This airplane is taking off, Wis aceeletatin increasing in speed rapidly, To 40 80, 9 force must be exerted on it according. to Newton's ne las, EE = ma, What execs this Force? The two jot engines of this plane exert a strong farce on the gases they push out toward the rear of the plane (beled Fp). According to Newton's third law, these ejected gases exert an equal and opposite force on the airplane in the forward direction. It is these “reaction” forces exerted on the plane by the gases labeled Fg tha aooelerate the plane forward CHAPTER Dynamics: Newton's Laws of Motion have discussed how motion is described in terms of velocity and W acceleration. Now we deal with the question of why objects move as they do: What makes an object at rest begin t move? What causes an object to accelerate or decelerate? What is involved when an object moves in ‘circle? We ean answer in each ease that a force is required. In this Chapter, we will investigate the connection hetween foree and motion, whieh is the subject called dynamics, We besin with intuitive ideas of what a force is, and then discuss Newton's three laws of motion, We next Took at several types of foree, including friction and the force of gravity. We then apply Newton's laws to real problems. 14-1] Force Intuitively, we experience force as any kind of a push or a pull on an object. When you push a stalled car or a grocery cart (Fig. 4-1), you are exerting a FIGURE 4-1 A force exerted on a force on it. When a motor lifts an elevator, or a hammer hits a nail, or the wind grocery cart—in this ease exerted blows the leaves of a tree, a force is being exerted. We say that an object falls by a child. because af the force of gravity nRUPEES G7 e If an object is at rest, to start it moving requires foree—that is, a force is needed to accelerate an object from zero velocity to a nonzero velocity. For an ‘object already moving, if you want to change its Velocity —either in direction or in magnitude —again a force is required. In ather words, to accelerate an objet a force is required. One way to measure the magnitude (or strength) of a force is (0 use a spring scale (Fig. 4-2). Normally, such a spring scale is used to find the weight of an object; by weight we mean the force of gravity acting on the object (Section 4-6). The spring scale, once calibrated, can be used to measure other Kinds of forces as well, such as the pulling foree shown in Fig. 42. ‘A force exerted in different directions has a different effect. Clearly, foree has direction as well as magnitude, and is indeed a vector that follows the rules of veetor addition discussed in Chapter 3. We ean represent any force on a diagram by ‘an arrow, just as we did with velocity. The direction of the arrow isthe direction of the push or pull and its length is drain proportional to the magnitude of the force j4-2| Newton's First Law of Motion What is the relationship between foree and motion? Aristotle (384-222 ne) believed that a force was required to keep an object moving along @ horizontal plane. To Aristotle, the natural state of an object was at rest, and a force was believed necessary to keep an object in motion, Furthermore, Aristotle argued, the greater the force on the abject, the greater its speed. ‘Some 2000 years later, Galileo disagreed: He maintained that itis just as natural for an object to be in motion with constant velocity as it is for it to be at rest ‘To understand Galileo's idea, consider the following observations involving motion along a horizontal plane. To push an object with a rough surlace along a tabletop at constant speed requires a certain amount of force. To push an equally heavy object with a very smooth surface across the table at the same speed will require less force. If a layer of oil or other lubricant is placed between the surface of the object and the table, then almost ne force is required to move the abject. Notice that in each successive step, less force is roquired. AS the next step, we imagine that the object does not rub against the table at all— to there is a perfect lubricant between the object and the table—and theorize that once started, the object would move across the table at constant speed with no force applied. A steel ball bearing rolling on a hard horizontal surface approaches this situation, So does a puck on an air table, in which a thin layer of air reduees friction almost to zero, It was Galileo’s genius to imagine such an idealized world—in this ease, one ‘where there is no friction—and to see that it could lead to a more accurate and cher understanding of the real world, This idealization led him to his remark able conclusion that if no force is applied to 1 moving object, it will continue to ‘move with constant speed in a straight line. An object slows down only ifa force is exerted on it. Galileo thus interpreted friction as a force akin (0 ordinary pushes and pulls SECTION 4-2 Newton's First Law of Motion FIGURE 4-2 A spring scale used to measure a force. Measuring force Aristale Galileo Friction a a force BFIGURE 4-2 F represents the fonce by the person and Fy represents the free of ‘ration, NEWTON'S FIRST LAW, ‘OF MOTION Inertia FIGURE 4~4 Tage Newton (1642-1727), Inerial reference frames To push an object across a table at constant speed requires a force from your hand that can balance out the foree of frietion (Fig. 4-3), When the object ‘moves at constant speed, your pushing force is equal in magnitude to the fric~ tion force, but these two forces are in opposite directions, so the net force on the bjeet (the veetar sum af the two forces) is zero. Ths is consistent with Galileo's Viewpoint, for the object moves with constant speed when no net foree is exerted on it plied Upon this