UnitI

MechanicalMeasurementand

Metrology

Self Introduction
SelfIntroduction
Dr.AshaIngle(PhD,IITBombay)
C
CromptonGreavesLtd.(~12years)
t G
Ltd (~12
)
MPSTME(SinceJuly12)
About11patents,5Designregistrationsanda
numberofresearchpublications
VastexperienceofPM(~50nos)

CourseObjectives
To
Todevelopawarenessandbasicskills
develop awareness and basic skills
necessaryforthereliablemeasurementsand
measuring instruments
measuringinstruments
Toimpartknowledgeofmethodsof
measurement of different engineering
measurementofdifferentengineering
parameters likepressure,temperature,
vacuum strains etc
vacuum,strainsetc.

CourseOutcomes
Understandtheimportanceofmeasurement,
systemsandinstruments
t
di t
t
Select properinstrumentsandcarryoutthe
measurementssuccessfully
t
f ll
Understandtheconstruction,specificationand
working
ki ofdifferentmeasuringinstruments
f diff
t
i i t
t
Corelatetheimpactoffactorslikesurface
fi i h ontheperformanceofmachines
finish
th
f
f
hi
Understandthefunctioningofmodern
machines
hi

Books
Mechanical
MechanicalMeasurements
MeasurementsbyThomasG
by Thomas G
Beckwith,JohnHLienhard V,RoyDMarangoni
Published by Pearson 6th edition
PublishedbyPearson,6
E
EngineeringMetrology
i
i M
l
byR.K.Jain,Khanna
b R K J i Kh
Publishers

WhyMeasurements?
Whateverexists,existsinsomeamountandthe
determination of the amount is what measurement is all
determinationoftheamountiswhatmeasurementisall
about.
LordKelvin(18241907):Whenyoucanmeasurewhat
youarespeakingaboutandexpressitinnumbers,you
k
knowsomethingaboutit;butwhenyoucannotmeasure
thi
b t it b t h
t
it,whenyoucannotexpressitinnumbers,your
knowledge of it is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind It
knowledgeofitisofameagerandunsatisfactorykind.It
maybethebeginningofknowledge,butyouhave
scarcelyinyourthoughtadvancedtothestageofscience
y y
g
g

WhyMeasurements?
LordGalileo(15641642): Clearlyformulateda
comprehensivegoalofmetrologywithastatement
Measureeverythingthatismeasurableandmake
measureablewhatisnotso
Measurement isimportantinthemodernday
infrastructure.Itplaysaroleinourlivesdirectlyor
indirectly.
Economic successofmanufacturingindustries
dependsuponthequalityandreliabilityofthe
productsmanufacturedwheremeasurementplaysa
majorrole

WhyMechanicalMeasurements?
Ifthosethingsthatexistarerelatedtothepracticeof
mechanical engineering then the determination of their
mechanicalengineeringthenthedeterminationoftheir
amountconstitutesthesubjectofmechanical
measurements.
Mechanicalmeasurementsarenotnecessarilydoneby
mechanicalmeans.Itisthemeasuredquantitythatthe
termisdirected.

Whatismetrology?
Metrologyliterallymeansscienceofmeasurement.
Itdealswithenforcement,verificationandvalidationof
predefinedstandards.
Italsodealswith
Establishing theunitsofmeasurementandtheir
reproductionintheformofstandards,
Ascertaining theuniformityofmeasurements,
Developing methodsofmeasurement,
Analyzingtheaccuracyofmethodsofmeasurement,
Establishing theuncertaintiesofmeasurement&
investigatingthecauseoferrors
Establish themethodstoeliminatetheerrors

