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An Empirical Test of A New Theory of Human Needs: Department O) Administrative Sciences, Yale University
An Empirical Test of A New Theory of Human Needs: Department O) Administrative Sciences, Yale University
4, 142-175 (1969)
A N E W THEORY OF H U M A N
NEEDS
143
144
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
A NEW
THEORY
OF HUMAN
NEEDS
145
146
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
147
tion of growth needs comes from a person engaging problems which call
upon him to utilize his capacities fully and may include requiring him
to develop additional capacities. A person experiences a greater sense
of wholeness and fullness as a human being by satisfying growth needs.
Thus satisfaction of growth needs depends on a person finding the opportunities to be what he is most fully and to become what he can.
The business of categorizing or developing lists of human needs and
motives is not a new activity. Henry Murray's (1938) list is reasonably
well known, and it is longer than Maslow's set. Langer (1937) and
Sehein (1965) have also suggested three category sets which bear
considerable similarity to the one proposed in E.R.G. theory. In addition to definitional differences of varying degrees, these concepts differ
in purpose from those utilized in ~laslow's or E.R.G. theory. Classification is not the same as explanation and prediction, but some categorization (or variable definition) is necessary in order to formulate
a theory.
This threefold categorization of human needs represents the first
way E.R.G. theory departs from Maslow's scheme. It is one way to deal
with the problems posed by the overlapping nature of his safety and
esteem categories. In this new framework, those aspects of safety needs
which deal with physical or material desires belong to the existence
category while those aspects which have to do with interpersonal processes fit the relatedness caegory. The same kind of point applies to
esteem needs. Those aspects of esteem which depend upon reactions from
others fit the relatedness category, while those which represent autonomous self-fulfilling activity belong to growth needs. The different categorization allows one to refer to the new framework as E. R. G. theory.
By itself the change in the way needs are characterized implies different predictions about how satisfaction is related to strength of desire.
In the case of relatedness needs, the change in categorizaion speaks
to a problem with Maslow's theory that he himself noted (1943, p. 308) :
"There are some people in whom, for instance, self-esteem seems to be
more important than love. This most common reversal in the hierarchy
is usually due to the development of the notion that the person who is
most likely to be loved is a strong or powerful p e r s o n . . . " By recognizing
that part of self-esteem which depends on regard from others as part
of relatedness needs, the issue of whether love desires precede or follow
desires for the esteem of others vanishes.
MAJOR PROPOSITIONS AND EXPLANATORY CONCEPTS
IN E.R.G. THEORY
Seven major propositions in E.R.G. theory provide a basis from which
empirically testable hypotheses can be logically derived. The form of
148
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
149
(lack of satisfaction)
Need
,gatis]action ~
Strength o] Desires
E
(pl) 3
e
(P4)
~R
(P7)
rs
gs
150
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
A NEW
T H E O R Y OF H U M A N
NEEDS
151
ence needs are the most concrete. Their presence or absence is the easiest
for the person to verify due to the fact that their objectives can be reduced to material substances or states. Relatedness needs are less concrete than existence needs. Their presence or absence depends on the state
of relationships between two or more people. To verify the state of relatedness needs depends on the consensual validation of the people involved in the relationship. Finally, growth needs are the least concrete.
Ultimately their specific objectives depend on the uniqueness of ea.eh
person..At the most precise level, the actual state of growth of a person
can be known only to the person, and it can be known to him only when
he is not deluding himself. The continuum from more to less concreteness
is also a. continuum from more to less verifiability and from less to more
potential uncertainty for the person.
The sense in which frustration regression is employed in E.R.G. theory
concerns the tendency of persons to desire more concrete ends as a consequence of being unable to obtain more differentiated, less concrete ends.
Thus a person is thought to desire existence needs when relatedness needs
are not satisfied because he is using them as an easier, more concrete way
of establishing his connectedness with other people. He seeks relatedness
needs when he is unsatisfied with his growth because he is searching for
opportunities for more clarity and support in the quest to stretch, develop,
and expand himself. Thus propositions 2 and 5 are based on the idea that
when a person is not satisfied in attaining less concrete, more uncertain
ends, he "regresses" to needs which are somewhat more concrete and less
uncertain as to their attainment.
It is in this sense that a person may use the size of his pay check as an
indicator of the esteem in which he is held by his boss, colleagues, or
organization. According to E.R.G. theory one would expect him to do this
less, the more open, trusting, and mutually respectful his relationship was
with those significant others. Given the increasing amount of data showing the lack of relatedness-need satisfaction in organizational life, it is not
at all surprising to find that persons rely on pay to assess the esteem by
which they are held.
