... + 2 2 +
+ ... +
2
s1
s2
sn
s1
s1 s2
sn sn1




1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
=
+

+ ... +

<
s1
s1 s2
sn1 sn
s1 sn
s1
for every n 1, so (tn )n1 is convergent.
tn =

(1)

21

0.2. Solutions
a
2a2
6a3
00
000
,
f
(x)
=
,
f
(x)
=
(ax + b)2
(ax + b)3
(ax + b)4
We prove by induction that
1. a) f 0 (x) =

f (n) (x) =

(1)n n!an
, n N
(ax + b)n+1

(1)

For n = 1 the relation (1) holds. Suppose that (1) holds for an n N
and prove that
f (n+1) (x) =

(1)n+1 (n + 1)!an+1
.
(ax + b)n+2

We have
f

(n+1)

(x) = (f

(n) 0

) (x) = (1) n!a

= (1)n n!an (1)

=

1
(ax + b)n+1

0

(n + 1)(ax + b)n a
(ax + b)2n+2

(1)n+1 (n + 1)!an+1
.
(ax + b)n+2

It follows that (1) holds for every

 nN .

1
1
2
1
b) f (x) =
=

so
(x 1)(2x + 1)
3 x 1 2x + 1

(n)

(n) !
1
1
1
f (n) (x) =
2
3
x1
2x + 1


(1)n n!
(1)n n!2n
1
2
=
3 (x 1)n+1
(2x + 1)n+1


(1)n n!
1
2n+1
=

.
3
(x 1)n+1 (2x + 1)n+1

c) f (x) = u(x)v(x), u(x) = e2x , v(x) = x3 . We have

u(k) (x) + 2k e2k ,
v 0 (x) = 3x2 ,

v 00 (x) = 6x,

k N,

v 000 (x) = 6,

v (k) (x) = 0

22

Chapter 0

for every k 4, so, according to Leibniz formula we get

f (n) (x) = Cn0 u(x) v(x) + Cn1 u(n1) (x)v 0 (x) + Cn2 u(n2) v 00 (x)
+ Cn3 (x)u(n3) v 00 (x)
= 2n e2x x3 + n 2n1 e2x 3x2 +
+

n(n 1) n2 2x
2 e 6x
2

n(n 1)(n 2) n3 2x
2 e 6
6

= 2n3 e2x (8x3 + 12nx2 + 6n(n 1)x + n(n 1)(n 2)),

n 3.
d) u(x) = ln x, v(x) = x3
u0 (x) =

1
(1)k1 (k 1)!
1 00
, u (x) = 2 , . . . , u(k) (x) =
x
x
xk

and by Leibniz formula it follows

n2
(1)n1 (n 1)! 3
(n 2)!
1 (1)

x
+
C
3x2
n
n
n1
x
x
n4
(1)n3 (n 3)!
(n 4)!
3 (1)
+ Cn2

6x
+
C
6
n
n2
n3
x
x

f (n) (x) = Cn0

e) u(x) = ex , v(x) = sin x

u(k) (x) = ex ,

v 0 (x) = cos x,

v 000 (x) = cos x,

v 00 (x) = sin x,

v (4) (x) = sin x, . . .

and applying Leibniz formula we get

4
sin x + . . .)
f (n) (x) = ex (Cn0 sin x + Cn1 cos x Cn2 sin x Cn3 cos x + Cm

= ex ((Cn0 Cn2 + Cn4 . . .) sin x + (Cn1 Cn3 + Cn5 . . .) cos x).

But, taking account of Newton binomial formula, we have
(1 + i)n = (Cn0 Cn2 + Cn4 . . .) + i(Cn1 Cn3 + Cn5 . . .)

23
and by Moivre formula
n

(1 + i) =

n 
n
+ i sin
cos
n
4

therefore
n
4
n
n
Cn1 Cn3 + Cn5 . . . = 2 2 sin
.
4
n

Cn0 Cn2 + Cn4 . . . = 2 2 cos

Finally we obtain

n
n 
f (n) (x) = 2 2 ex sin x +
, n N.
4
f) Solution analogous to e).
2

2. a) f 0 (x) = 2xex = 2xf (x), x R. By Leibniz formula we

get
f (n+1) (x) = 2(f (x) x)(n) = 2(f (n) (x) x + nf (n1) (x)).
For x = 0 the previous relation leads to
f (n+1) (0) = 2nf (n1) (0),

n N ,

f (0) (0) = 1,

f 0 (0) = 0.

