e notes for the lectures on 22-5-2006 and 23-5-2006

(under revision)
e-Notes by Prof.G.K.Suresh, SIT, Tumkur

UNIFORM PLANE WAVES

In free space ( source-less regions where

r
J 0 ), the gauss law is

r
r
r
gD 0 g E gE 0 or
r
gE 0 ________ (1)

The wave equation for electric field, in free-space is,

r
2
r
E
2 E 2 ________ (2)
t

The wave equation (2) is a composition of these equations, one each component wise,
ie,

2 Ex
2 Ey

_______(2) a
x 2
t 2
2 Ey
2 Ey

_______(2) b
y 2
t 2
2 Ez
2 Ez

_______(2) c
z 2
t 2
Further, eqn. (1) may be written as

Ex Ey Ez

0 ________ (1) a
x
y
z
r
For the UPW, E is independent of two coordinate axes; x and y axes, as we have assumed.

0
x
y

Therefore eqn. (1) reduces to

E z
0 ______ (3)
z
ie., there is no variation of Ez in the z direction.
1

 2 Ez
t 2

Also we find from 2 (a) that

= 0 ____(4)

These two conditions (3) and (4) require that Ez can be

(i)

Zero

(ii)

Constant in time or

(iii)

Increasing uniformly with time.

A field satisfying the last two of the above three conditions cannot be a part of wave motion.
Therefore Ez can be put equal to zero, (the first condition).
Ez = 0

r
r
The uniform plane wave (traveling in z direction) does not have any field components of E & H
in its direction of travel.

r
r
Therefore the UPWs are transverse., having field components (of E & H ) only in directions
perpendicular to the direction of propagation does not have any field component only the
direction of travel.
r
r
RELATION BETWEEN E & H in a uniform plane wave.

r
r
We have, from our previous discussions that, for a UPW traveling in z direction, both E & H
r
r
are independent of x and y; and E & H have no z component. For such a UPW, we have,

j
i
k
r
E y

x
E

E
( 0)
( 0)
i
j
_____ (5)
x
y
z

z
Ex
Ey Ez ( 0)
i

r
H y

x
H

H
( 0)
( 0)
i
j
_____ (6)
x
y
z

z
Hx
Hy Hz ( 0)
Then Maxwells curl equations (1) and (2), using (5) and (6), (2) becomes,

r
r
E
Ex
Ey Hy
Hx

H

i
ji

j
______ (7)
t
t
t

and
r
r
H
Hx
Hy Ey
Ex

E

i
ji

j
______ (8)
t
t
t

Thus, rewriting (7) and (8) we get

Hy Hx
i
j
z
z

Ey Ex
i
j
z
z

Ex Ey
i
t
t

j ______ (7)

Hx Hy

i
j ______ (8)

Equating i th and j th terms, we get

Hy
Ex

z
t
Hx
Ey

z
t
Ey
Hx

i
z
t
and

Ex
z
Let

______ 9 ( a )
______ 9 (b)
______ 9(c )

Hy
t

______ 9 ( d )

Ey f1 z 0t ;

Then,

Ey
f1 z 0t 0 . 0 f1 .
t
From eqn. 9(c ), we get ,

Hx
0 f
t

Hx

'

'
1

f1' dz c.

Now
z 0t
f1'
f1'
f1'
z
z

f1
Hz
C
z

Now
z 0t
f1'
f1'
f1'
z
z

f1

dz c
z

Hx

f1 c

Ey c

The constant C indicates that a field independent of Z could be present. Evidently this is not a
part of the wave motion and hence is rejected.
Thus the relation between HX and EY becomes,

Hx

Ey
Hx

Ey

__________ (10)

Similarly it can be shown that

Ex

Hy

_____________ (11)

r
In our UPW, E Ex i E y j

r
r
r

E
2 E E
t
t
r
r
2
r

E
2 E
2 _______ ( xi )
t
t
r
But gE
0
r
E

DERIVATION OF WAVE EQUATION FOR A CONDUCTING MEDIUM:

In a conducting medium, = 0, = 0. Surface charges and hence surface currents exist, static
fields or charges do not exist.
For the case of conduction media, the point form of maxwells equations are:

r
r
r
r D
r
E
H J
E
________ (i )
t
t
r
r
r
B
H
E

_________ (ii )
t
t
r
r
r
gD g
E gE 0 _________ (iii )
r
r
r
gB g H gH 0 _________ (iv )

Taking curl on both sides of equation (i ), we get

r
r
r

E
H E
t

r
r

E
E ________ (v )
t
substituting eqn. (ii ) in eqn. (v ), we get
r
r
r

H
2 H
H
_________ (vi )

2

r
r
r
But
H gH 2 H _________ (vii )

eqn. (vi ) becomes

r
r
2
r
r
H
H
gH 2 H

_________ (viii )
t
t 2
r
r
r
B
1
1
But gH g
gB g0 0

eqn. (viii ) becomes ,

r
r
2
r

H
2 H

0 ________ (ix )
t
t 2
r
This is the wave equation for the magnetic field H in a conducting medium.
7

Next we consider the second Maxwells curl equation (ii)

r
r
H
E
________ (ii )
t

Taking curl on both sides of equation (ii) we get

r
r

H
r
H
E

t
t
r
r
r
But E gE 2 E ;

________ ( x )

Vector identity and substituting eqn. (1) in eqn (2), we get

r
r
r
r

E
gE 2 E
E
t
t
r
r
E
2 E

_______ ( xi )
t
t 2
r

But gE
0

(Point form of Gauss law) However, in a conductor, = 0, since there is no net charge within a
conductor,
Therefore we get

r
gE 0

Therefore eqn. (xi) becomes,

r
r
2
r
E
E
2 E

t
t 2

____________ (xii)

r
This is the wave equation for electric field E in a conducting medium.

Wave equations for a conducting medium:

8

Regions where conductivity is non-zero.

Conduction currents may exist.

For such regions, for time varying fields

The Maxwells eqn. Are:

r
r
r
E
H J
_________ (1)
t
r
r
H
E
__________ (2)
t
r
r
J E
: Conductivity ( / m)
= conduction current density.

Therefore eqn. (1) becomes,

r
r
r
E
H E
_________ (3)
t

Taking curl of both sides of eqn. (2), we get

r
r

E
H
t
r
r
2 E
E


________ (4)
t 2
t
But
r
r
r
E gE 2 E (vector identity )

u sin g this eqn. (4) becomes vector identity ,

r
r
r
r
E
2E
2
gE E

_______ (5)
t
t 2
r
But gD
r
r
1
Q is cons tan t , gE
gD

Since there is no net charge within a conductor the charge density is zero ( there can be charge on
the surface ), we get.

r
r
1
gE gD 0

Therefore using this result in eqn. (5)

we get
9

r
r
r
E
2 E
E
2 0 ________(6)
t
t
2

r
This is the wave eqn. For the electric field E in a conducting medium.
r
r
This is the wave eqn. for E . The wave eqn. for H is obtained in a similar manner.
Taking curl of both sides of (1), we get

r
r
r
E
H
E ________ (7)
t
r
r
H
But E
________ (2)
t
(1) becomes,
r
r
r
2 H
H
H

________ (8)
t 2
t
As before, we make use of the vector identity.

r
r
H gH

r
H

in eqn. (8) and get

r
r
r
r
H
2 H
2
gH H
2 ________ (9)
t
t
But
r
r
r 1
B 1
gH g gB g0 0

eqn.(9)becomes
r
r
2
r

H
2 gH
2 ________ (10)
t
t

r
This is the wave eqn. for H in a conducting medium.
Sinusoidal Time Variations:

In practice, most generators produce voltage and currents and hence electric and magnetic fields
which vary sinusoidally with time. Further, any periodic variation can be represented as a weight
sum of fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
Therefore we consider fields having sinusoidal time variations, for example,
E = Em cos t
E = Em sin t
Here, w = 2f, f = frequency of the variation.
10

Therefore every field or field component varies sinusoidally, mathematically by an additional

r
term. Representing sinusoidal variation. For example, the electric field E can be represented as

r
E x, y , z , t as
r
r
%r
ie., E r , t ; r x, y , z

r
Where E%is the time varying field.
The time varying electric field can be equivalently represented, in terms of corresponding phasor
r
quantity E%(r) as

r% r
r
E r , t Re E r e j t ________ (11)

r
The symbol tilda placed above the E vector represents that E is time varying quantity.
The phasor notation:
We consider only one component at a time, say Ex.
The phasor Ex is defined by
% rr , t R E r e j t ________ (12)
E
x
e
x
| Ex |
| Ex |
t

r
r
Ex r denotes Ex as a function of space (x,y,z). In general Ex r is complex and hence can be
represented as a point in a complex and hence can be represented as a point in a complex plane.
(see fig) Multiplication by e jwt results in a rotation through an angle wt measured from the angle
. At t increases, the point Ex e jwt traces out a circle with center at the origin. Its projection on
the real axis varies sinusoidally with time & we get the time-harmonically varying electric field
% (varying sinusoidally with time). We note that the phase of the sinusoid is determined by ,
Ex
the argument of the complex number Ex.
Therefore the time varying quantity may be expressed as
j
E%
e jt ________ (13)
x Re E x e

Ex cos( t ) ________ (14)

11

Maxwells eqn. in phasor notation:

In time harmonic form, the Maxwells first curl eqn. is:
r%
r% r% D
H J
_______ (15)
t
using phasor notation, this eqn. becomes,

r
r
r

Re He j t Re De j t R e Je j t ________ (16)
t

The diff. Operator & Re part operator may be interchanged to get,

r
r
r j t
Re He j t Re
De
Re Je j t
t

r
r
Re j D e j t R e Je j t

r
r
r
Re H j D J e j t 0

This relation is valid for all t. Thus we get

r
r
r
H J j D ________ (17)

This phasor form can be obtained from time-varying form by replacing each time derivative by

jw ie.,

is to be replaced by
t

For the sinusoidal time variations, the Maxwells equation may be expressed in phasor form as:

(17)

r
r
r
H J j D

r r
H

gdL
L

r
r
J j D gds

(18)

r
r
E j B

r r
r r
E
g
dl

B
gds

(19)

r
gD

r r
D

gds

(20)

r
gB 0

r r
B

gds 0

dV

The continuity eqn., contained within these is,

r
gJ j

r r
J

gds j dv _______ (21)

S

vol

The constitutive eqn. retain their forms:

12

r
r
D E
r
r
B H
r
r
J E

____ (22)

For sinusoidal time variations, the wave equations become

r
r
2
2

r
r
2 H 2 H

( for electric field )

( for electric field )

_________ (23)

Vector Helmholtz eqn.

In a conducting medium, these become

r
r
2 E 2 j E 0
________ (24)
r
r
2 H 2 j H 0

Wave propagation in a loss less medium:

In phasor form, the wave eqn. for VPW is

r
r
2 E
2
2 Ey

2
;
2 E y _______ (25)
x

2
r
x

2 E

E y C1

e j x C2 e j x _______ (26)

C1 & C2 are arbitrary constants.