If propositions 2 and 5 follow from a frustration-regression mechanism,
the explanation behind propositions 3 and 6 might be termed satisfaction
progression. These propositions are intended to be in the same spirit as
.1VIaslow's original hierarchy, except that the impact of relatedness satisfaction on growth desires does not presume satisfaction of existence
needs. Satisfaction-progression reasoning is based on the premise that as
a person fulfills the more concrete aspects of his desires, more of his
energy becomes available to deal with the less concrete, more personal,
and more uncertain aspects of living. As he is able to fulfill existence
152
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
A NEW
T H E O R Y OF H U M A N
NEEDS
153
ties to grow both on the same dimensions where he has already grown
and in new arenas in his life.
DEFICIENCY AND GROWTH MOTIVATION: A "DERIVATION"
In one of his later papers, Maslow (19'62) introduced two newer concepts of motivation, deficiency motivation and growth motivation. One
way to view these concepts is as a way ~o collapse the need categories
into two, rather than three or five categories. Hall and Nougaim (1968),
for example, took this tact. However, another view is also possible.
E.R.G. theory is intended to be a dynamic theory even though the
major propositions as presented here are stated in more or less static
terms. With a dynamic theory, one can seek to investigate equilibrium
points. The mathematical derivation of such equilibrium points is beyond
this paper's scope and the writer's competence. However, it is possible to
present a verbal argument leading to an hypothesis of two equilibrium
points, one for deficiency motivation and one for growth motivation.
For deficiency motivation, the major cycling of desires is between
existence and relatedness needs. A person whose motives operate mainly
in this cycle seeks existence needs and attains suftieient satisfaction that
his existence needs decrease in desire and he turns to relatedness needs
as his prime desires. However, ha is unable to attain satisfaction of these
needs. While these needs remain active, but unsatisfied he tends to turn
back to existence needs, seeking material gratification. As before, he is
able to attain material satisfaction and turns once again to relatedness
needs, which remain unsatisfied and become increasingly difficult to satisfy because of the intensity of demand. Thus he is forced back to material demands, and on the cycle goes.
For growth motivation, the major cycling of desires is between relatedness and growth needs. A person, whose motives operate mainly in this
cycle, seeks growth needs but finds he is not always able to satisfy these
needs. As a consequence he also seeks relatedness needs which he is able
to attain. As a result of the social support, he is provided with more
energy for grouch, which he then seeks. He is not always able to attain
growth satisfaction and "regresses" periodically to relatedness needs,
which he is able to attain, he turns again to growth, and so the cycle
continues.
The reasoning behind the key concepts and propositions in E.R.G.
theory is relevant for the empirical test of the theory presented in the
latter section of this paper. For an investigator who may wish to conduct
his own empirical tests of the theory, the additional reasoning may be
important for developing operational definitions. It also shows that
E.R.G. theory consists of more than some conceptual definitions and
154
CLAYTON r . ALDERFER
t55
their data seemed to run contrary to the point of view that a satisfied
need is not a motivator. E.R.G. theory also departs from that view for
the reasons implied by the Hall-Nougaim (1968) study. The departure
is shown in proposition 7 which states that growth needs are desired the
more they are satisfied. In Maslow's (1943) original statement he did
not discuss the consequences of satisfaction of self-actualization needs.
However, in a later statement (1962, p. 31) he did say: "Growth is
instead a continued, more or less steady upward or forward development.
The more one gets, the more one wants, so that this kind of wanting is
endless and can never be attained or satisfied." Thus E.R.G. theory
departs from Maslow's earlier statement but is in esseatial agreement
with his later position.
Maslow's basic hypothesis i s tha~ a certain degree of satisfaction of
lower-level needs is a prerequisite for t h e appearance of higher-order
needs. Operating within the context of that hypothesis, threefold categorization implies some different predictions that the fivefold system.
Since in E.R.G. theory, safety needs in part belong with existence needs
and in par~ with relatedness needs, it was necessary to make temporary
use of two new concepts to state the different predictions. Let these be
termed safety-existence needs and safety-relatedness needs. Then, according to E.R.G. theory:
The more safety-existence needs are satisfied, the m o r e relatedness needs will be desired.
The more safety-relatedness needs are satisfied, the less relatedness needs will be desired.