MarsSurveyor'98OrbiterNASA
The MarsClimateOrbiter (formerlythe MarsSurveyor'98
Orbiter)wasa338kilogram(750
)
g
(
lb)) robotic space
p
probe launchedby NASA onDecember11,1998tostudy
the Martianclimate, atmosphere, surfacechanges andtoactas
the communications relay in the MarsSurveyor
thecommunicationsrelayinthe
Mars Surveyor '98
98program,
program
for MarsPolarLander.However,onSeptember23,1999,
communicationwiththespacecraftwaslostasthespacecraft
wentintoorbitalinsertion,duetogroundbasedcomputer
i
bi l i
i
d
db d
softwarewhichproducedoutputin nonSI unitsofpound
seconds(lbfs)insteadofthemetricunitsofNewtonseconds
(Ns)specifiedinthecontractbetweenNASAandLockheed.The
spacecraftencounteredMarsatanimproperangle,causingitto
incorrectly enter the upper atmosphere and disintegrated
incorrectlyentertheupperatmosphereanddisintegrated
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Climate_Orbiter

DamascusSteel
Damascussteel wasatypeof steel used
in MiddleEastern swordmaking.Damascus
steelwascreatedfrom
l
df
wootz steel,asteel
l
l
developedinIndiaaround300BC.[1] These
swordsarecharacterizedbydistinctive
patterns of banding and mottling
patternsofbandingandmottling
reminiscentofflowingwater.Suchblades
werereputedtobetough,resistantto
shattering and capable of being honed to a
shatteringandcapableofbeinghonedtoa
sharp,resilientedge
Closeupofan18thcenturyIranian
crucibleforgedDamascussteelsword
g

AresearchteaminGermany
A
research team in Germany
publishedareportin2006
revealing nanowires and carbon
nanotubes inabladeforgedfrom
in a blade forged from
Damascusstee

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_steel

WhyMechanicalMeasurements?

WhyMechanicalMeasurements?
Whatarethequantitiesthatyoucanthinkofthatfallinthecategoryof
mechanicalquantities??

WhyMechanicalMeasurements?
Forthemeasurementstobemeaningful,
Th
Thestandard
t d d usedforcomparisonmustbeaccurately
df
i
tb
t l
definedandshouldbecommonlyaccepted.
Theapparatus
pp
usedandmethodadoptedmustbeprovable
p
p
Thenumericalmeasuresismeaningless unlessfollowedby
theunitsused.

Purposeofmeasurement:
Requisiteinformationpertainingtofruitfulcompletionof
process
Monitorprocesses,controlofprocessesandexperimental
g
g
y
engineeringanalysis.

WhyMechanicalMeasurements?
Significanceofmeasurement:
Newphenomenaandrelationshipsarediscovered
New phenomena and relationships are discovered
andtheseadvancesmakeanewtypeof
measurementsimperative.
Newdevelopmentsareuselessunlesstheresultsare
backedbyactualmeasurements.
Validityofhypothesisandunderstanding
enhancements
Newertechniquesarerequiredfortheadvanced
Newer techniques are required for the advanced
measurements(nanomaterialsandthenano size
measurements)

Processofmeasurement:
1 M
1.Measurand2.Reference3.Comparator
d2R f
3C
t
1.Measurand: Measurand is the physical quantity or property like
length, angle, diameter, thickness etc. to be measured.
2.Reference:
f
It is the p
physical
y
quantityy or p
q
property
p y to which
quantitative comparisons are made
3.Comparator:
3
Comparator: It is the means of comparing measurand with some
reference
Ex: Fitter has to measure MS flat with steel rule
1.Aligns the zero end of steel rule with one end of MS
2.Compares the length of flat with the graduations on the rule by his eyes
Here, length of MS plate is measurand, steel rule is reference and eye is
comparator
16

MechanicalMeasurements
Measurement is the comparison of a specimen (a thing
quantity)
y) to a standard,, within some agreement
g
with
or q
the reference frame.
A successful measurement must maintain a stable
specimen and a stable reference frame
All the measurements are based on standards.
The results of the measurements should have the
correctness of the measurement also.
The accuracy of measuring is also vital.

