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Me 2151-1 Cooling Rate Effect: Lab Manual
Me 2151-1 Cooling Rate Effect: Lab Manual
SESSION: 2016/2017
CONTENTS
Page No.
TABLES OF CONTENTS
(i)
TERMINOLOGY
(ii)
INTRODUCTION
THEORY
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
REFERENCES
APPENDIX I
10
APPENDIX II
11
APPENDIX III
12
TERMINOLOGY
The term phase may be defined as a chemically and structurally homogeneous region
of material.
A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the phases present and the ranges in
composition, temperature, and pressure over which the phases are stable.
d.r.p
b.c.c
f.c.c
b.c.c
orthorhombic
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this manual is to provide instructions to enable student to investigate
the effects of cooling rate and carbon content on the microstructure and hardness of
commercial steel.
This manual contains some fundamental theory for understanding the experiment and
description of the apparatus for hardness measurement.
THEORY
Pure iron is undergone polymorphic changes depending upon temperature, as
indicated in Fig.1. When liquid iron first solidifies at 15390C, it is in form. Upon
further cooling at 14000C, a phase change occurs and the atoms rearrange themselves
into the form, which is nonmagnetic. When the temperature reaches 9100C, another
phase change occurs from to iron (magnetic). Alloys of iron and carbon (with
other elements intentionally added for special purposes) comprise the commercially
important ferrous-base alloys known as steels and cast irons. These alloys,
particularly the steels, are susceptible to heat-treatment, and a wide range of
properties can be obtained by proper variation and timing of heating and cooling
cycles.
Fig.1 Temperature ranges in which allotropic forms of iron exist under equilibrium
conditions.
Carbon atoms are small compared to iron atoms, and have a radius ratio (carbon to
iron) of 0.63. Consequently, any solute carbon forms an interstitial solution. Since the
biggest interstices in gamma (f.c.c) iron are larger (0.52 A radius) than the largest in
alpha (b.c.c) iron (0.36 A radius). We expect greater solubility of carbon in than in
. This does occur as indicated in Fig. 2, the so-called Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Phase
1
Diagram which indicates that can dissolve a maximum of 2.0 wt% carbon at
11470C, while can dissolve a maximum of only 0.02 wt% carbon at 7230C.
Fig. 4 The sequences of change of phases of the three alloys cooling from the
austenite region to room temperature.
Alloy 2 is a eutectoid steel containing of 0.8% C. Hence no transformation takes place
until the steel is cooled to eutectoid temperature (7230C), where though eutectoid
reaction austenite to pearlitic transformation takes place. Hence at room temperature
we get 100% pearlite in the microstructure (see Fig.4).
Alloy 3 is a hypereutectoid steel containing 1.2% carbon i.e. in excess of 0.8% carbon
and therefore during cooling from the austenite range this extra carbon must be
removed from the austenite. The excess carbon is precipitated out of solid solution but
during the process it brings with it ferrite atoms and the final precipitate is not pure
Fig. 5 The hardness of martensite increases with carbon content because of the
increasing distortion of the lattice.
The cooling rate for martensite formation must exceed a critical value, which depends
on composition and metallurgical history. Martensite will not form unless austenite is
cooled below a certain critical temperature (Ms), which depends on composition.
Formation continues only if temperature continues to decrease. There is a lower
temperature (Mf) at which transformation to martensite is complete. Martensite
formation is essentially independent of time.
On the TTT (time temperature transformation), also called CCT (continuous cooling
transformation) diagram (see Fig.6) curves X, Y and Z, representing different
continuous cooling rates that are superimposed.
Fig. 6 The relationship between true TTT curves and those representing continuous
cooling conditions.
Curve X represents a rate of cooling such as might prevail during a normalising (air
cooling) process. Transformation of the unstable austenite begins at K and is complete
at N and product is fine pearlite. A very rapid cooling is represented by curve Y which
just touches the modified transformation-begins curve so unstable austenite persists
until at O (on the Ms line) transformation direct to martensite begins. It should be
noted that the above discussion is mainly for 0.8% C steel. If the carbon content is
either above or below this amount the curves are displaced to the left so that the CCR
(critical cooling rate) required to produce a fully martensite structure will be even
greater.
Ms denotes the start and Mf the finish. It should be noted that if steels contain more
than 0.7% C the Mf temperature lies below 00C so that there is some retained austenite
unless sub-zero treatment is performed.
Description of Equipment
Rockwell hardness test:
Hardness may be defined as the resistance of the material to penetration/indentation.
The Rockwell hardness test is based on the measurement of the depth of penetration
of the indenter into the specimen. The salient features of a typical Rockwell Hardness
Testing Machine are shown in Fig. 7.
Major load is supplied by a dead weight loading lever (L) having a ratio of 25 to 1.
Rockwell number is read from the dial gauge (D), connected to the plunger system in
the head of the tester by means of the Index Lever (M) having 5: 1 ratio.
The dial gauge is a 1 mm gauge, i.e. one revolution of the pointer equals 1 mm travel
of the dial rack. There are 100 divisions to a revolution and as the lever ratio is 5:1,
each division on the dial represents a depth of 0.002 mm. When minor load is applied
there is a fixed zero or set point. Two scales are provided on the dial gauge. The outer
circle is in black, and all readings with diamond indenter are taken on this. The inner
circle is in red, and all readings with ball indenters are taken from this. The set point
is always same regardless of the scale. Fig. 8 shows steel ball and diamond cone
indenter.
The general principals of the Rockwell hardness test are illustrated in Fig. 9 (ball
indenter) and Fig. 10 (diamond indenter) and the accompanying Tables 1 and 2 (in
appendix I).
Experimental Procedure
You will be provided four medium carbon steel specimens having composition of
0.45 % carbon with different cooling rates (furnace cooled, air cooled, fan cooled and
water quenched).
1. Observe the microstructures under the optical microscope, as high magnification
as possible.
2. Sketch neatly the different phases and structures of each specimen.
3. Determine the hardness of each sample using Rockwell Hardness Tester
(procedure and precautions are given in appendix II).
4. Convert all the harness values to Vickers' hardness (HV) through the conversion
table given in appendix III.
5. Analyse the results and establish the relationships amongst cooling rate,
microstructure and hardness of specimens.
References
1. R. A. Higgins, "The Properties of Engineering Materials".
2. M. F. Ashby & D. R. H. Jones, "An Introduction to Microstructures, Processing
and Design".
3. S. H. Avner, "Introduction to Physical Metallurgy".
4. C .O. Smith, "The Science of Engineering Material
Appendix I
Table 1 Symbols and Designation Associated with Fig. 9.
___________________________________________________________________________________
Number
Symbol
Designation
___________________________________________________________________________________
1
3
4
5
6
--P0
P1
P
---
-----
10
Appendix II
Measurement of Harness
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Precautions
1.
2.
Ensure that both surfaces of the specimens are flat and positioned securely on the anvil.
Rotate the capstan gently during elevation of the anvil. Otherwise due to abrupt strike of the
indenter tip with the sample, the indenter may be destroyed.
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Appendix III
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