According to Maslow's theory, the prediction would be:
If physiological needs are satisfied, then the more safety needs
are satisfied, the more love (relatedness) needs will be desired.
Thus, in the case of safety needs, the change in categorization by itself
implies a different prediction.
Analogously, in the case of esteem needs, one can see that in part they
belong with relatedness needs and in part with growth needs. Again, it is
necessary to make temporary use of two new concepts to explore different
predictions. Let these be termed esteem-relatedness needs and esteemgrowth needs. Then, according to E.R.G. theory:
The more esteem-relatedness needs are satisfied, the more
growth needs will be desired.
The more esteem-growth needs are satisfied, the more growth
needs will be desired.
156
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
There were two major areas where this study was designed to test
differential predictions from Maslow's theory. First, there were the
propositions that followed from E.R.G. theory having a single category
for interpersonal issues rather than the overlap among safety, love, and
esteem needs. Second, there were the propositions concerning movement
down the hierarchy which were made by E.R.G. theory but not by
Maslow's theory. Respect from co-workers and respect from superiors
were the relatedness needs based on E.R.G. theory, while belongingness
and status needs were the needs based on Maslow's theory.
In order to test hypotheses about belongingness needs by Maslow's
theory, one should show that physiological and safety needs are relatively satisfied. To test hypotheses about status needs by Maslow's
theory, one should show that physiological, safety, and belongingness
needs are reasonably well satisfied. Data bearing ou these assumptions
will be presented below. Given these initial assumptions, then Maslow's
theory would lead to the following hypotheses about interpersonal needs2
In the phrasing of these hypotheses, "belongingness" needs refer to the operations
developed for Maslow's concept of love needs and "status" for Maslow's concept
157
H 3 . T h e less
:158
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
H9. The less belongingness needs are satisfied, the m o r e
respect from superiors will be desired.
H10. The less status needs are satisfied, the m o r e respect
from co-workers will be desired.
H l l . The less status needs are satisfied, the more respect
from superiors will be desired.
tt12. The less respect from co-workers is satisfied, the m o r e
belongingness needs will be desired.
H13. The less respect from co-workers is satisfied, the m o r e
status needs will be desired.
H14. The less respect from superiors is satisfied, the m o r e
belongingness needs will be desired.
H15. The less respect from superiors is satisfied, the m o r e
status needs will be desired.
159
all job levels in the organization below vice president. With the exception
of those people who were absent during the study, they represented all
the employees in the organization.
PROCEDURE
160
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
not allow for firmly establishing causal direction. Both longitudinal and
experimental methods could be profitably employed in future studies.
T h e present study utilized static correlations from questionnaires to
test between the theories. Satisfaction measures were based on six-point
L i k e r b s c a l e items, while the need intensity measures were ratings of
"desire." T h e Porter (1962, 1963) and Beer (1966) studies measured
need intensity b y " i m p o r t a n c e " ratings or rankings. I n the interviewquestionnaire validity study it was found t h a t while importance and
desire ratings were highly correlated for existence and growth needs, t h e y
were not for relatedness needs (Alderfer, 1967). T h e desire items used in
this study were based on desire ratings and are shown in T a b l e 1. T h e
satisfaction items are shown in T a b l e 2.
I t e m content for the operational indicators of Maslow belongingness
TABLE 1
D~smE I~EMS
Instruction:
Tell how much more of the following factors you would like to have in your job.
1 means No More
2 means Slightly More
3 means Somewhat More
4 means Much More
5 means Very Much More
Existence Needs
Pay:
I. Good pay for m y work
161
and status needs were taken directly from scales developed by Porter
(1962, 1963) and Beer (1966). This was done in order to reduce the possibility of bias because this writer held an alternative point of view. The
items were presented in the same format as the E.R.G. items, however,
which meant that their format was different from that employed by either
Porter or Beer.
RESULTS
SATZSFACTION OF LOWER-LEvEL NEEDS
The data in Table 2 indicate that for the group as a whole pay satisfaction is moderate at best. An item of interest is ##5, which states that pay
is adequate to provide for the basic things in life. The mean response to
this item is 3.19, or approximately mildly agree on t h e attitude scale.
Sixty-five percent of the respondents indicated that much or more agreement with the item. On the othe r hand, there are the responses to item 3,
which states that the person does not make enough money to live comfortably. The mean response to this item is 3.37, or approximately mildly
agree on the attitude scale. Forty-nine percent of the respondents indicated that much or more agreement with the item. These responses are
consistent with the fact that the organization was in the process of
examining its wage and salary schedule.