Performancecharacteristics
Accuracy thedegreeofexactness(closeness)of
measurementcomparedtotheexpected(desired)value.
Resolution thesmallestchangeinameasurement
variabletowhichaninstrumentwillrespond.
Precision
i i ameasureofconsistencyorrepeatabilityof
f
bl
f
measurement,i.e successivereadingdonotdiffer.
Sensitivity
S iti it ratioofchangeintheoutput(response)of
ti f h
i th
t t(
) f
instrumenttoachangeofinputormeasuredvariable.
Expectedvalue
Expected value thedesignvalueorthemostprobable
the design value or the most probable
valuethatisexpectedtoobtained.
Error thedeviationofthetruevaluefromthedesired
the deviation of the true value from the desired
value.

Significanceofmechanicalmeasurements
Quantitative information of actual state of physical
variable or process which otherwise can only be
estimated.
ti t d
Fundamental control in any control process. The
control
t l requires
i
measurementt off the
th actual
t l and
d desired
d i d
performances.
The controlling part of the system must know the
magnitude and direction of the differences in order to
act intelligently.
Daily
D il operations
ti
require
i measurementt for
f proper
performance.
Power station Temperature, flow, pressure,
vibrational amplitude must be constantly measured
and monitored.

Significanceofmechanicalmeasurements
To be useful the measurement should be reliable.
Incorrect information is potentially more dangerous
that no information at all.
Accuracy and uncertainty of any measurement
system are important to know the reliability of the
data.
In the case of measurement there is no perfect
measurement. All the measurements have some
amount of error.

Reviewoflastlecture
Importanceofmeasurements
ClassificationandTypesofmeasurement
Monitoringofprocesses
Thermometers,radars,barometersetc
Watermeters,gasandelectricitymeters
Controlofprocessesandoperations
Temperaturecontrol,flowcontrolinindustrialprocesses
Temperature control flow control in industrial processes
Carsspeedcontrol,coolanttemperaturecontrol
Generallyhasafeedbackcontrol
Generally has a feedback control
ExperimentalEngineeringAnalysis
Researchanddevelopmentworkincludestheoryand
experimentation(labTestingProcess)

Processofmeasurement
REFERENCE

RESULT

MEASURAND

Input

COMPARISON PROCESS
COMPARISONPROCESS

Readout

Itsconvenienttochangethemechanicalquantitiesto
electricalsignals.Amechanicalmeasurandistherefore
transduced intoacorrespondingelectricalquantity

GeneralConceptofmeasurement
MeasuredQuantity

Detectorand
transducer

Calibrationorreferencing

Controller

Signalcontroller
orconditioner

Externalpower

Computer

Output

Functional elements of an instrument system

Functionalelementsofaninstrumentsystem

Inspection
Inspection
Inspection is defined as the procedure in which a part
or product characteristic such as dimension is
examined to determine whether it conforms to the
design specification.
Inspection is important due to industrial mass
production
This necessitates that mating should take place
between any random part selected from the batch.
Inspection
p
is an integral
g part
p
of any
y process
p
to check
for the suitability of the product/process for the
required purpose.

Inspection
Inspection
In the traditional systems the product was produced by
making all the parts in-house. With the new mass
production concept proper control became necessary to
avoid fitment issues
issues.
Inspection essentially encompasses the following:
1. Conformance of a materials, parts or components to
desired standards
2. Accomplish interchangeability of manufacture
3 Sustain
3.
S t i customer
t
goodwill
d ill by
b ensuring
i no d
defective
f ti
parts are sold to customer
4. Provide the means to find the inadequacies of
manufacture.

Inspection
5. Coordinate the functions of quality control, production,
purchasing and other departments
6 Purchase good quality raw materials,
6.
materials tools &
equipments that govern the quality of the finished
products
7. Take decisions to rework on defective parts to make
these parts acceptable by minor repairs
8 Promote a spirit of competition that leads to the
8.
enhancement of quality products.
9. To remove bottlenecks in the process
p
ThefanmanufactureinCGL
Q li
Qualityofballbearings,shaftsetc
f b ll b i
h f

Classificationofmethodsofmeasurement
In precision measurement various methods of
p
g upon
p the accuracy
y
measurement are used depending
requirement and the permissible errors.
Measurement techniques employed should ensure
that the uncertainty
ncertaint in the measurement
meas rement is red
reduced.
ced
Actual measurements may employ one or
combination
bi ti off the
th following
f ll i
1. Direct method of measurement:
The value of quantity to be measured is obtained directly
without any calculations. Example Measurement of
length by using scales