foundation Inid by Galileo, Isane Newton (Fig. 4-4) built his fof motion, Newton's analysis of motion is summarized in his laws of motion.” In his great work, the Principia (published in n readily acknowledged his debt to Galileo. In fact, Newton's first law of motion is close to Galileo's conclusions. It states that Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform velocity in a straight Tine, as long as no net foree acts on The tendeney of an object to maintain its state of rest oF of uniform motion in ight line is called inertia. As a result, Newton's first law is often called the law of inertia [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE G17] Newton's first law. A school bus comes to a sudden siop, and all of the Backpacks on the floor start to slide forward, ‘What force causes them to do that? RESPONSE [1 isn't “force” that does it. The backpacks continue their state of motion, maintaining their velocity (friction may slow them down), ns the velocity of the bus decrenses, Inertial Reference Frames Newton's first law does not hold in every reference frame. For example, if your reference frome is fixed in an accelerating ear, an object such as a cup resting on the dashboard may begin to move loward you (it stayed at rest as long as the car's velocity remained constant). The cup acecierated toward you, but neither you nor anything else exerted a force on it in that direction. Similarly, in the reference frame of the bus in Example 4-1, there was no foree pushing the backpacks forward, In accelerating reference frames, Newton's first law does not hold, Refer- ence frames in which Newton's first law does hold arc called inertial reference frames (the law of inert is valid in them). For most purposes, we can usually assume that reference frames fixed on the Earth are inertial frames. (This is not precisely true, due to the Earth's rotation, but usually it is close enough.) Any reference frame that moves with constant velocity (saya ear or an airplane) relative {co an inertial frame is also an inertial reference frame. Reference frames where the law of inertia does nor hold, sueh as the accelerating reference frames discussed above, are called moninerfial reference frames How can we be sure a reference frame is inertial or not? By checking to see if Newton's first law holds, Thus Newton's first law serves as the definition of inertial reference frames, 74 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion14-3] Mass Newton's second lav, which we come to in the next Section, makes use of the concept of mass. Newion used the term mass as a synonym for quantity of matter. ‘This intuitive notion of the mass of an abject i not very precise because the concept “quantity of matter” is not very well defined, More precisely, we can say that mass is a zaeasure of dhe inertia of an object.'The more mass an object has the greater the force needed to give it a particular acceleration, It is harder to start it moving fom rest, of to stop it when it is moving, or to change its velocity sideways out of a straight-line path. A truck has much more inertia than a baseball moving atthe same speed, and it requires a much greater foree to change the truck's velocity at the same rate asthe ball’s The truck therefore has much more mass, To quantify the concept of mass, We must define a standard. In ST units, the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg) as we discussed in Chapter 1, Seetion [5 ‘The terms mass and weight are olten confused with one another, but it is important to distinguish between them. Mass is a property of an abject itself (a measure of an object’s inertia, or its “quantity of matter”), Weight, on the other hand, is force, the pull of gravity acting on an object To see the difference, suppose we take an object to the Moon. The object will weigh only about one-sixth as much asit did on Earth, since the farce of gravity is weaker. But its mass will be the same, It will have the same amount of matier as on Earth, and will have just as much inertia—for in the absence of friction, it wll be just as hard to start it moving on the Moon as on Earth, or to stop it once it is moving, (More on weight in Section 4-6.) Ez Newton's Second Law of Motion Newion’s first law states that if no net force is acting on an object at rest, the fobject remains at rest; or if the object is moving, it continues moving with constant speed in a straight line. But what happens if a net force is exerted on an “object? Newton perceived that the objeet’s velocity will change (Fig, 4-5). A net force exerted on an abject may make ils velocity increase. Orif the net force is in a direction opposite to the motion, the force will reduce the object’s velocity, Tf the net force acts sideways on a moving abject, the direction of the object’s velocity changes (and the magnitude may as well). Since a change in velocity is ‘an acceleration (Section 2~4), we can say that a net force causes acceleration, What precisely is the relationship between acceleration and forse? Everyday experience can suggest an answer. Consider the foree required to push a cart when friction is small enough to ignore. (If there is friction, consider the net force, which is the force you exert minus the force of friction.) Now if you push with a gentle but constant force for a cortain period of time, you will make the cart accelerate from rest up to some speed, say 3 km/h. If you push with twice the foree, the cart will reach 3km/h in half the time, The acceleration will be twice as great. If you triple the foree, the acceleration is tripled, and so on. Thus the acceleration of an object is directly proportional’ to the net applied force. But the acceleration depends on the mass of the object