It is clear that f (2k+1) (0) = 0, k N. On the other hand

f (2) (0) = 2 1 f (0) (0)
f (4) (0) = 2 2f (2) (0)
......
f (2k) (0) = 2kf (2k2) (0)
and multiplying the previous relations we get
f (2k) (0) = (1)k 2k k!

24

Chapter 0

1
f 0 (x)(1 + x2 ) = 1 (f 0 (x)(1 + x2 ))(n) = 0,
1 + x2
n 1 and taking account of Leibniz formula it follows
h) f 0 (x) =

f (n+1) (x)(1 + x2 ) + nf (n) (x) 2x +

n(n 1) (n1)
f
(x) 2 = 0.
2

For x = 0 the previous relation leads to

f (n+1) (0) = n(n 1)f (n1) (0),

f (0) (0) = 0,

f 0 (0) = 1,

n 1.

We get
f (2k) (0) = 0
f (2k+1) (0) = (1)k (2k)!, k N.
1+
c) f 0 (x) =

x
arcsin x
1 x2
(1 x2 )f 0 (x) = 1 + xf (x)
1 x2

(f 0 (x)(1 x2 ))(n) = (1 + f (x)x)(n)

f (n+1) (x)(1 x2 ) + nf (n) (x)(2x) +

n(n 1) (n1)
f
(x)(2)
2

= f (n) (x) x + nf (n1) (x).

For x = 0 it follows
f (n+1) (0) n(n 1)f (n1) (0) = nf (n1) (0)
f (n+1) (0) = n2 f (n1) (0),

n 1,

f (0) = 0,

One gets
f (2k) (0) = 0
f (2k+1) (0) + 22 42 . . . (2k)2 , k N.

f 0 (0) = 1.

25
(n)

(n)

3. Since fs (0) = 0, n N, we have to prove that fd (0) = 0,

n N. We have
1 1
f (x) = 2 e x ,
x
0

00

f (x) =

2
1
3+ 4
x
x

e x , . . .

We prove by induction that for every n N there exists a polynomial

P2n R(x), deg Pn = 2n, such that
 
1 1
(n)
f (x) = P2n
e x , x (0, ).
x

(1)

For n = 1 relation (1) holds taking P2 (x) = x2 . Now suppose that (1)
holds for a fixed n N and we prove that
 
1 1
(n+1)
f
(x) = P2n+2
e x , x (0, )
x
where deg P2n+2 = 2n + 2. We have:

 
 
1
1 0
1
1
1
(n+1)
(n) 0
f
(x) = (f ) (x) = 2 P2n
+ 2 P2n
e x .
x
x
x
x
Taking
0
P2n+2 (x) = xP2n
(x) + x2 P2n (x),

n N,

it is very easy to check that deg P2n+2 = 2n + 2.

Finally by the relation (1) we get

(n)
fd (0)

 
1 1
e x = lim
= lim P2n
x&0
x&0
x

 
1
P2n
x
1

ex

P2n (t)
= 0.
t
et

= lim

4. Suppose that the equation admits a real root x0 . It is obvious that

x0 < 0, otherwise
x0 x20
x2n
1+
+
+ . . . + 0 > 0.
1!
2!
(2n)!

26

Chapter 0
By MacLaurin formula for f (x) = ex it follows
x0 x20
x2n
ex0
+
+ ... + 0 +
x2n+1 ,
ex0 = 1 +
1!
2!
(2n)! (2n + 1)! 0
|
{z
}

0<<1

=0

ex0 =

ex0
x02n+1
(2n + 1)!

contradiction, since ex0 > 0 and x2n+1

< 0.
0
5. Let
Tn (x) = 1 +

x
xn
+ ... + ,
1!
n!

Rn (x) =

xn+1 x
e ,
(n + 1)!