The corresponding time varying field is
j t

E%
y x, t Re E y x e
Re C1 e j t z C2 e j t z ______ (27)
C1 cos t z C2 cos t z ______ (28)

When C1 and C2 are real.

Therefore we note that, in a homogeneous, lossless medium, the assumption of sinusoidal time
variations results in a space variation which is also sinusoidal.
Eqn. (27) and (28) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2 , the two traveling waves combine to form a simple standing wave which does not
progress.
If we rewrite eqn. (28) with Ey as a fn of (x-t),
we get =

Let us identify some point in the waveform and observe its velocity; this point is t x a
constant
13

Then

dx

dt

' a ' t

This velocity is called phase velocity, the velocity of a phase point in the wave.
is called the phase shift constant of the wave.

Wavelength: These distance over which the sinusoidal waveform passes through a full cycle of
2 radians
ie.,

14

 2
2

or

But

or

f ;

f in H Z
1

Wave propagation in a conducting medium

We have,

Where

r
r
2 E 2 E 0

2 j
j j

is called the propagation constant is, in general, complex.

Therefore, = + j
= Attenuation constant
= phase shift constant.
The eqn. for UPW of electric field strength is
r
r
2 E
2E
2
x
One possible solution is
r
E x E0 e x
Therefore in time varying form, we get
r%
E x, t Re E e x e j t
e x Re E0e jwt
This eqn. shown that a up wave traveling in the +x direction and attenuated by a factor e x .
The phase shift factor
15

and velocity f

= Real part of = RP

j j t

2
1
2
2

2 2

Conductors and dielectrics:

We have the phasor form of the 1st Maxwells curl eqn.
r
r
r
H E j E J c J disp
r
where J c E conduction current density ( A/m2 )
r
J disp j E displacement current density ( A/m2 )

J cond

J disp

We can choose a demarcation between dielectrics and conductors;

1 is conductor.

Cu: 3.5*108 @ 30 GHz

1 is dielectric.

Mica: 0.0002 @ audio and RF

* For good conductors,

& are independent of freq.

* For most dialectics,

& are function of freq.

is relatively constant over frequency range of interest

Therefore dielectric constant

16

dissipation factor D

if D is small, dissipation factor is practically as the power factor of the dielectric.

PF = sin
= tan-1D
PF & D difference by <1% when their values are less than 0.15.
Example 11.1
a) Express

E y 100 cos 2 108 t 0.5 z 300 v / m as a phasor

E y Re 100 e j 2 10

t 0.5 z 300

Drop Re and suppress ejwt term to get phasor

Therefore phasor form of Eys = 100e 0.5 z 30

Whereas Ey is real, Eys is in general complex.

Note: 0.5z is in radians; 300 in degrees.
Example 11.2
Given
r
20 500 ay
40 2100 az
,V / m
Es 100 300 ax

find its time varying form representation

r
Let us rewrite Es as

r
0
0
0
20e j 50 ay
40e j 210 az
.V / m
Es 100e j 30 ax
r%
E Re Es e j t
j t 300
j t 500
j t 2100

Re 100e
20e
40e
V /m

r%
E 100 cos t 300 20 cos t 500 40 cos t 2100 V / m
None of the amplitudes or phase angles in this are expressed as a function of x,y or z.
Even if so, the procedure is still effective.
b) Consider

17


A/ m
H s 20e
ax
r%
0.1 j 20 z

H t Re 20e
ax
e j t

A/ m
20e 0.1z cos t 20 z ax
0.1 j 20 z

E x E x x, y , z
Note :

consider

Ex

Re E x x, y , z
t
t
Re j Ex e j t

e j t

Therefore taking the partial derivative of any field quantity wrt time is equivalent to multiplying
the corresponding phasor by j .

Example
Given

r
200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x V / m
E0 s 500 400 ay

Find a
r
b E at 2, 3,1 at t 0
r
c E at 2, 3,1 at t 10 ns.
r
d E at 3, 4, 2 at t 20 ns.
a) From given data,

0.4 0 0

0.4 3 108
4 10

10 9

36 9

120 106

f 19.1 106 Hz
b) Given,

18

r
200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x
Es 500 400 ay
0

632.456e j 71.565 e j 0.4 x az

500e j 40 e j 0.4 x ay
500e

j 0.4 x 400

j 0.4 x 71.565
ay
632.456e

az
0

r
j 0.4 x 400
j 0.4 x 71.5650
632.456 e j t e

E t 500 Re e j t e
ay
az

632.456 cos t 0.4 x 71.565 az

500 cos t 0.4 x 400 ay

r
632.456 0.4 x 71.565 az

E at 2,3,1 t 0 500 cos 0.4 x 400 ay

291.076 az
V /m
36.297 ay
c)

r
E at t 10 ns at 2, 3,1

500 cos 120 106 10 109 0.4 2 400 ay

632.456 cos 120 106 10 109 0.4 2 71.5650 az

417.473 az
V /m
477.823 ay

d)
at t = 20 ns,

r
E at 2, 3,1
631.644 az
V /m
438.736 ay

D 11.2:

r
0
320 ay
e j 0.07 z
Given H s 2 40 ax
(a)

A / m for a UPW traveling in free space. Find

r
(b) Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31 ns.
(c) H at t=0 at the origin.

(a) we have p = 0.07

(e j z term)

0.07

0.07
0.07 3 108 21.0 106 rad / sec

21.0 106 rad / sec

19

(b)

r
0
0
3 e j 20 e j 0.07 z ay

H t Re 2 e j 40 e j 0.07 z ax

e jt

3 cos t 0.07 z 20 0 ay

2 cos t 0.07 z 400 ax

H x (t ) 2 cos t 0.07 z 400

H x (t ) at p 1, 2, 3

2 cos 2.1106 t 0.21 400

At t 31n sec; 2 cos 2.1 106 3110 9 0.21 40 0

2 cos 65110 3 0.21 400
1.9333

A/ m

(c)

r
3cos 0.7 z 0.35 ay

H t at t 0 2 cos 0.07 z 0.7 ax

r
3cos 0.3 ay

H t 2 cos 0.7 ax
2.82ay

1.53ax
3.20666

A/ m

In free space,

E z , t 120 sin t z ay
find

V /m

z, t
Ey

we have

Hx

120

Ey

Hx

120

sin t z ay
120

120
1

sin t z

r
H

z, t

sin t z ax

Problem 3. J&B
Non uniform plans waves also can exist under special conditions. Show that the function

F e z sin

x t

satisfies the wave equation 2 F

1 2 F
c 2 t 2
20

provided the wave velocity is given by

2 c 2
e 1

Ans:
From the given eqn. for F, we note that F is a function of x and z,

2F
2F
F

x 2
y 2
F

e z
cos x t
x

2
F

2 e z

z
e
F
x t
sin
2
x 2

e z sin
x t
z

2 F

2 z

e
sin
x t 2 F
2
z

2
F 2 2 F

dF
e z
dt

cos

x t

d 2F

e z
sin x t
2
dt

2
F
The given wave equation is

21

1 2F
c 2 t 2
2
1
2 F 2

c

2 F

F
2

2
2
2 2

c
2
2

2 2 2
c

2
2
2
2
2

2c 2

2c 2 2

c2
1

2c2
2

or
1

2c 2
2

Example
The electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air has a magnitude of 754 V/m and is
in the z direction. If the wave has a wave length = 2m and propagating in the y direction.
Find
(i)
(ii)

Frequency and when the field has the form A cos t z .

r
Find an expression for H .

In air or free space,

c 3 108 m / sec

(i)

3 108
f

m / sec 1.5 108 Hz 150MHz

2m
2
2

3.14 rad / m

2m
Ez 754 cos 2 150 10 6 t y
e

22

(ii)
For a wave propagating in the +y direction,

E
Ez
x
Hz
Hz
For the given wave,

Ez 754 V / m;

Ex 0

754
754
H x 754

A/ m
120 377
r

H 2 cos 2 150 106 t y ax

A/ m

Example
find for copper having = 5.8*107 (/m) at 50Hz, 3MHz, 30GHz.

1
f

1
1
1
1

7
7
4 10
5.8 10
f

1
1

2
4 5.8 f

1
66 10 3

23.2 2 f
f

66 103
(i )
9.3459 10 3 m
50
66 10 3
(ii )
3.8105 10 5 m
6
3 10
66 103
(iii )
3.8105 10 7 m
6
3 10

23

THE UNIFORM PLANE WAVE:

Topics dealt:

Principles of EM wave propagation

Physical process determining the speed of em waves; extent to which attenuation may
occur.

1.

Energy flow in EM waves; power carried by em waves. Pointing theorem.

Wave polarization.
Wave propagation in free space

We have the generalized Maxwells equations.

Point form

Integral form

Differential form

Macroscopic form

Microscopic form

r
r
r D
H J
t
r
r
B
E
t
r
gD v
r
gB 0

r
r r
r r D r

H gdL s J s t gds
r
r r
B r

L E gdL s t gds
r r
D

gdS enc v dv
S

r r
B

gdS 0

vol

r
In free space 0 ( source less v 0 J ) these equations become

24

r
r
E
H 0
t
r
r
H
E 0
t
r
r
g
D 0 gE
r
r
g
B 0 g
H

r
r E r
s
gds ( I )

t
L
r
r r
H r

L E gdL s 0 t gds ( II )
r r
r r
D
g
dS

gdS 0( III )
r r
H

gdL

r r
B

gdS
S

r
gJ 0

r
r
H
g
dS
0( IV )

r r
J

gdS 0 continuityequ. (V )
S

The Constituent equations, in free space, are,

r
r
D 0 E ___________________(VI )
r
r
B 0 H ___________________(VII )
r
r
J E
Concept of wave motion:
r
Eqn (1) states that if the electric field E changes with time, at some point, this change produces
r
a rotating curling magnetic field at that point; H varying spatially in a direction normal to its
r
r
orientation. Further, if E changes with time, in general, so does H although not necessarily in
the same way.

r
r
r
Next, from eqn. (2), we note that a time varying H generates a rotating E , ( curl E ), and this
r
r
E varies spatially in a direction normal to its orientation. Because H varies with time, so does
r
E but need not be in the same way therefore we once again have a time changing electric field

25

( our original hypothesis from (1) ), but this field is present a small distance away from the point
of original disturbance. The velocity with which the effect moves away from the original point is
the velocity of light as we are going to see later.

Let us rewrite the point form of Maxwells equations in ( source free ) free space
r

J 0 :
r
r
r& D
H D
________(1)
t
r
r
r&
B
E B
______(2)
t
r
gD 0 _______(3)
r
gB 0 _______(4)
Taking curl on both sides of equation ( 1 ), we get

r
r
r
D
r
r
H

E Q D

E
;
t
t
r
r
r
r

H
;
H E
t

and and are independent of time.