The data on fringe benefits, however, shows a different picture. Item 2,
which states that the fringe benefits provide nearly all the security the
person wants, has a mean response of 2.40, or approximately agree on the
attitude scale. Eighty-six percent of the respondents showed mild agreement or more with this item. These answers are consistent with the fact
that the organization had recently revised its benefit program.
Also from the data in Table 2 one can see that, overall, belongingness
needs seem to be reasonably well satisfied. Ninety percent of the respondents showed some agreement that they had developed close friendships at work. Eighty-eight percent showed some agreement that they
had opportunities to help their co-workers. The mean response for both
of the belongingness items was nearest to agree on the scales.
The level of satisfaction of lower level needs bears only on the tests
of Maslow hypotheses. In this study, these tests refer only to the outcomes of hypotheses 1-3. From the data given above one could reasonably conclude that the needs for security (in the form of fringe benefits)
and for belongingness were reasonably well satisfied in this organization.
The need for pay was less well satisfied. It is not altogether clear tha~
either pay or fringe benefits are adequate operational concepts for physiological and safety needs. It might be argued that fringe benefits are a
162
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
, TABLE 2
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF NEED SATISFACTION ITEMSa
(n
110)
ExiStence Needs
Pay:
1. Compared to the rates for similar work here
my pay is good.
2. Compared to similar work in other places my
pay is poor.
3. I do not make enough money from my job to
live comfortably.
4. Compared to the rates for less demanding
jobs my pay is poor,
5. My pay is adequate to provide for the basic
things in life.
6. Considering the work required, the pay is
what it should be.
Fringe Benefits:
1. Our fringe benefits do not Cover many of the
areas they should . . . . .
2. The fringe benefit program here gives nearly
all the Security I want.
3. The fringe benefit program here needs
improvement.
4. Compared to other places, our fringe benefits
are excellent.
Relatedness Needs
Respect from Superiors:
1. My boss will play one person b against another.
2. My boss takes account of my wishes and
desires.
3. My boss discourages people from making
suggestions.
4. It's easy to talk with my boss about my job.
5. My boss does not let me know when I could
improve my performance.
6. My boss gives me credit when I do good work.
7. My boss expects people to do things his way.
8. My boss keeps meinformed about what is
happening in the company.
Respect from Peers:
1. My co-workers are uncooperative unless it's
to their advantage.
2. I can count on my co-workers to give me a
hand when I need it.
3. I cannot speak my mind to my co-workers.
4. My co-workerswelcome opinions: different
from their own.
'
Mean
Standard Deviation
3.69
1.53
3.13
1.62
3.37
1.59
3.15
1.67
3.19
1.50
4.21
1.35
4.61
1.33
2.40
1.00
4.40
1.13
2.36
1.07
4.76
2.46
1.59
1.28
4.72
1.38
2.42
4.18
1.36
1.36
2.47
3.30
3.06
1.28
1.39
1.43
4.82
1.20
1.96
1.10
4.31
2.98
1.35
1.22
163
TABLE 2 (Contin~,ed)
5. My co-workers will not stick out their necks
for me.
Maslow Interpersonal Needs
Belongingness (Love) :
1. I have developed close friendships in my job.
2. I have an opportunity in my job to help my
co-workers quite a lot.
Status (Esteem) :
1. I have the feeling that my job is regarded as
important by other people.
2. My job gives me status.
Growth
1. "I seldom get the feeling of learning new things
from my work.
2. I have an opportunity to use man; of my
skills at work.
3. In my job I have the same things to do over
and over.
4. My job requires that a person use a wide
~ange of abilities.
5. My job requires making one or more
important decisions everyday.
4.22
1.32
2.08
2.32
1.02
1.05
2.52
1.20
2.94
1.20
4.27
1.50
2.58
1.30
2.78
1.50
2.68
1.34
2.73
1.45
3.79
1.42
164
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
TABLE 3
CORRELATIONS TESTING HYPOTHESES 1-3
(n = 110)
Desire for:
Belongingness satisfaction
Close friendship
Help my co-workers
Sum of belongingness items
Belongingness
Status
.055
.029
.074
--.078
-.079
-.156 ~
Status satisfaction
Job regarded important
Job gives status
Sum of status items
.158"
,IIi
--.094
important tended to express more desire for status than persons who saw
their job as being regarded important. The other status item showed a
correlation in the predicted direction, but it did not attain an acceptable
level of statistical significance. None of the need satisfaction scales,
formed by summing the individual items, showed significant correlations
with the desire measures in the direction predicted by Maslow's theory.