0 < < 1,

where n N, x [1, 1]. We have

f (x) = Tn (x) + Rn (x)
so the error in the approximation f (x)
= Tn (x) is given by
(x) := |f (x) Tn (x)| = |Rn (x)|.
It follows
|x|n+1 x
e
e
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
e
and putting the condition
< 103 we get n 6. So
(n + 1)!
(x) =

x
x6
ex
1
+
+
.
.
.
+
,
=
1!
6!

x [1, 1]

with an error under 103 .

6. For every x, x0 I, x 6= x0 , there exists cx between x0 and x such
that
f (x) = f (x0 ) + (x x0 )f 0 (x0 ) +
in view of Taylorw formula.

(x x0 )2 00
f (cx )
2

27
a+b
For x =
, x0 = a we get
2


(b a)2 00
a+b
= f (a) +
f (c1 ),
f
2
8
a+b
and for x =
, x0 = b we get
2


a+b
(b a)2 00
f
= f (b) +
f (c2 ),
2
8


c1


c2

a+b
a,
2


a+b
,b .
2

It follows
(b a)2 00
|f (c1 ) f 00 (c2 )|
8
(b a)2 00

(|f (c1 )| + |f 00 (c2 )|)

8
(b a)2
max{|f 00 (c1 ), f 00 (c2 )}

|f (b) f (a)| =

so c {c1 , c2 } such that max{f 00 (c1 ), f 00 (c2 )} = |f 00 (c)|.

7. The relation follows taking account of the definition of the determinant and the differentiations rules.

28

Chapter 0

0.3. Solutions

, x R, n 1,
n
2
is pointwise convergent to f : R R, f (x) = 0, x R.

1. We have lim fn (x) = 0 since | arctan xn | <

hence (fn )n1

In fact the converge is uniform, since

|fn (x) f (x)| <

, n 1, x R.
2n

We have
fn0 (x)

xn1
=
, x R.
1 + x2n

It follows
lim

fn0 (1)

1
=
2

and

0
lim fn (x) (1) = 0.

2. We have
lim fn (x) = 0

and
Z 1
0

n
fn (x)dx =
2

Hence
Z

3. sn (x) =

(2x)(1 x2 )n dx =


lim fn (x) dx = 0 and

n
n
X

2x(k 2 ek

2 x2

n (1 x2 )n+1 1
n

.
 =
2
n+1
2n + 1
0
Z

lim

(k 1)2 e(k1)

1
fn (x)dx = .
2

2 x2

2 x2

) = 2xn2 en

k=1

2xn2
2 2 = 0, x [0, 1].
n en x

lim sn (x) = lim

So the series is pointwise convergent to f : [0, 1] R, f (x) = 0.

On the other hand
 
1
sn
= 2ne1 as n ,
n

29
therefore the convergence of the series is not uniform. But
!
Z 1
Z 1 X

2
2
2
2
2 n x
2 (n1) x
2x(n e
(n 1) e
) dx =
0dx = 0
0

n=1

and
Z
X

2 x2

2x(n2 en

(n 1)2 e(n1)

2 x2

)dx

n=1

X

1 
1
X
2
2
(n1)2 x2 
(en + e(n1) )
 dx =
 +e

n2 x2 

n=1

= lim

n
X

n=1

(e(k1) ek ) = lim (1 en ) = 1.
n

k=1

Remark. Therefore termwise integration of the series is not possible. So, the hypothesis of uniform convergence is essential in termwise
integration of functional series.
4. Let fn : R R be given by fn (x) = en sin nx, x R, n N .
Since |fn (x)| en , n N , x R and

X
n=1

it follows that

en =

1
1
1
+ 2 + ... =
e e
e

1
1

1
e

1
e1

fn (x) is uniformly convergent on R, according to Weier-

n=1

strass criterion of uniform convergence. Analogously the series

X
n=1

fn0 (x)

nen cos nx

n=1

is uniformly convergent on R and fn0 are continuous on R. Then the sum

of the series is a continuously differentiable
on R.

 function
n+1


1
an 
2 (n + 1)
5. a) an = n
R = lim 
= lim
= 2.

n
n
2 n
an+1
2n n

30

Chapter 0
For x = 1 the series is absolutely convergent, so the set of conver-

gence is C = [2, 2]. Let

X
xn
S(x) =
,
n
n

2
n=1

|x| < 2.