But from ( 2 ),

r
r
r

B
&
E B
______(2)
t
Next we take curl on both sides of eqn (2) and get

26

r
r
r
H

E

H
t
t
But
r
r
r
D
E
H

______(1)
t
t
r
r
2E
E
t 2
But
r
r
r
E E 2 E
r
2
r
r

E
E 2 E
t 2
But
r
gE 0
we
get
r
r
2E
2
E
_________(6)
t 2
Equations (5) and (6) are known as Wave Equations.
r
r
r r
The first condition on either E or H is that it must satisfy the wave equation ( Although E & H
r
r
obey the same law E H ).

Wave Propagation:
r
r
Consider the special case where E and H are independent of two dimensions, say x and y.
Then we get

r
r
r
r
2
2
2
2
r
E E E
E
2 E

x 2
y 2
z 2
x 2

27

Therefore eqn. (6) becomes

r
2
r

E
2 E
z 2

( E independent of x & y ) ______ (7)

r
This is a set of 3 scalar equations, one for each of the scalar components of E .
Let us consider one of them, the Ey component for which the wave equation (6) is :

2 Ey
z 2

2 Ey
t 2

__________ 7( a )

This is a 2nd order PDE having a standard solution of the form

E y f1 Z 0t f 2 Z 0t ________(8)
Here

0 0

f1,f2 : any functions of x 0t and x 0t respectively.

Examples of such functions are
A cos x 0t

c eh x 0 t
x 0 t

etc.,

All these equations represent a wave.

The Wave motion :

If a physical phenomenon that occurs at one place at a given time is reproduced at later time, the
time delay being proportional to the space separation from the fixed location, then the group of
phenomena constitutes a wave. ( A wave not necessarily be a repetitive phenomenon in time)

28

The functions f1 x 0t and f2 x 0t describe such a wave mathematically. Here the wave
varies in space as a function of only one dimension.

f1 x 0t1

t = t1
Z

f1 x 0 t 2

t = t2
Z

v0 (t2 t1 )
Figure shows the function f

x 0t

at two different instances of time t

and t2 . f1 becomes a function

of z

only since t gets fixed here. f1 x 0t at t = t1 is shown in figure above as

f1 z 0t1 . At another time t2 ( t2 > t2 ) we get another function of z namely f1 z 0t2 . This is
nothing but time shifted version of

f1 z 0t1

, shifted

along + z axis by a distance z

= 0 t2 t1 .

This means that the function f1 x 0t has traveled along + z axis with a velocity 0 . This is
called a traveling wave.
On the other hand f 2 z 0t represents a wave traveling along z axis with a velocity 0 and
is called a reflected wave, as we shall further seen in the next semester, in the topic transmission
line.
This shows that the wave equation has two solutions ( as expected, since the wave eqn. is a
second order PDE ) a traveling wave ( or forward wave ) along + z direction represented by
f1 z 0t and the other a reverse traveling wave ( reflected wave ) along z axis. If there is no
reflecting surface, the second term of eqn. (8) is zero, resulting is
E = f1 z 0t _________(9)
29

Remember that eqn. (9) is a solution of the wave equation and is only for the particular case
r
where the electric field E is independent of x and y directions; and is a function of z and t only.
Such a wave is called also the equation does not indicate the specific shape of the wave
(amplitude variation) and hence is applicable to any arbitrary waveform.

UNIFORM PLANE WAVES:

In free space ( source-less regions where

r
J 0 ), the gauss law is

r
r
r
gD 0 g E gE 0 or
r
gD 0 ________ (1)

30

The wave equation for electric field, in free-space is,

r
2
r

E
2 E 2 ________ (2)
t

The wave equation (2) is a composition of these equations, one each component wise,
ie,

2 Ex
2 Ey

_______(2) a
x 2
t 2
2 Ey
2 Ey

_______(2) b
y 2
t 2
2 Ez
2 Ez

_______(2) c
z 2
t 2
Further, eqn. (1) may be written as

Ex Ey Ez

0 ________ (1) a
x
y
z
r
For the UPW, E is independent of two coordinate axes; x and y axes, as we have assumed.

0
x
y

Therefore eqn. (1) reduces to

E z
0 ______ (3)
z
ie., there is no variation of Ez in the z direction.
Also we find from 2 (a) that

2 Ez
t 2

= 0 ____(4)

These two conditions (3) and (4) require that Ez can be

(iv)

Zero

(v)

Constant in time or

(vi)

Increasing uniformly with time.

A field satisfying the last two of the above three conditions cannot be a part of wave motion.
Therefore Ez can be put equal to zero, (the first condition).
Ez = 0

r
r
The uniform plane wave (traveling in z direction) does not have any field components of E & H
in its direction of travel.
31

r
r
Therefore the UPWs are transverse., having field components (of E & H ) only in directions
perpendicular to the direction of propagation does not have any field component only the
direction of travel.
r
r
RELATION BETWEEN E & H in a uniform plane wave.

r
r
We have, from our previous discussions that, for a UPW traveling in z direction, both E & H
r
r
are independent of x and y; and E & H have no z component. For such a UPW, we have,

j
i
k
r
E y

x
E

E
( 0)
( 0)
i
j
_____ (5)
x
y
z

z
Ex
Ey Ez ( 0)
j
i
k
r
H y

x
H

H
( 0)
( 0)
i
j
_____ (6)
x
y
z

z
Hx
Hy Hz ( 0)
Then Maxwells curl equations (1) and (2), using (5) and (6), (2) becomes,

r
r
E
Ex
Ey Hy
Hx

H

i
ji

______ (7)
t
t
t

and
r
r
H
Hx
Hy Ey
Ex

E

i
ji

j
______ (8)
t
t
t

Thus, rewriting (7) and (8) we get

Hy Hx
i
j
z
z

Ey Ex
i
j
z
z

Ex Ey
i
t
t

j ______ (7)

Hx Hy

i
j ______ (8)

32

Equating i th and j th terms, we get

Hy
Ex

z
t
Hx
Ey

z
t
Ey
Hx

i
z
t
and

Ex
z
Let

______ 9 ( a )
______ 9 (b)
______ 9(c )

Hy
t

______ 9 ( d )

Ey f1 z 0t ;

Then,

Ey
f1 z 0t 0 . 0 f1 .
t
From eqn. 9(c ), we get ,

Hx
0 f
t

Hx

'

'
1

f1' dz c.

Now
z 0t
f1'
f1'
f1'
z
z

f1
Hz

33

Now
z 0t
f1'
f1'
f1'
z
z

f1

dz c
z

Hx

f1 c

Ey c

The constant C indicates that a field independent of Z could be present. Evidently this is not a
part of the wave motion and hence is reflected.
Thus the relation between HX and EY becomes,

Hx

Ey
Hx

Ey

__________ (10)

Similarly it can be shown that

Ex

Hy

_____________ (11)

r
In our UPW, E Ex i E y j

34

r
r
r

E
2 E E
t
t
r
r
2
r

E
2 E
2 _______ ( xi )
t
t
r
But gE
0
r
E

DERIVATION OF WAVE EQUATION FOR A CONDUCTING MEDIUM:

35

In a conducting medium, = 0, = 0. Surface charges and hence surface currents exist, static
fields or charges do not exist.
For the case of conduction media, the point form of maxwells equations are:

r
r
r
r D
r
E
H J
E
________ (i )
t
t
r
r
r
B
H
E

_________ (ii )
t
t
r
r
r
gD g
E gE 0 _________ (iii )
r
r
r
gB g H gH 0 _________ (iv )

Taking curl on both sides of equation (i ), we get

r
r
r

E
H E
t

r
r

E
E ________ (v )
t
substituting eqn. (ii ) in eqn. (v ), we get
r
r
r

H
2 H
H
_________ (vi )

2

r
r
r
But
H gH 2 H _________ (vii )

eqn. (vi ) becomes

r
r
2
r
r
H
H
gH 2 H

_________ (viii )
t
t 2
r
r
r
B
1
1
But gH g
gB g0 0

eqn. (viii ) becomes ,

r
r
2
r

H
2 H

0 ________ (ix )
t
t 2
r
This is the wave equation for the magnetic field H in a conducting medium.
36

Next we consider the second Maxwells curl equation (ii)

r
r
H
E
________ (ii )
t

Taking curl on both sides of equation (ii) we get

r
r

H
r
H
E

t
t
r
r
r
But E gE 2 E ;

________ ( x )

Vector identity and substituting eqn. (1) in eqn (2), we get

r
r
r
r

E
gE 2 E
E
t
t
r
r
E
2 E

_______ ( xi )
t
t 2
r

But gE
0

(Point form of Gauss law) However, in a conductor, = 0, since there is no net charge within a
conductor,
Therefore we get

r
gE 0

Therefore eqn. (xi) becomes,

r
r
2
r
E
E
2 E

t
t 2

____________ (xii)

r
This is the wave equation for electric field E in a conducting medium.

Wave equations for a conducting medium:

37

Regions where conductivity is non-zero.

Conduction currents may exist.

For such regions, for time varying fields

The Maxwells eqn. Are:

r
r
r
E
H J
_________ (1)
t
r
r
H
E
__________ (2)
t
r
r
J E
: Conductivity ( / m)
= conduction current density.

Therefore eqn. (1) becomes,

r
r
r
E
H E
_________ (3)
t

Taking curl of both sides of eqn. (2), we get

r
r

E
H
t
r
r
2 E
E


________ (4)
t 2
t
But
r
r
r
E gE 2 E (vector identity )

u sin g this eqn. (4) becomes vector identity ,

r
r
r
r
E
2E
2
gE E

_______ (5)
t
t 2
r
But gD
r
r
1
Q is cons tan t , gE
gD

Since there is no net charge within a conductor the charge density is zero ( there can be charge on
the surface ), we get.

r
r
1
gE gD 0

Therefore using this result in eqn. (5)

we get
38

r
r
r
E
2 E
E
2 0 ________(6)
t
t
2

r
This is the wave eqn. For the electric field E in a conducting medium.
r
r
This is the wave eqn. for E . The wave eqn. for H is obtained in a similar manner.
Taking curl of both sides of (1), we get

r
r
r
E
H
E ________ (7)
t
r
r
H
But E
________ (2)
t
(1) becomes,
r
r
r
2 H
H
H

________ (8)
t 2
t
As before, we make use of the vector identity.

r
r
H gH

r
H

in eqn. (8) and get

r
r
r
r
H
2 H
2
gH H
2 ________ (9)
t
t
But
r
r
r 1
B 1
gH g gB g0 0

eqn.(9)becomes
r
r
2
r

H
2 gH
2 ________ (10)
t
t

r
This is the wave eqn. for H in a conducting medium.
Sinusoidal Time Variations:

In practice, most generators produce voltage and currents and hence electric and magnetic fields
which vary sinusoidally with time. Further, any periodic variation can be represented as a weight
sum of fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
Therefore we consider fields having sinusoidal time variations, for example,
E = Em cos t
E = Em sin t
Here, w = 2f, f = frequency of the variation.
39