Classificationofmethodsofmeasurement
2. Indirect method of measurement:
The value of quantity to be measured is obtained by
Thevalueofquantitytobemeasuredisobtainedby
measuringotherquantitieswhicharefunctionally
relatedtotherequiredvalue.
q
Eg.Measurementofdensity bymeasuringthemass
andgeometricaldimension
Indirectmeasurementcanalsomakeuseofsomeform
oftransducerdevicesconnectedtothemeasuring
apparatus.Thechainofdevicesconvertthebasicform
ofinputintoanalogousform,whichisthenprocessed
and present as o tp t as a kno n f nction of the
andpresentasoutputasaknownfunctionofthe
originalinput.

Thegeneralizedmeasuringsystems
Mostmeasurementsystemsfallwithinthe
frameworkofageneralarrangementconsistingof
threephasesorstages:
StageI:Adetectiontransducerorsensortransducer
stage
StageII:Anintermediatestagecalledassignal
conditioningstage.
StageIII:Aterminatingorreadoutrecordingstage

Thegeneralizedmeasuringsystems
StageI:
Primary function of the first stage is to detect or
Primaryfunctionofthefirststageistodetector
sense themeasurand.Ideallythisstageshouldbe
insensitive toeveryotherpossibleinput.
Forexampleifitspressurepickupitshouldbeit
shouldbeinsensitivetoacceleration.
Ifitsstraingageitshouldbeinsensitive to
temperature.
Itisdifficulttofindadetectingdevicethatisthatis
completelyselective

Thegeneralizedmeasuringsystems
Measurementdeviceshouldbefreeofnoise
when the measurement variesrapidlyand
whenthemeasurement
varies rapidly and
driftwhenitvariesslowly.
StageI:Primaryfunctionofthefirststageisto
Stage I: Primary function of the first stage is to
detectorsensethemeasurand.Ideallythis
stage should be insensitive to every other
stageshouldbeinsensitivetoeveryother
possibleinput.
Frequentlymorethanonetrasduction
F
tl
th
t d ti inthe
i th
firststageisrequired.

Thegeneralizedmeasuringsystems
StageII:
Thepurposeofthesecondstageistomodify
The purpose of the second stage is to modify
thetransducedinformation sothatitis
acceptable to the third terminating stage
acceptabletothethirdterminatingstage.
Thisstagealsoperformsanadditionalfunction
ofselectivefiltering
f l ti filt i toremovenoise,
t
i
integration,differentiationetc.
Mostimportantfunctionistoeitherincrease
theamplitudeorpowerofthesignal,or,both
toalevelrequiredtodrivethefinalterminating
device.

Thegeneralizedmeasuringsystems
StageIII:
Thisstageprovidestheinformationinthe
comprehensibleformtooneofthehumansensesorto
acontroller.Iftheoutputisintendedforhuman
recognitionthenitwillbepresentedinthefollowing
ii
h i ill b
d i h f ll i
forms:
Asarelativedisplacementofanindicatinghandor
A
l ti di l
t f
i di ti h d
displacementofanoscilloscopetrace
Indigitalformaspresentedbyacountersuchas
In digital form as presented by a counter such as
automobileodometerorbyanLCDorbyanLEDoras
on voltmeter.
onvoltmeter.

Thegeneralizedmeasuringsystems

Thegeneralizedmeasuringsystems
Velocitymeasurement

Instrumentcharacteristics
Timedependence:
Mechanical quantities in addition to their inherent
Mechanicalquantitiesinadditiontotheirinherent
defining characteristicsalsohavedistinctivetime
amplitudepropertiesclassifiedasbelow:
1. Static constantintime
2. Dynamic Varying withtime
a. Steady state periodic
p
b. Nonrepetitiveortransient
I. Singlepulseoraperiodic
II. Continuingorrandom
Continuing or random

Instrumentcharacteristics
Timedependence:
Static constant
constantintime
in time
Measuringastaticunchangingmeasurandiseasy
EEg???
???
Therapidlychangingdynamicmeasurandpresentsa
real meas rement challenge
realmeasurementchallenge
Twogeneralformsofdynamicinputsarepossible.
Steady state periodic input and transient input
Steadystateperiodicinputandtransientinput.
Examples???