(1)

We have
S 0 (x) =

X
nxn1
n=1

n 2n

X
xn1
n=1

2n

1 X  x n1
2 n=1 2

1
1
1

=
.
x
2 1
2x
2

We have
Z
S(x) =

1
dx = ln(2 x) + C,
2x

C R.

(2)

We have S(0) = 0, in view of (1) and S(0) = ln 2 + C, in view of

(2), hence C = ln 2. We obtain
S(x) = ln

2
, x (2, 2).
2x

b) The radius of convergence is R = 2; for x = 2 the series is

convergent, the set of convergence is C = [2, 2].
S(x) =

(x S(x))0 =

X
(1)n1 xn
,
n
n(n
+
1)

2
n=1

X
(1)n1 xn+1
n=1

00

(x S(x)) =

X
n=1

!0

n(n + 1) 2n

1
(1)n1 nxn1
=
n
n2
2

|x| < 2.

(1)

X
(1)n1 xn
n=1
n1

(1)

n=1

By integration, it follows
Z
dx
0
(x S(x)) =
= ln(2 + x) + C1 ,
2+x

(2)

n 2n
 x n1
2

C1 R.

1
.
2+x

(3)

31
For x = 0 in (2) and (3) follows C1 = ln 2. Finally
Z
2+x
x S(x) = (ln(2 + x) ln 2)dx = (x + 2) ln
x
2
and
x+2 2+x
ln
1, |x| < 2, x 6= 0.
x
2

X
(1)n1
2
c) Put x = t to obtain
tn . Then
n(2n
+
1)
n=1


 an 
(1)n1
 = 1.
, n 1 and R = lim 
an =
n(2n + 1)
an+1 
S(x) =

X
1
).
For t = 1 the series is absolutely convergent (compare to
n2
n=1
Then the series is convergent |t| 1 |x| 1. Put

X
(1)n1 2n
S(x) =
x ,
n(2n
+
1)
n=1

|x| < 1.

Then
0

(x S(x)) =

X
(1)n1 2n+1
x
n(2n + 1)
n=1

Z
x S(x) =

!0
=

X
(1)n1

n=1

ln(1 + x )dx = x ln(1 + x )

x2n = ln(1 + x2 ).

2x2
dx
1 + x2

= x ln(1 + x2 ) 2x + 2 arctan x
S(x) = ln(1 + x2 ) 2 + 2

arctan x
, |x| < 1, x 6= 0.
x

d) The radius of convergence is R = 1 and the set of convergence

C = (1, 1). We use the geometric series

X
n=0

xn =

1
,
1x

|x| < 1.

32

Chapter 0
By differentiation and multiplication by x follows

nxn =

n=1

x
.
(1 x)2

A new differentiation and multiplication by x gives

n2 xn =

n=1

x(x + 1)
(1 + x)3

and finally with the same steps we get

n2 xn =

n=1

x(1 x)
,
(1 + x)3

|x| < 1.

e) The radius of convergence is R = . We have

x

e =

X
xn
n=0

ex =

n!

X
(1)n xn

, x R.

n!

n=0

Adding the previous relations we obtain

x

e +e

X
X
x2n
x2n
=2

= ch x, x R.
(2n)!
(2n)!
n=0
n=0

f) Let 6= 1 be a cubic root of unity. So 3 = 1 and 2 + + 1 = 0.

We have
ex =

X
xn
n=0

ex =

X
n x n
n=0

2 x

n!

n!

X
2n xn
n=0

n!