Therefore every field or field component varies sinusoidally, mathematically by an additional

r
term. Representing sinusoidal variation. For example, the electric field E can be represented as

r
E x, y , z , t as
r
r
%r
ie., E r , t ; r x, y , z

r
Where E%is the time varying field.
The time varying electric field can be equivalently represented, in terms of corresponding phasor
r
quantity E%(r) as

r% r
r
E r , t Re E r e j t ________ (11)

r
The symbol tilda placed above the E vector represents that E is time varying quantity.
The phasor notation:
We consider only one component at a time, say Ex.
The phasor Ex is defined by
% rr , t R E r e j t ________ (12)
E
x
e
x

r
r
Ex r denotes Ex as a function of space (x,y,z). In general Ex r is complex and hence can be
represented as a point in a complex and hence can be represented as a point in a complex plane.
(see fig) Multiplication by e jwt results in a rotation through an angle wt measured from the angle
. At t increases, the point Ex e jwt traces out a circle with center at the origin. Its projection on
the real axis varies sinusoidally with time & we get the time-harmonically varying electric field
% (varying sinusoidally with time). We note that the phase of the sinusoid is determined by ,
Ex
the argument of the complex number Ex.
Therefore the time varying quantity may be expressed as
j
E%
e jt ________ (13)
x Re E x e

Ex cos( t ) ________ (14)

40

Maxwells eqn. in phasor notation:

In time harmonic form, the Maxwells first curl eqn. is:
r%
r% r% D
H J
_______ (15)
t
using phasor notation, this eqn. becomes,

r
r
r

Re He j t Re De j t R e Je j t ________ (16)
t

The diff. Operator & Re part operator may be interchanged to get,

r
r
r j t
Re He j t Re
De
Re Je j t
t

r
r
Re j D e j t R e Je j t

r
r
r
Re H j D J e j t 0

This relation is valid for all t. Thus we get

r
r
r
H J j D ________ (17)

This phasor form can be obtained from time-varying form by replacing each time derivative by

jw ie.,

is to be replaced by
t

For the sinusoidal time variations, the Maxwells equation may be expressed in phasor form as:

(17)

r
r
r
H J j D

r r
H

gdL
L

r
r
J j D gds

(18)

r
r
E j B

r r
r r
E
g
dl

B
gds

(19)

r
gD

r r
D

gds

(20)

r
gB 0

r r
B

gds 0

dV

The continuity eqn., contained within these is,

r
gJ j

r r
J

gds j dv _______ (21)

S

vol

The constitutive eqn. retain their forms:

41

r
r
D E
r
r
B H
r
r
J E

____ (22)

For sinusoidal time variations, the wave equations become

r
r
2
2

r
r
2 H 2 H

( for electric field )

( for electric field )

_________ (23)

Vector Helmholtz eqn.

In a conducting medium, these become

r
r
2 E 2 j E 0
________ (24)
r
r
2 H 2 j H 0

Wave propagation in a loss less medium:

In phasor form, the wave eqn. for VPW is

r
r
2 E
2
2 Ey

2
;
2 E y _______ (25)
x

2
r
x

2 E

E y C1

e j x C2 e j x _______ (26)

C1 & C2 are arbitrary constants.

The corresponding time varying field is
j t

E%
y x, t Re E y x e
Re C1 e j t z C2 e j t z ______ (27)
C1 cos t z C2 cos t z ______ (28)

When C1 and C2 are real.

Therefore we note that, in a homogeneous, lossless medium, the assumption of sinusoidal time
variations results in a space variation which is also sinusoidal.
Eqn. (27) and (28) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2 , the two traveling waves combine to form a simple standing wave which does not
progress.
If we rewrite eqn. (28) with Ey as a fn of (x-t),
we get =

Let us identify some point in the waveform and observe its velocity; this point is t x a
constant
42

Then

dx

dt

' a ' t

This velocity is called phase velocity, the velocity of a phase point in the wave.
is called the phase shift constant of the wave.

Wavelength: These distance over which the sinusoidal waveform passes through a full cycle of
2 radians
ie.,

2
2

or

But

or

f ;

f in H Z
1

Wave propagation in a conducting medium

We have,
43

r
r
2 E 2 E 0

Where

2 j
j j

is called the propagation constant is, in general, complex.

Therefore, = + j
= Attenuation constant
= phase shift constant.
The eqn. for UPW of electric field strength is
r
r
2 E
2E
2
x
One possible solution is
r
E x E0 e x
Therefore in time varying form, we get
r%
E x, t Re E e x e j t
e x Re E0e jwt
This eqn. shown that a up wave traveling in the +x direction and attenuated by a factor e x .
The phase shift factor

and velocity f

= Real part of = RP

j j t

2 2

2
1 2 2 1

Conductors and dielectrics:

44

We have the phasor form of the 1st Maxwells curl eqn.

r
r
r
H E j E J c J disp
r
where J c E conduction current density ( A/m2 )
r
J disp j E displacement current density ( A/m2 )

J cond

J disp

We can choose a demarcation between dielectrics and conductors;

1 is conductor.

Cu: 3.5*108 @ 30 GHz

1 is dielectric.

Mica: 0.0002 @ audio and RF

* For good conductors,

& are independent of freq.

* For most dialectics,

& are function of freq.

is relatively constant over frequency range of interest

Therefore dielectric constant

*

dissipation factor D

if D is small, dissipation factor is practically as the power factor of the dielectric.

PF = sin
= tan-1D
PF & D difference by <1% when their values are less than 0.15.

45

c) Express

E y 100 cos 2 108 t 0.5 z 300 v / m as a phasor

E y Re 100 e j 2 10

t 0.5 z 300

Drop Re and suppress ejwt term to get phasor

Therefore phasor form of Eys = 100e 0.5 z 30

Whereas Ey is real, Eys is in general complex.

Note: 0.5z is in radians; 300 in degrees.
d) Given
r
20 500 ay
40 2100 az
,V / m
Es 100 300 ax

find its time varying form representation

r
Let us rewrite Es as

r
0
0
0
20e j 50 ay
40e j 210 az
.V / m
Es 100e j 30 ax
r%
E Re Es e j t
j t 300
j t 500
j t 2100
Re 100e
20e
40e
V /m

r%
E 100 cos t 300 20 cos t 500 40 cos t 2100 V / m
None of the amplitudes or phase angles in this are expressed as a function of x,y or z.
Even if so, the procedure is still effective.
e) Consider

A/ m
H s 20e
ax
r%
0.1 j 20 z

H t Re 20e
ax
e j t

A/ m
20e 0.1z cos t 20 z ax
0.1 j 20 z

E x E x x, y , z
Note :

consider

Ex

Re E x x, y , z
t
t
Re j Ex e j t

e j t

Therefore taking the partial derivative of any field quantity wrt time is equivalent to multiplying
the corresponding phasor by j .

46

Next, the wave equation in free space is:

r
r
2 E
E
t 2
2 k0 2
2

k0

r
r
2 Es 2
E s 2 Es
r
r
r
r
2 Es
2 Es
2 Es
2

k
E
0
s
x 2
y 2
z 2
for E x component ,
2 Esx
2 Esx
2 Esx

k0 2 E xs
2
2
2
x
y
z
For a UPW traveling along z axis,
We get

2 Esx
k0 2 E xs
2
x
One solution:

E xs Ex 0 e jk0 z

E x

Ex

z , t E x 0 cos t k0 z

z , t E x 0 cos t k 0 z

These two are called the real instantaneous forms of the electric field.

0 0

1
3 108

k0 0
Ex

0 0

3 108 c

e
z , t E x 0 cos t z / c

We can visualize wave propagation by putting t-0

z
E x 0 cos z E x 0 cos k0 z
e

Ex z , 0 Ex 0 cos

This is a simple periodic fn that repeats every incremental distance , known as wavelength. The
requirement is that k0 = 2

47

ie., x

2
c
3 108

in f ree space
k0
f
f

Given

r
200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x V / m
E0 s 500 400 ay

Find a
r
b E at 2, 3,1 at t 0
r
c E at 2, 3,1 at t 10 ns.
r
d E at 3, 4, 2 at t 20 ns.
c) From given data,

0.4 0 0
0.4 3 108

4 10

10 9

36 9

120 106

f 19.1 106 Hz
d) Given,

r
200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x
Es 500 400 ay
0

632.456e j 71.565 e j 0.4 x az

500e j 40 e j 0.4 x ay
500e

j 0.4 x 400

j 0.4 x 71.565
ay
632.456e

az
0

r
j 0.4 x 400
j 0.4 x 71.5650
632.456 e j t e

E t 500 Re e j t e
ay
az

632.456 cos t 0.4 x 71.565 az

500 cos t 0.4 x 400 ay

r
632.456 0.4 x 71.565 az

E at 2,3,1 t 0 500 cos 0.4 x 400 ay

291.076 az
V /m
36.297 ay
c)

48

r
E at t 10 ns at 2, 3,1

500 cos 120 106 10 109 0.4 2 400 ay

632.456 cos 120 106 10 109 0.4 2 71.5650 az

417.473 az
V /m
477.823 ay

d)
at t = 20 ns,

r
E at 2, 3,1
631.644 az
V /m
438.736 ay

D 11.2:

r
0
320 ay
e j 0.07 z
Given H s 2 40 ax
(a)

A / m for a UPW traveling in free space. Find

r
(b) Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31 ns.
(c) H at t=0 at the origin.

(a) we have p = 0.07

(e j z term)

0.07

0.07
0.07 3 108 21.0 106 rad / sec

21.0 106 rad / sec

(b)

49

r
0
0
3 e j 20 e j 0.07 z ay

H t Re 2 e j 40 e j 0.07 z ax

e jt

3 cos t 0.07 z 20 0 ay

2 cos t 0.07 z 400 ax

H x (t ) 2 cos t 0.07 z 400

H x (t ) at p 1, 2, 3

2 cos 2.1106 t 0.21 400

At t 31n sec; 2 cos 2.1 106 3110 9 0.21 40 0

2 cos 65110 3 0.21 400
1.9333

A/ m

(c)

r
3cos 0.7 z 0.35 ay

H t at t 0 2 cos 0.07 z 0.7 ax

r
3cos 0.3 ay

H t 2 cos 0.7 ax
2.82ay

1.53ax
3.20666

A/ m

In free space,

E z , t 120 sin t z ay
find

V /m

z, t
Ey

we have

Hx

120

Ey

Hx

120

sin t z ay
120

120
1

sin t z

r
H

z, t

sin t z ax

Problem 3. J&B
Non uniform plans waves also can exist under special conditions. Show that the function

F e z sin

x t

satisfies the wave equation 2 F

1 2 F
c 2 t 2

provided the wave velocity is given by

50

 2 c 2
e 1

Ans:
From the given eqn. for F, we note that F is a function of x and z,

2F
2F
F

x 2
y 2
F

e z
cos x t
x

2 F

2 e z

z
e
F
x t
sin
x 2

2

F

e z sin
x t
z

2 F

2 z

e
sin
x t 2 F
2
z

2
2 F 2 2 F

dF

e z cos x t
dt

d 2F

e z
sin x t
2
dt

2 F
The given wave equation is

51

1 2F
c 2 t 2
2
1
2 F 2

c

2 F

F
2

2
2
2 2

c
2
2

2 2 2
c

2
2
2
2
2

2c 2

2c 2 2

c2
1

2c2
2

or
1

2c 2
2

The electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air has a magnitude of 754 V/m and is
in the z direction. If the wave has a wave length = 2m and propagating in the y direction.
Find
(iii)
(iv)

Frequency and when the field has the form A cos t z .

r
Find an expression for H .