Instrumentcharacteristics
AnalogandDigitalSignals:
AnalogSignals:
Signals: Eg.Speedofanautomobile,asit
g. Speed of an automobile, as it
Analog
startsfromresthassomemagnitudeatevery
instantduringitsmotion.Asensorthatrespondsto
velocity willproduceanoutputsignalhavingatime
variationanalogoustothetimechangeintheautos
speed.Thissignaliscalledasananalogous
d Thi i
li
ll d
l
signal
i
l
becauseitisanalogoustoacontinuousphysical
process.
process.
Ananalogoussignalhasavalue ateveryinstantin
time andusuallyvariessmoothlyinmagnitude
and usually varies smoothly in magnitude

Instrumentcharacteristics
DigitalSignals:
Somequantitieschange
quantities change in
instepwisemanner
stepwise manner
Some
betweentwodistinctmagnitudes:ahighandlow
voltageoronandoff,forinstance.
Eg.Countingofrevolutionsofshaftwithacam
actuatedelectricalswitchthatisopenorclosed,
dependingonthepositionofthecam.Iftheswitch
controlsthecurrentfromthebattery,currenteither
flows with a given magnitude or does not flow The
flowswithagivenmagnitudeordoesnotflow.The
currentflowthereforevariesbetweentwodiscreet
values of 0 (off) and 1 (on). The amplitude of such a
valuesof0(off)and1(on).Theamplitudeofsucha
signaliscalledasDIGITAL

Instrumentcharacteristics
DigitalSignals:
Mechanicalquantitiesliketemperature,fluid
quantities like temperature, fluid flow
flow
Mechanical
rates,pressure,stress&strainnormallybehavein
analogmanner.
Theyarehoweverconvertedintodigitalsignals
why??

Toreducenoise
To ease conditioning and readout
Toeaseconditioningandreadout

Calibration
DefinitionofCalibration:
uring the preparation of a measuring system,
Duringthepreparationofameasuringsystem,
knownmagnitudeoftheinputquantitymustbefed
intothesensortransducerandthesystemsbehavior
mustbeobserved.
Suchcomparison allowsthemagnitudeofthe
outputtobecorrectlyinterpreted
Theknowninputmustitselfbederivedfroma
d fi d
definedstandard
d d

Calibration
Iftheoutputisexactlyproportionaltotheinput
thenasinglesimultaneousobservationofinputand
outputwillbeenoughtofixtheconstantof
proportionality.Thisissinglepointcalibration
Multipointcalibrationwhereanumberofdifferent
inputvaluesareapplied. Thistypeofcalibration
i
improvestheaccuracyofcalibration.
th
f lib ti
Multipointcalibrationworkswhentheoutputisnot
simply proportional to input
simplyproportionaltoinput.
Dynamicsystem:Whenmeasuringsystemwill
detect a time varying output
detectatimevaryingoutput

ReviewofunitI
1. Importanceofmeasurements
2. Whataremechanicalmeasurements?
3. Typesofmeasurements
4 Importanttermsinmeasurements
4.
I
i
5. Inspection
6 Generalizedmeasurementsystem
6.
Generalized measurement system
7. Blockdiagramofmeasurement
8. Calibration

AssignmentI(tobesubmittedon23/12/2013)
AssignmentI
1. Whyaremeasurementsimportant?
2. Explainthegeneralprocessofmeasurement
3 Whatisthesignificanceofinspectionina
3.
Wh i h i ifi
fi
i i
manufacturingindustry?
4 Explainthegeneralizedmethodofmeasurement.
4.
Explain the generalized method of measurement
5. Definethefollowingterms:
Accuracyy
Precision
Resolution
Sensitivity
Error