33
Now taking account of
(
n

1+ +

2n

0, n 6 3Z

3, n 3Z

summing the previous relation it follows

X
x3n
e +e +e =3
, x R.
(3n)!
n=0

1
1
3
3
Let = + i
(or = i
). Then
2
2
2
2

1
3
2
= i
,
2
2
x

2 x

so by using Eulers formula we get

1

2x

ex + e
1

= e 2 x

and finally

12 x

2e
X
x3n
=
(3n)!
n=0

cos
3

3
x + ex
2
, x R.

g) The radius of convergence is R = . We have

ex ex
x
x3 x5
= +
+
+ ...
2
1!
3!
5!
, x R.
x
x3 x5
sin x =
+
...
1!
3!
5!
sh x =

Then

= e 2 x+i 2 x + e 2 xi 2 e 2 x ei 2 x + e 2 x ei 2 x
!
!

1
3
3
3
3
x + i sin
x + e 2 x cos
i sin
x
cos
2
2
2
2

1
3
= 2e 2 x cos
x
2

sh x + sin x X x4n+1
=
, x R.
2
(4n + 1)!
n=0

34

Chapter 0
h) One obtains R = +. We have

X
n2 + 1
n=0

2n n!

xn =

X
X
X
n2 n X xn
n
1  x n
n
x
+
=
x
+
2n n!
2n n! n=1 2n (n 1)!
n! 2
n=0
n=0
n=0

X
n 1 + 1  x n
n=1

(n 1)!

x
2

+e =

X
n=2

 x n X
 x n x
1
1
+
+e 2
(n 2)! 2
(n

1)!
2
n=1

 x n2 x X
 x n
x
1
1
=
+
+ e2
2 n=2 (n 2)! 2
2 n=1 (n 1)! 2
 2

x
x
x2 x x x
x
x
2
2
2
2
= e + e +e =e
+ + 1 , x R.
4
2
4
2

X enx X 1
x
=
(ex )n = ee , x R.
i)
n!
n!
n=0
n=0
ix
j) e = cos x + i sin x einx = cos nx + i sin nx and

 x 2

einx = cos nx i sin nx for every x R. We get

cos nx =

X
cos nx
n=0

n!

einx + einx
,
2

1
2

einx einx
.
2i
!

X
einx X einx
1 ix
ix
+
= (ee + ee )
n!
n!
2
n=0
n=0
sin nx =

1
1
= (ecos x+i sin x + ecos xi sin x ) = (ecos x ei sin x + ecos x ei sin x )
2
2
cos x
e
(cos(sin x) + i sin(sin x)) + ecos x (cos(sin x) i sin(sin x))
=
2
cos x
=e
cos(sin x).

X
(1)n 3n+1
6. a) We consider the power series
x
. Its radius of
3n + 1
n=0
convergence is R = 1, the series is convergent for x = 1 in view of
Leibniz test. We denote by S(x) its sum on (1, 1).
0

S (x) =

X
n=0

(1)n x3n = 1 x3 + x6 x9 + . . . =

1
,
1 + x3

|x| < 1

35
1
Z
Z 1x + 2
dx
3 dx +
3
3 dx
=
(x + 1)(x2 x + 1)
x+1
x2 x + 1
Z
1
2x 1 3
1
ln(x + 1)
dx
3
6
x2 x + 1
Z
1
1
1
dx
2
ln(x + 1) ln(x x + 1) +
!2

2
3
6
2
1
3
x
+
2
2

1
1
3
2x 1
ln(x + 1) ln(x2 x + 1) +
arctan
+ C.
3
6
3
3

Z
S(x) =
=
=

On the other hand

3
3
+C C =
S(0) = 0 =
3 6
18

X
1
3
(1)n
= lim S(x) = ln 2 +
.
x%1
3n
+
1
3
9
n=0

b) S(x) =

X
n=1

S 000 (x) = 4

(1)n1
x2n+2 , |x| < 1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)

(1)n1 xn1 = 4(1 x + x2 . . .) =

n=1

S 0 (x) = 4(x ln(1 + x) + ln(1 + x) x),

S(x) =

X
n=1

4
1+x

|x| < 1

3
1
x2 + 2x + 3
ln(1 + x) x2 x,
2
4
2

|x| < 1

(1)n1
5
= lim S(x) = 3 ln 2 .
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) x%1
4

c) We have

X
(1)n 2n+1
x
= sin x, x R.
(2n + 1)!
n=0

36

Chapter 0
Dividing by x it follows

X
(1)n 2n sin x
x =
,
(2n
+
1)!
x
n=0

x R \ {0}

and by differentiations

X
2n(1)n 2n1 x cos x sin x
x
=
.
(2n + 1)!
x2
n=0

Now, for x = 1, the previous relation leads to

X
cos 1 sin 1
n(1)n
=
.
(2n
+
1)!
2
n=1

d) ex =

X
xn
n=0

n!