In air or free space,

c 3 108 m / sec

(i)

3 108
f

m / sec 1.5 108 Hz 150MHz

2m
2
2

3.14 rad / m

2m
Ez 754 cos 2 150 10 6 t y
e

(ii)
52

For a wave propagating in the +y direction,

E
Ez
x
Hz
Hz
For the given wave,

Ez 754 V / m;

Ex 0

754
754
H x 754

A/ m
120 377
r

H 2 cos 2 150 106 t y ax

A/ m

find for copper having = 5.8*107 (/m) at 50Hz, 3MHz, 30GHz.

1
f

1
1
1
1

4 107 5.8 107 f

1
1

4 2 5.8 f

1
66 10 3

23.2 2 f
f

66 103
(i )
9.3459 10 3 m
50
66 10 3
(ii )
3.8105 10 5 m
3 106
66 103
(iii )
3.8105 10 7 m
3 106

Wave Propagation in a loss less medium:

Definition of uniform plane wave in Phasor form:
In phasor form, the uniform plane wave is defined as one for which the equiphase surface is
also an equiamplitude surface, it is a uniform plane wave.
For a uniform plane wave having no variations in x and y directions, the wave equation in
phasor form may be expressed as

r
r
2 E
2

E
Z 2

0r

r
r
2E
2

E
________ (i )
Z 2
53

where . Let us consider eqn.(i) for, the Ey component, we get

2 Ey
Z

2 Ey

E y has a solution of the form,

E y C1e j z C2e j z ________ (2)

Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary complex constants. The corresponding time varying form of
E y is

E%
y z , t Re E y z
Re C1

e j t

e j z C2

e j z e jt _______ (3)

If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,

E y z, t C1 cos t z C2 cos t z _______ (4)

From (3) we note that, in a homogeneous lossless medium, sinusoidal time variation results
in space variations which is also sinusoidal.
Equations (3) and (4) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2, the two wave combine to form a standing wave which does not progress.
Phase velocity and wavelength:
The wave velocity can easily obtained when we rewrite E y as a function and z t , as in
eqn. (4). This shows that

________(5)

In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing its
velocity may obtain the same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction, this point is
given by t z a constant.

dz

, as in eqn. (5)
dt

This velocity of some point on the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase velocity. is
called the phase-shift constant and is a measure of phase shift in radians per unit length.
Wavelength: Wavelength is defined as that distance over which the sinusoidal waveform
passes through a full cycle of 2 radius.
ie.,
54

 2
2
2
2

;
2 f f
f ,

f in Hz

1
________(7)

________(8)

For the value of given in eqn. (1), the phase velocity is,

0 C

0 _______(9)

C 3 108 m / sec

Wave propagation in conducting medium:

The wave eqn. written in the form of Helmholtz eqn. is

r
r
2 E 2 E 0 _______(10)
where

2 2 j j j _______(11)

, the propagation constant is complex = + j _________(12)

r
We have, for the uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field E must
satisfy

r
r
2 E
2 E _______(13)
2
Z

This equation has a possible solution

r
E Z E0 e Z _______(14)

In time varying form this is becomes

r%
E z , t Re E0
= e

Re E0

e Z

e j t _______(15)

e j t z ________(16)

This is the equation of a wave traveling in the +Z direction and attenuated by a factor e Z .
The phase shift factor and the wavelength phase, velocity, as in the lossless case, are given by

The propagation constant

We have,

j j ________(11)
55

 2 j 2 2 j 2 j 2 ________(17)
2

2 2 2 ; 2 2 2 ________(18)

________(19)
2
Therefore (19) in (18) gives:

4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 0

4 2 2
2

2 2 2
4

2 4 2 2 2 2 2
2

2 2
2 2 1

2 2
1 1 2 2

2
1 _________(20)
2 2

and

2
1 ___________(21)
2 2

We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The value of
the wave ie., the cosine is an integer multiple of 2 at erest.
k0 z 2m

at mth erest.

Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time variation at this
position, nothing that the entire cosine argument is the same multiple of 2 for all time in
order to keep track of the point.
ie.,

t k0 0 z 2m t z / c

Thus at t increases, position z must also increase to satisfy eqn. ( ). Thus the wave erest (and
the entire wave moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by the above eqn.
56

Similarly, eqn. ( ) having a cosine argument t 0 z describes a wave that moves in the
negative direction (as + increases z must decrease to keep the argument constant). These two
waves are called the traveling waves.
Let us further consider only +ve z traveling wave:
We have

0
x
Ex

0
y
Ey

z
0

r
r
Es j H s
E y

Ex
i
k0 j iH 0 x j by
j
z
z

Exs

j H 0 y
z
0
1
H oy
E z 0 e jk0 z E x 0
e j0 z
j
0

H y z, t Ex 0
Ex

Hy

cos t 0 z

0 377 120

Ey and Hx are in phase in time and space. The UPW is called so because is uniform thought
any plane Z = constant.
Energy flow is in +Z direction.
E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that is
transverse to the direction of propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.

r
and
direction is 250 V/m. If E = Ex ax
11.1. The electric field amplitude of a UPW in the az
r
= 1m rad/sec, find (i) f (ii) (iii) period (iv) amplitude of H .
57


2 f
106
f

159.155 KHz
2
2
2
C
1.88495 km
f
1
period
6.283 s
f
E
amplitude of H y x 120
Hy

Hy

Ex
250

0.6631 A / m
120
120

r
0
3200 ay
e j 0.07 z A / m for a certain UPW traveling in free
11.2. Given H s 2 40 ax
space.

r
Find (i), (ii)Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31ns and (iii) H at t = 0 at the orign.

Wave propagation in dielectrics:

For an isotopic and homogeneous medium, the wave equation becomes

r
2 Es k 2 s
k

k0

r r 0

r r

For Ex component
We have

d 2 Exs
k 2 Exs
2
dz

for Ex comp. Of electric field wave traveling in Z direction.

k can be complex one of the solutions of this eqn. is,

58

jk j
E xs Ex 0 e z e j z
Therefore its time varying part becomes,

Exs Ex 0 e z cos t z
This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase constant but losing its amplitude
z
with increasing Z e . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k is to yield a traveling

wave that changes its amplitude with distance.

If is +ve

= attenuation coefficient if is +ve wave decays

If is -ve

= gain coefficient

In passive media, is +ve

wave grows
is measured in repers per meter

In amplifiers (lasers) is ve.

Wave propagation in a conducting medium for medium for time-harmonic fields:
(Fields with sinusoidal time variations)
For sinusoidal time variations, the electric field for lossless medium ( = 0) becomes

r
r
2
E E
2

In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:

r
r
2 E 2 j E 0

Problem:
Using Maxwells eqn. (1) show that
r
.D 0 in a conductor
if ohms law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohms law and sinusoidal time
variations are assumed, the first Maxwells curl equation is
r
r
r
H E j E
Taking divergence on both sides, we get,

59

r
r
r
H gE j gE 0
r
gE j 0
r

or gD
j 0

, & are

constants and of finite values and 0

r
gD 0

Wave propagation in free space:

The Maxwells equation in free space, ie., source free medium are,
r
r
E r
H 0
H _________(1)
t
r
r
H
E
_________(2)
t
r
gD 0 _________(3)
r
gB 0 _________(4)
60

Note that wave motion can be inferred from the above equation.
How? Let us see,

r
Eqn. (1) states that if electric field E is changing with time at some, point then magnetic field
r
r
H has a curl at that point; thus H varies spatially in a direction normal to its orientation
r
r
direction. Further, if E varies with time, then H will, in general, also change with time;
although not necessarily in the same way.
Next

r
r
From (2) we note that a time varying H generates E ; this electric field, having a curl,
therefore varies spatially in a direction normal to its orientation direction.
We thus have once more a time changing electric field, our original hypothesis, but this field is
present a small distance away from the point of the original disturbance.
The velocity with which the effect has moved away from the original disturbance is the
velocity of light as we are going to prove later.
UNIFORM PLANE WAVE:

r
r
Uniform plane wave is defined as a wave in which (1) both fields E and H lie in the
r
transverse plane. Ie., the plane whose normal is the direction of propagation; and (2) both E
r
and H are of constant magnitude in the transverse plane.
Therefore we call such a wave as transverse electro magnetic wave or TEM wave.
r
r
The spatial variation of both E and H fields in the direction normal to their orientation (travel)
ie., in the direction normal to the transverse plane.

Differentiating eqn. (7) with respect to Z1 we get

r
2 Ex
Hy
2H
0
________(9)

0
Z 2
Z t
t Z

Differentiating (8) with respect to t1 we get

61

 2 Ex
2 H
0
_________(10)
t Z
t 2
Therefore substituting (10) into (9) gives,

2 Ex
2 Ex
0 0
_________(11)
t 2
t 2
This eqn.(11) is the wave equation for the x-polarized TEM electric field in free space.
The constant

1
is the velocity of the wave in free space, denoted c and has a value
0 0

3 108 m / sec , on substituting the values, 0 4 10 7 H / m and 0

10 9
.
36

Differentiating (10) with respect to Z and differentiating (9) with respect to t and following the
similar procedure as above, we get

2 H y
Z 2

0 0

2H y
t 2

_________(13)

eqn. (11 and (13) are the second order partial differential eqn. and have solution of the form, for
instance,

Ex Z , t f1 t Z / f 2 t Z / ________(14)
r
(ie., the electric field is polarized (!) in the x- direction !) traveling along Z
Let E Ex ax
r
direction. Therefore variations of E occurs only in Z direction.
Form (2) in this case, we get

a x
r
E
0
x
Ex

a y

a z

0
y
0

z
0

r
r
Ex
H
H

j 0
0
j _________(5)
z
t
t

r
r
Note that the direction of the electric field E determines the direction of H , we is now along the
y direction.

r
r
Therefore in a UPW, E and H are mutually orthogonal. (ie., perpendicular to each other). This
in a UPW .
r
r
(i) E and H are perpendicular to each other (mutually orthogonal and
r
r
(ii) E and H are also perpendicular to the direction of travel.
Form eqn. (1), for the UPW, we get
62

r
r
H y
Ex
E
0

H
ax
t0
ax
Z
t
t
(using the mutually orthogonal property) _______________(6)
Therefore we have obtained so far,