One might wonder whether failure to find much support for the Maslow
interpersonal hypotheses was because lower-level need-satisfaction was
not adequate. This question cannot be answered definitively. However,
Hypothesis 3 received the strongest support of any of the Maslow hypotheses, and this hypothesis--concerning the impact of status satisfaction on status desires--depended most on lower-level need-satisfaction.
Its prior conditions required reasonable satisfaction of physiological,
safety, and esteem needs.
Moreover, the lack of lower-level need-satisfaction as a possible explanation for the little support shown for the first three hypotheses may
be kept in mind when observing the results for Hypotheses 4-15.
E.R.G. THEORY RELATEDNESS HYPOTHESES
The correlations shown in Table 4 provide strong support for all of
the E.R.G. relatedness need predictions. Both individual items and the
scales summing the satisfaction items show significant correlations between lack of need satisfaction and strength of desires. Hypothesis 4
is supported by the correlations relating lack of satisfaction with respect
from co-workers to higher desires for respect from superiors. Hypothesis
5 is supported by the correlations relating lack of satisfaction with
respect from superiors to higher desires for respect from co-workers.
165
Respect from
co-workers
Respect from
superiors
--.360**
.235*
--.336**
.205*
--.247*
--.376**
--.204*
.077
--.175"
.090
--.060
--.163"
- . 207*
.143
- . 091
.169"
- . 022
- . 247*
- . 159"
.266**
- . 222**
- . 464**
.421"*
- . 302**
.368**
- - . 095
- . 060
- . 302**
.252**
- . 491"*
The correlations shown in Table 5 show the results of testing Hypotheses 8-15. Hypothesis 8 received some support. One of the belongingness
satisfaction items was significantly correlated with desire for respect
from co-workers in the predicted direction. Hypotheses 9, 10, and 11
166
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
TABLE 5
CORRELATIONS FOR TESTING HYPOTHESES 8--15
(n = 110)
Desires for:
Belongingness satisfaction
Close friendship
Help my co-workers
Sum of belongingness items
Status satisfaction
Job regarded important
Job gives status
Sum of status items
Respect from
co-workers
Respect from
superiors
.234*
.014
.105
.113
--.028
.133
.059
.154
.066
085
. . . . .139
133
Desires for:
Belongingness
- . 096
.112
- . 175"
.036
.035
.085
- . 157
.161"
.056
.195"
.068
- . 032
- . 067
.157
- . 105
Status
-.
163"
100
- . 143
- . 046
- . 085
-.118
- . 280**
.192"
.067
.198"
~0Ol
- . 014
- . 232**
.260**
- . 224**
167
related to desire for belongingness. One of the items concerning satisfaction with respect from co-workers was related to desire for status.
And two of the satisfaction-with-respect-from-superiors items were related to desires for belongingness. Hypothesis 15 received strong statistically significant support. Five satisfaction with respect from superiors items and the scale summing all the items were significantly
correlated with desires for status in the predicted direction.
E.R.G. THEORY PREDICTIONS ABOUT FRUSTRATION OF
HIGHER-ORDER NEEDS
168
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
TABLE 6
CORRELATIONS FOR TESTING HYPOTHESES 16--21
(n = 110)
Desires for:
Growth satisfaction
Seldom learning new things
Opportunity to use skills
Same things to do over and over
Use range of abilities
Making decisions
Challenging things
Sum of growth items
Respect from
co-workers
Respect from
superiors
--.203*
.159"
--.230**
.204*
--.062
--.236**
-.200*
.199"
-.100
.147
.081
-.080
--.234**
-.191"
Desires for:
Satisfaction with respect from co-workers
Uncooperative
Give a hand
Cannot speak my mind
Welcome opinions
Will not stick out necks
Sum of respect from co-workers
Satisfaction with respect from superiors
Play one person
Takes account of wishes
Discourages suggestions
Easy to talk to
Does not improve performance
Gives me credit
Do things his way
Keep me informed
Sum of respect from superiors
Pay
Fringe Benefits
-.032
--.062
.039
.138
--.065
.031
--.043
- . 129
.177"
.047
.198"
.005
.100
- . 153
.167"
- . 170"
- . 259**
.096
.030
.132
- . 168"
.039
- . 046
.134
- . 173"
--.084
.066
--.057
--.090
.004
169
could provide support for the Maslow Hypotheses 2 and 3 due to response bias alone. The data show no support at all for Hypothesis 2
and very weak support for Hypothesis 3. The summed satisfaction and
desire scales correlate .074 for belongingness needs and -.094 for esteem
needs. If these scales are used as the most valid test of the hypotheses,
then one can say that essentially no support was found for these
hypotheses. When so little support was found for the hypotheses where
response bias was loaded in favor of finding the relationships, then
one can be more confident that when significant relationships were
found, they were not due to response bias.