=1+

X
xn+1

(n
+
1)!
n=0

ex 1 X xn
=
,
x
(n
+
1)!
n=0

x R \ {0}.

By differentiation, the previous relation leads to

xex ex + 1 X nxn1
=
,
x2
(n + 1)!
n=1

x R \ {0}.

Multiplying by x and differentiating again we get

(x2 x + 1)ex 1 X n2 xn1

=
,
x2
(n
+
1)!
n=1

x R \ {0}.

Finally multiplying by x and letting x = 1 it follows

X
(1)n n2
n=1

3
=1 .
(n + 1)!
e

e) Let

X
(1)n1
S(x) =
x4n+1 ,
n(4n + 1)
n=1

|x| < 1.

37
We get
S 00 (x) = 4

x4n1 = 4x3 (1 x4 + x8 . . .) =

n=1

4x3
.
1 + x4

Then
S 0 (x) = 4 ln(1 + x4 )
and
x4
dx
ln(1 + x )dx = 4x ln(1 + x ) 16
1 + x4

x2 + x 2 + 1
x 2
4

= 4x ln(1 + x ) 16x + 2 2 ln
+ 4 2 arctan
.
1 x2
x2 x 2 + 1
Z

S(x) = 4

We get

(1)n1
= lim S(x) = 4 ln 2 + 2 2 ln(3 + 2 2) + 2 16.
n(4n + 1) n%1
n=1

f) Using e =

X
xn
n=0

and cos x =

n!

X
n=0

P (1)n 2n
x , x R, one obtains
n=0
(2n)!

cos 1 + ch 1
1
=
.
(4n)!
2

1
= 1 x2 + x4 . . ., |x| < 1 (geometric series).
1 + x2


Z
x3 x5
2
4
f (x) = (1 x + x . . .)dx = x
+
. . . + C, C R.
3
5
7. a) f 0 (x) =

But f (0) = 0 = C so
f (x) = x

x3 x5
+
...,
3
5

|x| < 1.

38

Chapter 0

1
1
= (1 + x2 ) 2 . Using the geometric series we have
2
1+x
 

1
1
1

2
2
2
0
2
x +
x4 + . . . +
f (x) = 1 +
1!
2!
 
 

1
1
1

1 ... n + 1
2
2
2
+
x2n + . . .
n!
1 2
13 4
(1)n 1 3 . . . (2n 1) 2n
=1
x + 2
x + ... +
x + ...
2 1!
2 2!
2n n!

b) f 0 (x) =

for |x| < 1. Now taking account of

(2n)!
(2n)!
1 3 . . . (2n 1)
=
= 2n
,
n
n
2 n!
2 4 . . . 2n 2 n!
2 (n!)2

n N ,

it follows by integration
f (x) =

(1)n

n=0

c) f 0 (x) = 2 arctan x

(2n)!
x2n+1

,
22n (n!)2 2n + 1

|x| < 1.

1
1 + x2


x3 x5
=2 x
+
. . . (1 x2 + x4 . . .)
3
5


for |x| < 1. The Cauchy product of the previous series leads to






1
1 1
0
3
5
f (x) = 2 x 1 +
x + 1+ +
x ...
3
3 5
and by integration we get
 2 
 4 
 6

x
1
x
1 1
x
f (x) = 2
1+

+ 1+ +

... ,
2
3
4
3 5
6

|x| < 1.

X
(1)n x2n+2

, |x| < 1.
2n
+
1
2n
+
2
n=0
1
1
e) f (x) = ln(1 x)(1 3x) = (ln(1 x) + ln(1 3x)).
2
2

d) f 0 (x) = arctan x f (x) =

39
Taking account of ln(1 + x) =

X
(1)n1

n=1

1
f (x) =
2

X
xn
n=1

X
3n xn

n=1

xn , |x| < 1, it follows

X
1 + 3n
n=1

2n

xn ,

1
|x| < .
3

X
1
=
xn , |x| < 1. By differentiation we get
f)
1 x n=0

X
1
nxn1
=
(1 x)2
n=1
and differentiating again it follows

X n(n 1)
1
=
xn2 ,
(1 x)3
2
n=2

|x| < 1.