H y
E x
0
________(7)
Z
t
H y
E x
0
________(8)
Z
t
f1 and f2 can be any functions who se argument is of the form t Z / .
The first term on RHS represents a forward propagating wave ie., a wave traveling along positive
Z direction.
The second term on RHS represents a reverse propagating wave ie., a wave traveling along
negative Z direction.
(Real instantaneous form and phaser forms).
The expression for Ex (z,t) can be of the form

Ex z , t E x z , t E 1x z , t

t Z / p 2
Ex 0 cos t Z / p 1 E1x 0 cos

Ex 0 cos t k0 z 1 E1x 0 cos t k0 z 2 _______ 15

p is called the phase velocity = c in free space k 0 is called the wave number in free space =

rad/m _________(16)
eqn. (15) is the real instantaneous forms of the electric (field) wave. ( experimentally
measurable)
0t and k0z have the units of angle usually in radians.
: radian time frequency, phase shift per unit time in rad/sec.
k0 : spatial frequency, phase shift per unit distance in rad/m.
k0 is the phase constant for lossless propagation.
Wavelength in free space is the distance over which the spatial phase shifts by 2 radians, (time
fixed)
ie.,

63

k0 z k0 2
or

2
k0

(in free space) _________(17)

Let us consider some point, for instance, the crest or trough or zero crossing (either ve to +ve or
+ve to ve). Having chosen such a reference, say the crest, on the forward-propagating cosine
function, ie., the function cos t k0 z 1 . For a erest to occur, the argument of the cosine
must be an integer multiple of 2. Consider the mth erest of the wave from our reference point,
the condition becomes,
K0z = 2m, m an integer.
This point on the cosine wave we have chosen, let us see what happens as time increases.
The entire cosine argument must have the same multiple of 2 for all times, in order to keep
track of the chosen point.
Therefore we get,

t k0 z t Z / 2m _______(18)

As time increases, the position Z must also increase to satisfy (18). The wave erest, and the entire
wave, moves in the positive Z-direction with a phase velocity C (in free space).
Using the same reasoning, the second term on the RHS of eqn. (15) having the cosine argument

t k0 z

represents a wave propagating in the Z direction, with a phase velocity C, since as

time t increases, Z must decrease to keep the argument constant.

POLARISATION:
It shows the time varying behavior of the electric field strength vector at some point in space.
64

r
r
Consider of a UPW traveling along Z direction with E%and H%vectors lying in the x-y plane.

% 0 and only Ex
% is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the x-direction.
If Ey

% is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the y-direction.

% = 0 and only Ey
If Ex
r
Therefore the direction of E is the direction of polarization
% are present and are in phase, then the resultant electric field Er has a
% and Ey
If both Ex

%.
% and Ey
direction that depends on the relative magnitudes of Ex
The angle which this resultant direction makes with the x axis is tan-1

%
Ey
; and this angle will be
%
Ex

constant with time.

(a) Linear polarization:
In all the above three cases, the direction of the resultant vector is constant with time and the
wave is said to be linearly polarized.
% are not in phase ie., they reach their maxima at different instances of time, then
% and Ey
If Ex
the direction of the resultant electric vector will vary with time. In this case it can be shown that
r
the locus of the end point of the resultant E% will be an ellipse and the wave is said to be
elliptically polarized.
% have equal magnitudes and a 900 phase difference, the
% and Ey
In the particular case where Ex
r
locus of the resultant E%is a circle and the wave is circularly polarized.
Linear Polarisation:
Consider the phasor form of the electric field of a UPW traveling in the Z-direction:
r
E

Z E0 e j z

Its time varying or instanious time form is

r
%
E Z , t Re E0e j z e j t
The wave is traveling in Z-direction.
r
r
Therefore Ez lies in the x-y plane. In general, E0 is a complex vector ie., a vector whose
components are complex numbers.
r
Therefore we can write E0 as,

r
r
r
E0 Er jE0i

r
r
Where E0 and E0i are real vectors having, in general, different directions.
At some point in space, (say z = 0) the resultant time varying electric field is
65

r%
r
r
E 0, t Re E0 r j E0 i e j t
r
r
E0 r cos t E0 i sin t

r
Therefore E not only changes its magnitude but also changes its direction as time varies.
Circular Polarisation:
Here the x and y components of the electric field vector are equal in magnitude.
If Ey leads Ex by 900 and Ex and Ey have the same amplitudes,
r
j ay
E0
Ie., Ex E y , we have, E% ax
The corresponding time varying version is,

r%
r
cos t ay
sin t E0
E 0, t ax
Ex E0 cos t
and E y E0 sin t
Ex2 E y2 E02
r
E0 as time progresses.
Which shows that the end point of E%
0 0, t traces a circle of radius
Therefore the wave is said to the circularly polarized. Further we see that the sense or direction
of rotation is that of a left handed screw advancing in the Z-direction ( ie., in the direction of
propagation). Then this wave is said to be left circularly polarized.
Similar remarks hold for a right-circularly polarized wave represented by the complex vector,
r%
j ay
E0
E ax
It is apparent that a reversal of the sense of rotation may be obtained by a 180 0 phase shift
applied either to the x component of the electric field.
Elliptical Polarisation:

%
Here x and y components of the electric field differ in amplitudes E%
x Ey .
Assume that Ey leads Ex by 900.
Then,
A j ay
B
E0 ax
Where A and B are +ve real constants.

Its time varying form is

66

r%
cos t ayB
sin t
E 0, t axA
E%
x A cos t
E% B sin t
y

E%
x2
A2

E%
y2
B2

r
Thus the end point of the E% 0, t vector traces out an ellipse and the wave is elliptically
polarized; the sense of polarization is left-handed.
Elliptical polarization is a more general form of polarization. The polarization is completely
specified by the orientation and axial ratio of the polarization ellipse and by the sense in which
the end point of the electric field moves around the ellipse.

REFLECTION AND REFARACTION OF PLANE WAVES

67

REFLECTION BY A PERFECT CONDUCTOR:

NORMAL INCIDENCE:
When an em wave traveling in one medium impinges upon a second medium having a different
, or , then the wave will be partially transmitted, and partially reflected.
When a plane wave in air is incident normally on the surface of a perfect conductor the wave is
r
r
for fields that vary with time, neither E nor H can exist within a conductor., therefore no
energy of the incident wave is transmitted.
As there can be no loss within a perfect conductor; therefore none of the energy is obsorbed.
r
r
Therefore, the amplitudes of E and H in the reflected wave are the same as in the incident
wave; the only difference is in the direction of power flow.
j x
Let Ei e
________(1) be the incident wave.

Let the boundary, the surface of the perfect conductor be at x = 0.

j x
The reflected wave is Er e __________(2)

Er must be determined from the boundary conditions.

With respect to,
(i)
(ii)

Etan is continuous across the boundary

r
E is zero within the conductor.

Therefore at the boundary, ie., at x = 0, the electric field is zero. This requires that, the sum of the
electric field strengths in the initial and reflected waves add to give zero resultant field strength
in the plane x = 0.
Er Ei _______(3)
The amplitude of the reflected electric field strength is equal to that of the incident electric field
strength but its phase has been reversed on reflection.
The resultant electric field strength at any point at any point a distance x from the x = 0 plane is
the sum of the field strengths of the incident and reflected wave at that point, given by

ET x Ei e j x Er e j x

2 jEi e j x e j x

2 jEi sin x _______ 4

Its time varying version is

68

r% r
ET x , t Re 2 jEi sin x e j t

2 Ei sin x sin t , if Ei real _______ 5

1. Eqn. (3) shows that (1) the incident and reflected waves combine to produce a standing
wave, which does not progress.
2. The magnitude of the electric field varies sinusoidally with distance from the reflecting
plane.
3. It is zero at the surface and at multiples of half wave lengths from the surface.
4. It has a maximum value of twice the electric field strength of the incident wave at
distances from the surface that are odd multiples of a quarter wavelength.
In as much as the BCs require that the electric field is reversed in phase on reflection to produce
zero resultant field at the boundary surface.
r
Therefore if follows that H must be reflected without phase reversal. (otherwise if both are
reversed, on reversal of direction of energy propagation), which is required in this case).
Therefore the phase of the mag field strength is the same as that of the incident mag field
strength Hi at the surface of reflection.

HT x H i e j x H r e j x

2H i e j x e j x

2 H i cos x _______ 6
Hi is real since it is in phase with Ei
Further,

j t
H%

T x, t Re H T x e

2 H i cos x cos t ______ 7

The resultant magnetic field strength H also has a standing was distribution. This SWD has
maximum value at the surface of the conductor and at multiples of a half from the surface,
where as the zero points occur at odd multiples of a quarter wavelength from the surface. From
the boundary conditions for H its follows that there must be a surface current of Js amperes per
such that JS = HT (at x = 0).
Since Ei and Hi were in phase in the incident plane wave, eqns. (6) and (7) show that E T and HT
are 90 0out of time phase because of the factor j in eqn. (4).
This is as it should be, for it indicates no average flow of power. This is the case when the energy
transmitted in the forward direction is equaled by that reflected back.
Let us rewrite eqns. (4) and (6)
69

ET x, t Re 2 Ei sin x e j / 2 e j t 2 Ei sin x cos t / 2 _______ 8

H T x, t 2 H i cos x cos t _______ 9

Eqns. (8) and (9) show that ET and HT differ in time phase by 900.

REFLECTION BY A PERFECT CONDUCTOR OBLIQUE INCIDENCE:

TWO SPACIAL CASES:
1. Horizontal Polarisation: (also called perpendicular polarization) Here the electric field
vector is parallel to the boundary surface, or perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
( Transverse electric TE)
2. Vertical Polarisation: (also called parallel polarization) Here the magnetic field vector is
parallel to the boundary surface, and the electric field vector is parallel to the plane of
incidence. (Transverse magnetic TM)
TE or TM are used to indicate that the electric or magnetic vector respectively is parallel to the
boundary surface/plane.
When a wave is incident on a perfect conductor, the wave is totally reflected with the angle of
incidence equal to the angle of reflection.
Case 1: E perpendicular to the plane of incidence: (perpendicular Polarisation)
The incident and reflected waves have equal wavelengths and opposite directions along the Z
axis, the incident and reflected waves form a standing wave distribution pattern along this axis.
In the y direction, both the incident and reflected waves progress to the right (+y direction) with
the same velocity and wavelength and so there will be a traveling wave along the +y direction.
The expression for reflected wave, using the above fig, is

Erefelected Er e
and Eincident Ei e
E Ei e

j y sin z cos

j y sin z cos

j y sin z cos

j y y

______ 9

j y sin z cos

2 jEi sin z cos e j y sin

2 jEi sin z z e

______ 8

_______ 10

From the BCs we have,

Er = - Ei

Therefore total electric field strength E is given by

70

Erefelected Er e

and Eincident Ei e

j y sin z cos

j y sin z cos

______ 8
______ 9

E Ei e
e
2 jEi sin z cos e j y sin
j y sin z cos

2 jEi sin z z e

j y y

j y sin z cos

_______ 10

Where,

Phase shift constant of the incident wave,

z cos = Phase shift constant in the Z direction.

y sin = Phase shift constant in the y direction.

