PREFACE Ever since the discovery of quantum mechanics, this field of science has not only been central in answering fundamental questions in physics, but has served to fur- ther our ability to design and exploit physical phenomena for applications. With advances in material synthesis aud device processing capabilities, the importance of quantum mechanics in applied disciplines, such as material science, electrical en- gineering and of course applied physics, has dramatically increased over the last couple of decades. The applied scientist can no longer just work wilh simplistic phenomenological equations, but must understand a more fundamental origin of the phenomena. Devices such as Josephson junctions, semiconductor lasers and tran- isturs cannot be understood in terms of simple classical concepts. Yet the applied scientist must design and exploit such devices for the information age As the need for quantum mechanics in applied areas has increased, so has there been an increasing demand for quantum mechanics texts and courses to be more relevant. ‘There is a need for texts which deal with real applications — ones which do not derive their results in units of A 1. The students yearn for dorivations that end in a discussion of applications with a healthy feel for numbers. Such a demand is not just present in engineering departments and applied physies departments — it is also present in physics departments. As pure physics courses try to make themselves more in touch with the world of applications, there is a need for texts that provide such a connection without sacrificing discussions of the fundamental concepts. In my interactions with students from departments of physics, applied physics, materials science and electrical engineering, I have gotten the that quantum mechanics texts and courses end their topics just a step short of what the students want. This step is one which connects the rigorous mathematical deriva- tions to problems of relevance. Of course, the problems of relevance vary depending upon what the student's interests are. In this text I have attempted to provide a book that does not cut comers in its discussion of the basic concepts of quantum mechanics, but yet makes a serious overture to bridge the gap between mathemati- cal derivations and real-life modern applications. This connection between rigorous theory and applications is not always made is great detail. Too much detail would take the reader too far from the real goal of the text — quantum mechanics. The connection is made to such a degree that the reader can see the path to be taken in order to extend the quantum theory to solve real problems. By making this con- nection not only is the monotony of often very dry mathematies broken, but the portance and relevance of quantunn mech. reader is able ( appreciate the today’s technology. It is my hope that the book can serve not only graduate students in the departments of material science, applied physics and clectrical engineering, but also xviixviii PREFACE in the physics departments, There is indeed a growing voice in the physics depart- ments to provide the students a good grasp of real-life complex problems in addition to the usual rigorous mathematics-oriented grounding. In applied departments, on the other hand, researchers and students are finding it necessary to understand quantum concepts in depth since an increasingly larger fraction of modern mate- rials and devices relies on quantum mechanics. With the increasing importance of interdisciplinary work between these departments, students need a good grasp of both the fundamental physics and applications. T hope this text fulfills such a need. Iam extremely grateful to Greg Franklin, my editor, for his support and encouragement. He was able to get valuable input from a number of referees whose comments were most useful Tam grateful to Professor Arthur Gossard and Mr Mason Thomas of the University of California at Santa Barbara, Professor Supriyo Datta of Purdue University and Dr. Michael Stroscio of the U.S. Army Research Office for their invaluable comments ‘The figures, typing, cover design and formatting of this book were done by ‘Teresa Singh, my wife. She also provided the support without which this book would not be possible Jasprit Singh ‘Ann ArborINTRODUCTION QUANTUM MECHANICS AND TECHNOLOGY This text has been written for students interested in applications of physics in technology. These students are interested in understanding and developing new ma terials and exploiting their physical properties to design devices. Apart from the intellectual curiosity that quantum mechanics satisfies, a big reason that such stu- dents take a quantum mechanies course ia that it provides them a powerful tool in their applications-oriented studies. Is quantum mechanics really that necessary in modern technology? Often one hears the statement: “Classical mechanics is ade- quate for describing things you can see. Quantum mechanics is only needed for tiny particles — things you cannot see or feel.” While there is a grain of truth in this statement, a more accurate statement could be: “Classical mechanics is adequate if you wish to understand some superficial aspects of the universe. However, if you want a more fundamental understanding, you need to know quantum mechanics.” Let us explore the need for quantum mechanics by visiting a typical factory where microprocessors are fabricated. Do the cirenit designers who sit in front of the workstations all day laying out devices and interconnects need quantum mechanics? Most of them would say no. Do the folks clad in “bunny suits” carrying out the etching and deposition on the silicon wafer need quantum mechanics? No, not for their job. In fact, almost no one at this factory may be using quantum mechanics at his or her job. However, if you asked the workers why they were using silicon, how a transistor worked. how the etchants and the photoresists worked, they would not be able to give a meaningful answer without involving quantum mechanics. In fact, on a fundamental level, one needs quantum mechanics