1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
=
x
3x 5x
3 1
5 1 x
3
5



1 X  x n 1 X  x n X
1
1
=
+ n+1 xn ,
+
=
n+1
3 n=0 3
5 n=0 5
3
5
n=0

g) f (x) =

 2n
1
1X
n x
=
(1)
, |x| < 2.
 x 2
4 n=0
2
1+
2
By differentiation we get
h)

1
1
=

4 + x2
4

 x 2n1 1
2x
1X
n
=
(1) 2n

(4 + x2 )2
4 n=1
2
2

f (x) =

X
n=1

(1)n+1

n
22n+1

x2n1 ,

|x| < 2.

|x| < 3.

40

Chapter 0
3
1
sin x sin 3x
4
4

3 X (1)n 2n+1 1 X (1)n

f (x) =
x

(3x)2n+1
4 n=0 (2n + 1)!
4 n=0 (2n + 1)!

i) sin 3x = 3 sin x 4 sin3 x sin3 x =

3 32n+1 2n+1
x
, x R.
4(2x + 1)!
n=0


1
x2 x3
2
j) f (x) =
ln(1 + x) = (1 x + x . . .) x
+
...
1+x
2
3




1
1 1
2
=x 1+
x + 1+ +
x3 . . . , |x| < 1.
2
2 3
=

(1)n

eix + eix
1
= (e(1+i)x + e(1i)x )
2
2

1 X (1 + i)n xn 1 X (1 i)n xn
+
=
2 n=0
n!
2 n=0
n!

k) f (x) = ex

X
(1 + i)n + (1 i)n

2n!

n=0
ix

xn =

2 2 cos
X
n=0

n!

n
4 xn ,

x R.

ix

e e
.
2i
5
1+x
= ln(1 + x5 ) ln(1 + x)
m) f (x) = ln
1+x

X
(1)n1 5n X (1)n1 n
=
x
x ,
n
n
n=1
n=1
l) f (x) = ex

|x| < 1.

8. a) x a = t x = a + t
 n

1
1
1
1X
t
n
f (a + t) =
=
=
(1)
,
a+t
a 1+ t
a n=0
a
a
It follows

X
(1)n
f (x) =
(x a)n , |x a| < 1.
n+1
a
n=0

|t| < 1.

41


t
b) x a = t f (a + t) = ln(1 + a + t) = ln(1 + a) 1 +
1+a




t 

= ln |1 + a| + ln 1 +
.
1 + a


 t 
 < 1 we get

For 
1 + a
f (a + t) = ln |1 + a| +

n1

(1)

n=1

f (x) = ln |1 + a| +

t
1+a

n

X
(1)n1
n=1

c) x a = t f (a + t) =

(1 + a)n

tn ,

|t| < |1 + a|,

a 6= 1

|t| < |1 + a|

 
 12
t
a + t = (a + t) = a 1 +
,
a
1
2

a 6= 0
1

X
2



= |a| 1 +
1
2

1
t  2 p
= |a|
1 +
a
n=1

 


1
1
1 ...
n + 1  n
t
2
2
n!
a

 
t
for   < 1, in view of binomial expansion.
a
1
ea t
1
d) x a = t f (a + t) = ea+t
=
e
t
a+t
a
1+
a



t
t2
t
t2
ea
=
1 + + + ...
1 + 2 ...
a
1! 2!
a a
ea
=
a


1

1
1
+
a 1!


t+

1
1
1
+
+
2
a
a 1! 2!

t ... ,

|t| < |a|.