2
2

: wavelength: distance twice between modal points of the

cos cos

standing wave distribution.

The planes of zero electric field strength occur at multiples of

z
from the reflecting surface.
2

The planes of max electric field strength occurs at odd multiples of

z
from the surface.
4

The whole standing wave distribution of electric field strength is seen from eqn. (10) above to be
traveling in the y direction with a velocity,

y sin sin

This is the velocity with which a erest of the incident wave moves along the y axis. The
wavelength in this direction is,

sin

Case 2: E parallel to the plane of incidence: (parallel polarization)

Here, Ei and Er will have the instantaneous directions shown above, because the components
parallel to the perfectly conducting boundary must be equal and opposite.
r
The magnetic field strength vector H will be reflected without phase reversal.
71

r
r
The magnitudes of E and H are related by

Ei
E
r
Hi H r
For the incident wave, the wave expression for the magnetic field strength would be

H incident H i e

j y sin z cos

and for the reflected wave,

H reflected H r e

j y sin z cos

Therefore Hi = Hr
The total magnetic field H is,

H 2 H i cos z z e

j y y

where

z cos
y sin

and

The magnetic field strength has a standing wave distribution in the Z-direction with the planes of
maximum H located at the conducting surface and at multiples of

planes of zero magnetic field strength occur at odd multiples of

z
from the surface. The
2

z
from the surface.
4

For the incident wave,

Ei H i , Ez sin H i ; E y cos H i
For the reflected wave,

H r H i , E z sin H r ; E y cos H r
The total z component of the electric field strength is,

Ex 2 sin

H i cos z z e

j y y

The total y component of the electric field strength is,

E y 2 j cos

H i sin z z e

j y y

Both Ey and Ez have a standing wave distribution above the reflecting surface. However, for the
r
normal or z components of E , the maxima occur at the plane and multiples of z
from the
2
72

r
plane, whereas for the component E parallel to the reflecting surface the minima occur at the
plane and at multiples of z

from the plane.

REFLECTION BY PERFECT DIELECTRICS

Normal incidence:
In this case part of the energy is transmitted and part of the energy is reflected.
Perfect dielectric: = 0. no absorption or loss of power in propagation through the dielectric.
Boundary is parallel to the x = 0 plane.
Plane wave traveling in +x direction is incident on it.

Ei 1 H r
We have,

Er 1 H r
Et 2 H t

r
r
BC: Tang comp. Of E or H is continuous across the boundary.
ie.,

Hi H r H z
Ei Er Et
Hi Hr

1
1
Ei Er H z Ei Er
1
2

2 Ei Er 1 Ei Er
Ei 2 1 Er 2 1

Er 2 1

Ei 2 1

Also,

Et
E Er
E
21
i
1 r
c
Ei
Ei 1 2

Further ,

Hr
E
2
r 1
Ht
E 1 2
H t 1 Et
21

H i 2 Ei 1 2

73

The permeabilities of all known insulators do not differ appreciably from that of free space, so
that,

1 2

0 / 2
0 / 2

Er

Ei

0 / 1

0 / 1

1 2
1 2

2 1

Et

Ei

1 2

Hr

Hi
Ht

Hi

2 1
2 1
2 2
1 2

REFLECTION BY PERFECT DIELECTRIC:

OBLIQUE INCIDENCE:
1. There is a transmitted wave, reflected wave and the incident wave.
2. The transmitted wave is refracted 9direction of propagation is altered)

1 ______ vel. Of wave in medium (1)

2 ______ vel. Of wave in medium (2)

Then from figure, we get

CB 1

AD 2
Now CB = AB sin1 and AD = AB sin2.

sin 1 1

sin 2 2

2 2
1 1

2
1

In addition,
AE = CB
sin1 = sin3
or 1= 3
The power transmitted =

E2

E and H are perpendicular to each other.

74

Incident power striking AB

Reflected power leaving AB

The power transmitted =

1
1

E12 cos 1

E22 cos 1

Et2 cos 2 .

Therefore by conservation of energy we get

Et2 cos 1

Et2 cos 1

Et2 cos 2

Er2
1 Et2 cos 2

Et2
2 Ei2 cos 1
1

2
1

Et2 cos 2
Ei2 cos 1

Case 1:
Perpendicular polarization (HP):

( E is perpendicular to the plane of incidence parallel to the reflecting surface)

Let Ei propagate along +x direction, so as the direction of Er and Et.
According to BCs. Etan and Htan are continuous. Across the boundary.
Ei E r Et

Et
E
1 r
Ei
Ei

But we have,
2 Et2 cos 2
E r2

2
E i2
1 E i cos 1
E r2
2
E
1 r
1
2
1
Ei
Ei

E2
2
E
1 r
1 r2
1
Ei
Ei

cos 2
cos 1
2

cos 2
cos 1

Er
2
E
1 r

Ei
1
Ei

1 cos 1 2 cos 2
Er

Ei
1 cos 1 2 cos 2

cos 2
cos 1

But we have,
75

sin 1
2

sin 2
1

2 cos 2 2 1 sin 2 2 2 1 sin 2 1

1 cos 1 2 1 sin 2 1
Er

Ei
1 cos 1 2 1 sin 2 1
cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

This equation gives the ratio of the reflected to incident electric field strength for the case of a
perpendicular polarized wave.
.
Case II:
Parallel Polarisation:

Here E is parallel to the plane of incidence.

is parallel to the reflecting surface.

The BCs on tangential components give

Htan = Etan is continuous across the boundary.
Therefore this BC when applied, we get

Ei Er cos 1 Et cos 2

Et
E cos 1
1 r
Ei
Ei cos 2

But we already have

76

2 Et2 cos 2
E r2

2
Ei2
1 Ei cos 1

2
E r2
E r2 cos 2 2 cos 2

Ei2
Ei2 cos 2 1 cos 1
1

E r2
2
2
Ei
1

Er
2
Ei
1

Er
Ei

E r2 cos 1

Ei2 cos 2
Er
Ei

cos 1

cos 2

2 cos 1
cos 1
2
1

1 cos 2
1 cos 2

cos 1 1 cos 2
cos 1 1 1 sin 2 2
Er
2
2
Ei
2 cos 1 1 cos 2
2 cos 1 1 1 sin 2 2

But from Snells law we get sin 2 2 1 / 2 sin 2 1

Therefore we get
Er

Ei

/ 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

/ 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

This equation gives the reflection coefficient for parallel or vertical polarization, ie., the ratio of

reflected to incident electric field strength when E is parallel to the plane of incidence.

BRESNSTER ANGLE:
We have
77

Er

Ei

/ 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

/ 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

When Nr = 0, Er = 0.
Therefore no reflection at all.
Therefore for zero reflection condition, we have,
2

cos 1 2 sin 2 1
1
1
22

cos 2 1 2 sin 2 1
2
1
1
22 22 2

2 sin 1 2 sin 2 1
2
1
1 1
22 22 sin 2 1 12 12 sin 2 1

2
1

22 sin 2 1 2 1 2

1 2 1 2 sin 2 1 2 1 2
sin 2 1

2
1 2

cos 2 1

1
1 2

tan 1

2
1

At this angle, which is called the Bresoster angle, there is no reflected wave when the incident
wave is parallel (or vertically) polarized. If the incident wave is not entirely parallel polarized,
there will he some reflection, but the reflected wave is entirely of perpendicular (or horizontal)
polarization.

Note:1
For perpendicular paolarisation, we have
E
Ei

cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1

putting

N r 0, we get

cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
cos 2 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
or 2 1

78

ie., there is no corresponding Bresvster angle for this polarization.

Note 2:
For parallel polarization,
We can show that

E r tan 1 2

Ei tan 1 2
and for perpendicular polarization, we can show that,

E r sin 2 1

Ei sin 2 1
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:
If 1 2 , then, both the reflection coefficients given by equations,
Er

Ei

cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

2
cos 1
sin 2 1
1

( perpendicular polarization )

and
Er

Ei

2 / 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

2 / 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

( parallel polarization )

become complex numbers when, sin 1

2
1

a jb

and thus have a unit magnitude. In other words, the

Both coefficients take the form
a jb

reflection is total provided that 1 is great enough and also provided that medium (1) is denser
than medium. (2) but total reflection does not imply that there is no field in medium (2). In
medium (2), the fields have the form, e j 2 y sin 2 Z cos 2
Snells law gives the y variation as, e j 2 y

1 /2

And the Z variation as,

79

e j 2 Z cos 2 e

j 2 Z 1sin 2 2

e
e

j 2 Z j

sin 2 1 1

2 Z 1 sin 2 1 1
2

In the above expression, the lower sign must be chosen such that the fields decrease
exponentially as Z becomes increasingly negative.
ie.,

cos 2 j 1 sin 2 1 1
2

j 1
2

sin 2 1

2
2

Therefore under the condition of TIR, a field does exist in the rarer medium. However, this field
has a phase progression along the boundary and decreases exponentially away from it. If is thus
the example of a non-uniform plane wave.
The phase velocity along the interface is given by ,
2

1
sin 1
2

Which, under the conditions of TIR is less than the phase velocity

of a UPW in medium (2).

2

Consequently, the non-uniform plane wave in medium (2) is a slow wave. Also, since some kind
of a surface between two media is necessary to support this wave, it is called a surface wave.

Maxwells Equations
In static electric and magnetic fields, the Maxwells equations obtained so far are:
Differential form

E 0

Controlling principle

Integral form

(1)

(2)

H J

E dL 0

Potential around a closed path is zero

D dS dv

Gausss Law

Amperes Circuital Law

(3)
H dL J dS

Non-existence of isolated magnetic poles B dS 0

(4)
80

Contained in the above equations is the equation of continuity for steady currents,

J 0

J dS 0

(5)

Modification of Maxwells equations for the case of time varying fields

E 0 ; E dL 0 ; ---First Modification of the first Maxwells equation

(1)
To discuss magnetic induction and energy, it is necessary to include time-varying fields, but
only to the extent of introducing the Faradays law.
Faradays law states that the voltage around a closed path can be generated by

a time changing magnetic flux through a fixed path ( transformer action)

by a time-varying path in a steady magnetic field (electric generator action)

or

Faradays law: The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the negative of
the time rate of change of magnetic flux enclosed by the path.

E dL

B dS
t S

In our study of electromagnetics, interest centers on the relation between the time
changing electric and magnetic fields and a fixed path of integration.
For this case the Faradays law reduces to,

E dL

t B d S
S

The partial derivative w.r.t time indicates that only variations of magnetic flux through a fixed
closed path or a fixed region in space are being considered.