to appreciate how nature operates. It is just that for many applications we take the fundamental understanding as a starting point. For example, most electrical engineers use Ohm’s law where I is the current flowing in a resistor with resistance FR when a voltage V is applied across the resistance. However, if one were to ask the question why one {gets this linear resistance and where the resistance comes from, one needs to invoke quantum ueclavies In this text we will develop an understanding of quantum mechanics that allows us to understand and predict physical phenomena that is of importance to applied scientists. xixxx INTRODUCTION MATERIALS + Semiconductors and their heterostructures: Essentially all “intelligent” information processing devices are based on semiconductors. + Polymers: These materials are used in a wide range of applications as “plastics.” ‘There is a growing importance of these materials for applications in light-emitting displays, optical processing, switches, etc. + Metals: The high conductivity of these materials allows them to be used as contacts and interconnects. Their ductility allows them to be cast into different shapes. * Dielectrics/insulators: Materials with very high resistivity are used for electric isolation, Materials are very hard and can be used as protective coatings. "Glass" is a common dielectric used for optical applications. ‘+ Liquid crystals: These materials are used for a varioty of applications, such as in flat panel displays and sensors. * Ceramics: These materials are exploited for packaging and optical image processing, + Magnetic materials: Memory devices are based on these materials. These materials are also finding use in medical diagnostics. * Biological materials: Next-generation computers? Key Issues: How can new materials with tallorable properties be ‘synthesized and exploited? Figure 1: Important issues in material technologies for the information age. This list is by no means complete, Some Technology Needs and Challenges Most applied scientists work in the area of materials and/or devices. ‘The material scientist is usually interested in understanding and synthesizing materials which have certain desirable properties. The specific property needed may be extreme hardness for machine tools or very high electron mobility for next generation com- puter devices. In Fig. 1, we show some of the important material technologies that scientists are interested in. The reader is probably familiar with the various mate- rial systems and we will not discuss the motivational forees which are driving the research in these systems. Suffice it to say that to develop and understand these technologies one needs to exploit quantum mechanics since all relevant. properties of these materials are quanturn mechanical in nature. In the area of devices, scientists are interested in exploiting the interactions between matter and external stimulii (such as electromagnetic radiation, electric field, magnetic field, molecules of certain species, etc.) to produce useful “input- output” relations. Such devices can be used for information processing in a variety of different areas. These devices are based upon physical phenomenon that can onlyINTRODUCTION xxi be appreciated via quantum mechanics Quantum Mechanics of Electrons and Photons Our physical universe is made up of a number of elementary particles. On the most, fundamental level, these include the “quarks” which make up particles such as elec- trons, protons, neutrons, mesons, ete. The material and device scientist does not use the quantum mechanics relevant to quarks or even of mesons or nutrinos. The reason is quite simple — the energies that are typically used by the device scientists are in the range of, at most, millions of electron volts. At such energies one does not probe the physics of quarks or nutrinos or mesons. Accelerators operating at 10)? electron vols are needed for Uhat. The particles of most interest lo material and device scientists are electrons and photons. The properties of most materials are controlled by interaction of electrons with other electrons and “fixed” nuclei. Simi- larly, the properties of devices are controtied by the interaction of external stimuli with electrons inside the materials making up the devices. The interaction of light and matter is of particular importance to scientists because a remarkable number of devices such as lasers, detectors and modulators is based on these interactions In view of the importance of electrons and photons, this text is heavily biased toward the properties of these particles. In addition to this narrowing of focus, we also examine only non-relativistic quantum mechanics. Once again, for the problems of interest to material and device scientists, this is usually adequate, since the electrons of interest are moving at speeds that are slow compared to the speed of light. Relativistic quantum mechanics is, however, needed to understand how an electron interacts with a magnetic field. In this text we will use the relativistic results without deriving them. Role of This Book ‘This book is on applied quantum mechanics, and a great deal of emphasis is placed on applying the derived results to problems of technological importance. ‘The ap- proach that is used throughout the text is the following: * An important quantum mechanical concept is developed. This concept may be the electronic levels in the hydrogen atoms or the rate at which electrons scatter from a defect « The concept developed is then applied to typical problems encountered in technology-related applications. Numerical values are used to give the student a feel for numbers which are encountered in real applications ‘The systom of units used throughout the text is the SI system — a system that is widely used by technologists. The text contains nearly 100 solved examples, most of which are numerical in nature. It also contains about. 