Another methodological point concerns the relative reliability of the
E.R.G. versus the Maslow satisfaction and desire scales. Perhaps the
E.R.G. relatedness predictions came out better than the analogous
Maslow predictions because the scales measuring them were better. The
correlation between the Maslow belongingness-satisfaction items was
.377 and between the Maslow status satisfaction items was .500. For
the Maslow desire scales, the respective inter-item correlations were
.400 and .511. For the respect from peers and respect from superiors
scales, the median inter-item correlations for the satisfaction scales
were .422 and .294, respectively. For the E.R.G. desire scales, the
median inter-item correlations were .605 for respect from peers and
.749 for respect from superiors. Spearman-Brown estimates of internal
consistency of the scales, based on the using of the median inter-item
correlations and number of items in the Spearman-Brown formula,
showed that the E.R.G. satisfaction scales had slightly higher reliabilities (.79'8 and .645 versus .548 and .667) than the Maslow scales.
The E.R.G. desire scales had substantially better reliabilities than the
Maslow desire scales (.819 and .861 versus .571 and .676). Therefore,
one should question whether the poorer support given to Hypotheses
1-3, as compared to that for Hypotheses 4-7, was because poorer
measures were used to test them.
SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESIS TESTS
170
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
TABLE 7
SUMMARY OF SUPPORT FoR HYPOTHESES
Fraction
of items
significant
at ~.05
0
0
1/2
2/4
5/8
5/5
6/8
1/2
0
0
0
1/5
1/5
2/8
5/8
5/6
2/6
o
0
3/8
2/8
171
DISCUSSION
E.R.G. theory was proposed to deal with the problem of how needsatisfaction was related to need strength. In order to be a viable alternative to current conceptual schemes, the new theory should provide
greater conceptual clarity and show more empirical validity. These
comparisons may be made in two ways: (1) with the simple frustration
hypothesis which implies that any frustrated need will increase in
strength but implies no connection between needs of different types,
and (2) with Maslow's hierarchical theory of motivation which includes
five categories of needs and includes the major assumption that the
categories are arranged in an order of prepotency such that a certain
degree o f satisfaction o f lower-level needs is required for higher-order
needs to increase in strength.
The strong support given to hypotheses 4, 5, 16, 17, 20, and 21 for
example, suggest that the simple frustration hypothesis alone is not
adequate to account for the relationship between satisfaction and desires. Each of these hypotheses represented a situation where the degree
of satisfaction of one need was related to the strength of desire for a
di#erent need. In the case of hypotheses 4 and 5, the different desire
came from the same overall need category, namely relatedness needs.
But in the case of hypotheses 16, 17, 20, and 21 the different needs belonged to other general need categories. For hypotheses 16 and 17,
lower satisfaction of growth needs was related to higher desires for
relatedness needs. For Hypotheses 20 and 21, lower satisfaction of
relatedness needs was related to higher desires for existence needs. The
strong support for hypotheses 6 and 7 was consistent with the simple
frustration hypothesis. However, since these and other hypotheses
follow from proposition 4, one might suggest that the E.R.G. formulation
accounts for the phenomena predicted by the simple frustration and
more.
The outcomes on hypotheses 16, 17, 20, and 21 also provide a basis
for favoring E.R.G. theory over Maslow's hierarchical theory. These
results support hypotheses generated by E.R.G. theory that were not
part of Maslow's theory. They show a place where that theory was
incomplete and where E.R.G. theory was not. It should be recognized,
however, that two other hypotheses, 18 and 19, were not supported by
the empirical results.
Both of these hypotheses show that it was satisfaction with respect
from co-workers that did not show a relationship to existence desires.
In contrast, satisfaction with respect from superiors did show the predicted relationship to both desires for pay and fringe benefits. If this
pattern of results is replicated, it suggests that E.R.G. may have to be
172
CLAYTON P. ALDERFER
]73
]74
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A NEW
THEORY
OF H U M A N
NEEDS
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