Thus, for time varying fields, equation (1) gets modified to

B
E
t

E dL
S

B
dS
t

(6)

Second Modification: Modification of the Continuity equation for time varying fields:
Current is charges in motion. The total current flowing out of some volume must be equal to the rate of decrease of charge within the volume
[charge cannot be created or destroyed- law of conservation of charges]. This concept is needed in order for understanding why current flows
between the capacitor plates. The explanation is that the current flow is accompanied by charge build up on the plates. In the form of equation,
the law of conservation of charge is

J dS

d
dv
dt

If the region of integration is stationary, this relation becomes,

J
dS

dv
t

----

(7)
Applying divergence theorem to this equation, we get,

J
)dv

t dv
81

If this relation is to hold for any arbitrary volume, then, it must be true that,

J
t

----

(8

)
This is the time-varying form of the equation of continuity that replaces equation (5).
Third Modification: Modification of the Maxwells equation for the Amperes Law:
Taking the divergence of
equation
(3) we get the equation of continuity as,

(Divergence of curl is zero- vector identity).

H J 0
Thus Amperes law is inconsistent with the time varying fields for which the equation of

continuity is J

. To resolve this inconsistency, James Clerk Maxwell in the mid

t

1860s suggested modification of the Amperes law to include the validity for time varying
fields also; He suggested substitution of Gausss law (2) into the equation of continuity (8)
giving,
But we know that

J
.
t

D .

Therefore we get ,

time and space differentiation.

D
J
0
t

Therefore

or

( D)

D
(J
)0
t

D

, on interchanging the
t

----- (9)

This equation may be put into integral form by integrating over a volume and then applying
the divergence theorem:

D
(J t ) dS 0

------ (10)

D
) may be regarded as a total current density for
Equations 9 and 10 suggest that ( J
t

D
time varying fields. Since D is the displacement density,
is known as the
t

displacement current density.

Consider now a capacitor connected to an ac source as shown in figure.

I

When applied as shown in figure to a surface enclosing one plate of a two-plate capacitor,
equation ( 10 ) shows that during charge or discharge, the conduction current in the wire
attached to the plates is equal to the displacement current passing between the plates.
82

Maxwell reasoned that the total current density should replace J in Amperes law with the
result that

D
H J
t

----- (11)

Taking the divergence of this equation gives equation (9) and thus the inconsistency has
been removed. Note that the Equation (11) has not been derived from the preceding
equations but rather suggested by them. Therefore when Maxwell proposed it, it was a
postulate whose validity had to be established by experiment.
Integrating equation (11) over a surface and application of Stokes theorem gives the
integral form of the equation:

H dL

D
(
J

) dS

---- (12)

This equation states that the mmf around a closed path is equal to the total current
enclosed by the path. Thus equations 11 and 12 replace the static form of Amperes law
(3).
Maxwells equations:
In summary, the Maxwells equations are as follows:
Differential form

H D J

Controlling principle

Integral form

Amperes Circuital Law

(I)

E B

(II)

Potential around a closed path is zero E dL B dS

D dS dv

Gausss Law

(III)

H dL D J d S

Non-existence of isolated magnetic poles B dS 0

(IV)

Contained in the above equations is the equation of continuity,

J
t

J dS

dv
t

In all the cases the region of integration is assumed to be stationary.

WORD STATEMENT FORM OF FIELD EQUATIONS:

The word statements of the field equations may readily be obtained from the integral form of
the Maxwells equations:
83

I.

The mmf around a closed path is equal to the conduction current

plus the time derivative of the electric displacement through any surface
bounded by the path.
II.
The emf around a closed path is equal to the time derivative of the
magnetic displacement through any surface bounded by the path.
III.
The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a
volume is equal to the total charge within the volume.
IV.
The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.

Alternate way of stating the first two equations:

1. The magnetic voltage around a closed path is equal to the electric current
through the path.

2. The electric voltage around a closed path is equal to the magnetic current
through the path
Boundary Conditions using Maxwells equations:
The integral form of Maxwells equations can be used to determine what happens at the
boundary surface between two different media.( Find out why not the differential form?)
The boundary conditions for the electric and magnetic fields at any surface of discontinuity
are:
1.

The tangential component of E is continuous at the surface. i.e., it is the same just outside
the
surface as it is at the inside the surface.

2.

The tangential component of H is discontinuous across the surface except at the

surface of a perfect conductor. At the surface of a perfect conductor, the tangential
component of H is discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface current per unit
width.

3.
4.

The normal component of B is continuous at the surface of discontinuity.

The normal component of D is continuous if there is no surface charge density.
Otherwise D is discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface charge density.
y

Proof:

X
Ex1

1, 1 , 1
( medium 1)

x/2

x/2
Ex2

2, 2, 2
( medium 2)

84

EY1

EY2

Ex3

Ex4
X

Fig 2 A boundary between two media

Let the surface of discontinuity be the plane x=0 as shown in fig 2.

Conditions on the tangential components of E and H

1. Condition for Etan at the surface of the boundary:
Consider a small rectangle of width x and length y enclosing a small portion of each media
(1) and (2).
The integral form of the second Maxwell equation ( II ) is,

E
dL

B dS
S

For the elemental rectangle of fig 2, we apply this equation and get
E y2 y E x2

x
x
x
x
x y
E x1
E y1 y E x3
E x4
B
z
2
2
2
2

----(13)

where Bz is the average magnetic flux density through the rectangle x y . Now, as this area of
the rectangle is made to approach to zero, always keeping the surface of discontinuity between
the sides of the triangle. If Bz is finite, then as x o, the RHS of equation 13 will approach
zero. If E is also assumed to be finite everywhere, then, x/2 terms of the LHS of equation 13
will reduce to zero, leaving
for x = 0.

Ey2 y

Ey1 y = 0

Therefore

Ey2 =
That is, the tangential component of E is continuous.

Ey1

2. Condition for Htan at the surface of the boundary:

Now the integral form of the first Maxwells equation ( I ) is

H dL

(D J) dS
S

For the elemental rectangle this equation becomes,

85

H y2 y H x2

x
x
x
x

H x1
H y1 y H x3
H x4
(D z J z ) x y
2
2
2
2

----(14)

and the current density J are both considered to

If the rate of change of electric displacement D
be finite, then, as before, equation (14) reduces to
Hy2 y - Hy1 y = 0
for x = 0. Therefore

Hy2

Hy1

That is, the tangential component of H is continuous (for finite current densities i.e., for any
actual case).
In case of a perfect conductor: A perfect
conductor has infinite conductivity. In such a
conductor, the electric field strength E is zero for any finite current density. However, the actual
conductivity may be very large and for many practical applications, it is useful to assume it to be
infinite. Such an approximation will lead to difficulties because of indeterminacy in formulating
the boundary conditions unless care is taken in setting them up. The depth of penetration of an ac
field into a conductor decreases as the conductivity increases. Thus in a good conductor a hf
current will flow in a thin sheet near the surface, the depth of the sheet approaching zero as the
conductivity approaches infinity. This gives to the useful concept of a current sheet. In a current
sheet a finite current per unit width, J z amperes per meter flows in a sheet of vanishingly small
depth x, but with the required infinitely large current density J, such that
limx 0, Jx = Jz
Now consider again the above example the mmf around the small rectangle. If the current
density Jz becomes infinite as x0, the RHS of equation 14 will not become zero. Let Jz
amperes per metre be the actual current per unit width flowing along the surface. Then as x0,
equation 14 for H becomes,
Hy2 y

Hy1 y = Jsz y.

Hence
Hy1 = Hy2 - Jsz

---- (15)

Now if the electric field is zero inside a perfect conductor, the magnetic field must also be zero,
for alternating fields, as the second Maxwells equation shows. Then, in equation 15, Hy2 must be
zero.
So,
Hy1 =

- Jsz

----(16)

This equation states that the current per unit width along the surface of a perfect conductor is
equal to the magnetic field strength H just outside the conductor. The magnetic field and the
surface current will be parallel to the surface, but perpendicular to each other. In vector notation,
this is written as,

H
n

where n is the unit vector along the outward normal to the surface.

Conditions on the normal component of B and D

86

3.Condition on the normal component of D (Dnor):

The integral form of the third Maxwells equation is

D dS

dV

----( III )

vol

Consider the pill-box structure shown in fig 3. Applying the third Maxwells equation to this pillbox structure, we get
D n1 dS D n2 dS edge x dS
----(17)
DN1
dS
1 1 1

2 2 2
DN2

Fig 3 A pill-box volume enclosing a portion of a boundary surface

In this expression, dS is the area of each of the flat surfaces of the pillbox, x is their separation,
and is the average charge density within the volume x dS. edge is the outward electric flux
through the curved edge surface of the pillbox. As x 0, that is, as the flat surfaces of the
pillbox are squeezed together, always keeping the boundary surface between them, edge 0, for
finite values of displacement density. Also, for finite values of average density , the RHS of
equation (17) reduces to
D n1 dS D n2 dS

for x = 0.Then for the case of no surface charge condition on the normal components of D
Dn1 = Dn2

---- (18)

That is, if there is no surface charge, the normal component of D is continuous across the
surface.
In the case of a metallic surface: In the case of a metallic surface, the charge is considered to
reside on the surface. If this layer of surface charge has a surface charge density S Coulombs
per square meter, the charge density of the surface layer is given by
S
C/m 3
x
where x is the thickness of the surface layer. As x approaches zero, the charge density
approaches infinity in such a manner that

87

lim x 0 x

Then in fig 3, if the surface charge is always kept between the two flat surfaces as the seperation
between them is decreased, the RHS of equation (17) approaches S dS as x approaches zero.
Equation 17 then reduces to
D n1 D n2 S
----( 19 )
When there is a surface charge density S, the normal component of displacement density is
discontinuous across the surface by the amount of the surface charge density.
For any metallic conductor the displacement density, D = E within the conductor will be a
small quantity( it will be zero in the electrostatic case, or in the case of a perfect conductor).
Then if the medium (2) is a metallic conductor, Dn2 = 0 ; and the equation (19) becomes
Dn1 = S
----(20)
The normal component of the displacement density in the dielectric is equal to the surface
charge density on the conductor.
4 Condition on the normal component of B (Bnor):
The integral form of the fourth Maxwells equation is

B
dS

----( IV )

The pill-box structure is again shown in fig 4 for magnetic flux density. Applying the fourth
Maxwells equation to this pill-box structure, we get
B n1 dS B n2 dS edge 0

----(21)

BN1
dS

1 1 1
X
2 2 2
BN2

Fig 4 A pill-box volume enclosing a portion of a boundary surface

In this expression, dS is the area of each of the flat surfaces of the pillbox, x is their separation,
and is the average charge density within the volume x dS. edge is the outward electric flux
through the curved edge surface of the pillbox. As x 0, that is, as the flat surfaces of the
pillbox are squeezed together, always keeping the boundary surface between them, edge 0, for
finite values of magnetic flux density. The RHS of equation (21) reduces to
B n1dS B n2 dS

for x = 0.Then the condition on the normal components of B

magnetic charges,
Bn1 = Bn2

since there are no isolated

---- (22)

88

i.e., The normal component of magnetic flux density is always continuous across the
boundary.

http://www.ece.mcmaster.ca/faculty/nikolova/EM_downloads/LectureNotes/

89

90