200 end-of-chapter problems. GUIDELINES FOR THE INSTRUCTOR As the reader will note, the first chapter of this text deals with some of the close links between classical mechanics and quantum mechanics. These links must. be ap- preciated by students at some point in their study of quantum mechanics, otherwisexxii INTRODUCTION quantum mechanics will continue to be a mysterious formalism. As we study clas- sical mechanics, we slowly accept Newton’s laws since they “feel” correct — not because we have seen any proofs of these laws. It is just that our daily experiences seem consistent with these laws When a student first sees the Schrddinger equation, it seems so different from Newton's laws that after the initial skepticism the student resigns himself or herself to the thought, “well, if all these Nobel laureates say so, it must be true!” The focus then shifts from understanding the origins of quantum mechanics to solving the Schrddinger equation. While this approach is adequate for most practical studies, it still leaves a void in the student's knowledge. Just like classical physics has na “proofs,” quantum physies cannot he “de- rived.” The laws that describe physics are ultimately “proven” by their ability to explain observations. As we know, when certain observations are made, they can be explained by classical laws (for example, a comet. hurtling in space), but some other observations require quantum laws. What determines which physics should be used? And how are the classical and quantum laws linked” To answer these questions, we need to discuss the modern classical formalism which allows us to see how, with the help of experiments, one moves from a classical regime to a quantum regime. Chapter 1 provides the link between classical and quantum physics. The instructor may decide whether to convey this link so as to discuss the origins of the Schrdodinger equation or to present it as a given and then start ftom Chapter 2. Chapter 1 may then be given as a reading assignment to the students, In Fig. 2 we give a suggested sequence of topics that can be used by instruc- tors using this book for a one-semester course (~35 one-hour lectures) on quantum inechanics for graduate students who have had some background in quantum me- chanics, A two-semester course sequence can cover the entire book in great detail In a one-semester course, some instructors may feel that stationary per- turbation theory should be covered before a discussion of angular momentum or identical particles. In this case they can discuss the topics of Chapter 8 before covering Chapters 6 and 7. SOME IMPORTANT REFERENCES ‘There are a number of excellent books on quantum mechanics where most of the concepts covered in this text are also covered. ‘The student may find that these books provide a slightly different viewpoint and may, thus, be useful to fully grasp. a difficult concept. The list given below is by no means complete Historical Development of Quantum Mechanics © H, Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, 1990. This book provides an excellent discussion of, modern classical mechanics and brings the reader close to the quantum de- scription. © -M. Jammer, The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics, McGraw- Hill, New York, 1966.INTRODUCTION xxiii Textbooks © E. Merzbacher, Quantum Mechanics, 2nd edition, John Wiley, New York, 1970, © L. 1. Schiff, Quantum Mechanics, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968. # H. Kroemer, Quantum Mechantes for Engineering, Matertal Science, and Ap- plied Physics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1994 General © R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton and M. Sands, The Feynman Lectures of Physics, Vol. IIL, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachiu- setts. This and the accompanying volumes are a must read. ¢ F. Constantinescu and E. Magyari, Problems in Quantum Mechanics, Perga- mon Press, Oxford, 1971. An excellent collection of problems with their sol tions.xxiv Chapter 1 lI Chapter 2 ll Chapter 3 ll Figure 2: Suggested sequence of topics for a one-semester course on quantum mechanics INTRODUCTION + A brief discussion of moder classical physics 1 lecture +A summary of the Hamilton-Jacobi theory lecture * Sections of this chapter can be given as reading assignments * Discussions of the Schrédinger equation, importance of the wavefunction, expectations values, etc. 2 lectures + Equations of motion 1 lecture * Sections 2.5 and 2.6 can be given as reading assignments + Free particle and density of states, particles in a quantum well 1 lecture + Particle in a periodic potential 1 lecture + Harmonic oscillator 2 lectures for graduate students. A two-semester course could cover the entire book in detail,INTRODUCTION Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 | * Discussion of the general tunneling problem. Stationary state approach of tunneling through a barrier 2ilectures ‘Discussion of the time-dependent approach to tunneling and quasi-bound state lifetimes 2 lectures * Application examples can be given as reading assignments + General approach to the problem of a particle ina spherically symmetric potential 1 lecture +The hydrogen atom problem and application 2 lectures + Symmetry and conservation laws—general discussion 1 lecture * Angular momentum operator and eigenvalues 2 lectures * Spin of electrons & a brief discussion of addition of angular momentum with no derivation 1 lecture Figure 2: (Continued). xxvxxvi INTRODUCTION Chapter ; o + Discussion of fermions and bosons 1 lecture * This chapter could be covered in much greater detail ina 7 + A superticial discussion of second quantization 7 lecture | | two-semester course Chapter * Stationary perturbation theory 2lectures 8 * Variational method 1 lecture Chapter .e-dependent perturbation theory and 9 Fermi golden rule 2lectures + Applications to optical absorption 3 lectures * Some application sections can be given as homework/reading assignments Figure 2: (Continued).INTRODUCTION Chapter * Scattering as a stationary state problem 1 0 * Bom approximation and applications 2 lectures 2 lectures Chapter P * Hamiltonian of a charged particle in a 1 1 magnetic field | | + Zeeman effect Figure 2: (Continued). 1 lecture 1 lecture