42

Chapter 0
Z
Z
1

1
f (x)dx =
xdx =
9. a) a0 =

0
2
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
an =
f (x) cos nxdx =
x cos nxdx =
x(sin nx)0 dx

0
n 0


 Z
 (1)n 1
1
1


sin nxdx = 2 cos nx =
x sin nx
=
n
n
n2
0
0
0

2

, n = 2k 1
(2k 1)2
=
, k N

0,
n = 2k
Z
1
(1)n1
.
bn =
x sin nxdx =
0
n
The Fourier series of f is given bellow

2 X cos(2k 1)x X (1)k1

+
sin kx
4 k=1 (2k 1)2
k
k=1

and its sum s(x) is given by

f (x), x (, )
s(x) =

,
x {, }.
2
b) The following relation holds
! (

X
eax ,
x (, )
2 sh a 1
(1)n
+
(a
cos
nx

n
sin
nx)
=

2a n=1 a2 + n2
ch a, x =
For x = the previous relation leads to
2 sh a

X
1
1
+a
2
2a
a + n2
n=1

!
= ch a,

hence

X
n=1

a2

1
=
coth a 2 ,
2
+n
2a
2a

a 6= 0.

43
c) Since f is an even function we have bn = 0, n 1, and
a0 =

2 sin a
,
a

an =

(1)n1 a
, n 1.
n2 a2

We have

sin a 2a sin a X (1)n1

+
cos nx = cos ax,
a

n 2 a2
n=1

x [, ].

For x = , the previous relation becomes

1
sin a 2a sin a X

= cos a
2
a

n a2
n=1

X
n=1

1
=

cotana.
n 2 a2
2a 2

d) f is an odd function so an = 0, n N. We obtain

(

sin ax, x (, )
2 sin a X (1)n1 n
sin nx =
2
2

n a
0,
x = .
n=1
Z
1 2 x
1
dx = 0 and an = 0, bn = , n 1.
10. a) a0 =
0
2
n
The following relation holds

X sin nx
, x (0, 2)
2
=
0,
n
x {0, 2}
n=1
Now, letting x =

in the previous relation, we get

2

X
(1)n1
n=1

b) a0 = 0, an =

n N \ {1}, b1 = .
2

2n 1

.
4

(1)n1 1
, for all n 1, and bn = 0, for all
(n2 1)

44

Chapter 0
The following relation holds

2X
cos
2nx
+
sin x = f (x),
n=1 4n2 1
2

For x =

x [0, 2].

the previous relation leads to

2

2 X (1)n
+
=1

n=1 4n2 1 2

therefore

X
(1)n1
n=1



=
1
.
4n2 1
2
2

11. Extending f to an odd function on [a, a] we get

Z
Z
2 a
2 a
bn =
f (x) sin nxdx =
x(cos nx)0 dx
a 0
an 0


a Z a
2
2
2

=
cos nxdx = cos nx + 2 sin na.
x cos nx
an
n
na
0
0
The following relation holds

X
n=1

bn sin

nx
= x,
a

x [0, a).

12. Extending f to an odd function f : [, ] R

(
x2 , x [, 0)
f (x) =
x2 ,
x [0, ]
we obtain an = 0 and
Z
2 2
2(1)n+1
4
bn =
x sin nxdx =
+ 3 ((1)n 1)
0
n
n
(

X
x2 , x [0, )
bn sin nx =
0, x = .
n=1

45
Now taking account of the relation
2

X
(1)n+1
n=1

it follows

(
sin nx =

0, x =

X
sin(2n 1)x
n=1

(2n

x, x [0, )

1)3

x( x)
,
8

x [0, ].

the previous relation leads to

2

X
(1)n1
3
=
.
(2n 1)3
32
n=1
Z
nx
1 15
f (x) cos
13. an =
dx = 0, n 0
5 5
5
Z
1 15
nx
10
bn =
f (x) sin
dx = (1)n ,
5 5
5
n
For x =

n 1.

We get

10 X (1)n
nx
sin
= 10 x,
n=1 n
5

x (5, 15).

4 X 2n sin 2nx
14. cos x =
, x (0, ).
n=1 4n2 1
!

4 1 X cos 2nx
15. sin x =
+
, x [0, ].
2 n=1 1 4n2

2e X (1)n1 n
x
16. e =
sin nx, x (0, ).
n=1 n2 + 1