as well. If you push an empty grocery cart with the same force as you push one that is filled with groceries, you will find that the full cart accelerates more slowly. The greater the mass, the less the acceleration for the same net force, The mathematical relation, as Newton argued, is that the accel eration of an object is inversely proportional to its mass, These relationships are ‘ound to held in general and can be summarized as follows: ‘The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force aeting on it, and is inversely proportional to its mass. The direction of the acceler- ation is in the direction of the net force acting on the object. ‘This is Newton's second law of motion, ‘A review of proportionality is given in Append A. a the back of his book. Mass as inertia @ caution Disinguisl mass from weigh = FIGURE 4-5 ‘The hobsled seselerates Because the team exerts a force. NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION SECTION 4-4 Newton's Second Law of Motion 75Nowion’s second law ean be writ — iF where @ stands for ngseleration, m for the mass and SI for the ne force on the object. The symbol 5 (Greck “sigma”) stands for “sum of"; F stands for fores, ecfone s0'SF means the vector sum ofall forces acting onthe object, which We define as the net force ‘We rearrange this equation to obiain the familar statement of Newton's second la SF = ma, a1) Newton's second law relates the description of motion to the cause of motion, force. It is one ofthe most fundamental relationships in physica, From Newion’s Povcedefined secone! law we ean make a more precise definition of force as an action capable of accelerating an object. Every force Fis.a vector, with magnitude and direction. Equation 4-1 is @ vector equation valid in any inertial reference frame. It can be written in component form in rectangular coordinates as may, SF, = may. If the motion is all along a line (one-dimensional), we ean leave out the subseripts and simply write SF = ma. Uoroffore In $Lunits with the mass in kilograms the unit of force is called the mewton (N). shenowion One newton, then, is the force required to impart an acceleration of m/s? to a mass of kg Thus IN = | kg-m/s? Tn cgs unis, the unit of mass is the gram (g) as mentioned earlier! The unit, of foree is the dyne, which is defined as the net foree needed to impart an accel: eration of Icm/s! to a mass of 1g. Thus I dyne = 1 g-em/s'. It is easy to show that 1 dyne = 10-°N Inthe British system, the unit of foree isthe pound (abbreviated Ib), where 1b = 444822 N= 445N. The unit of mass is the slug. which is defined as that mass witch will undergo an acceleration of 1 ft/s! when a force of IIb is Applied to it. Thus 11h = I shug-ft/s!. Table 4-1 summarizes the units in the different systems EM SOLVING Itis very important that only one set of units be used in a given calculation Tie sconmcniseroyins OF problem, with the ST being preferred. Ifthe force is given in, say, newrons, and the mass in grams, then before attempting to solve for the aeceleration in SI pro TABLE 41 Units, we must change the mass to kilograms. For example, if the fore is given Units forMass and Force & 2.0N along the x axis and the mass is 500. we change the latter to 050 kg, ss ind the acceleration will then automatically come out in m/s? when Newton's Spa Me ae second law is used (we set 1 N = 1 kg+m/s?): 3 filogram newton ON) fe tke) ‘kgem/s) a 20kg-m/s* ces gram(e) dyne 050k (=g-em/s?) Brish slug pound (by omen mow Ties STR | the net force needed to avcelerate (a) a 100g car at fy: (b) 220g apple at the same rate. APPROACH We can use Newton's second law to find the net force needed for cach object, eeause we are piven the mass and the acceleration. This i an estimate (the # is mat suid to he precise) so we rotind olf to one significant figure Be carful not sonfseg for gram with forthe acceleration duc to gravity The lator is always italicized (or boatase when 8 vector. 76 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of MotionSOLUTION (a) The car's aveleration is a = $y = 4(0.8 m/s) = Sm/s?. We tse Newton's second law to get the net force needed to achieve this aeceleration EF = ma ~ (1000 kg)(S m/s?) = S000N, (you are used to British units to get an idea of what a SOON force i, you san divide by 445 N/lb and get a foree of about 10X0Ib) (6) For the apple, m = 2008 = 0.200 kg, so SF = ma ~ (0:200ke)(S m/s!) = IN Force to stop a car. What average net force is required o bring a 1500-kg ear to rest from a speed of 100 km/h within a distance of 5 m? APPROACH We can use Newton’s second law, 3 = ma, to determine the force if we know the mats and acceleration of the ca. We are given the mass but we will have to ealeulate the acceleration a. We assume the acceleration i constant, 0 we ean use the kinematic equations, Eqs 2-11, 10 ealeulate it SOLUTION We assume the motion is along the +x axis (Fig, 4-6). We are given the initial velocity 9) = 100km/h = 28m/s (Section 1-6), the final velocity » = 0, and the distance traveled x — x)= 55m, From Eq. 2-Ilc we have v= 0 + 2ale ~ 2a), , w= _ 0 28m/s)? W@a ay aG5m) mS ‘The net force required is then SF = ma = (1500kg)(—7.1 m/s?) = 1.4 LON, ‘The force must be exerted in the diteetion opposite 10 the initial velocity, which is what the negative sign means NOTE When we assume the acceleration is constant, even though it may not be precisely true, we are determining an “average” acceleration and we obtain an “average” net force (or vice versa), Newton's second Ins, like the first lav, is valid only in inertial reference frames (Section 4-2), In the noninertial reference frame of an accelerating car, for example,a cup on the dashboard starts sliding—it accelerates—even though the net foree on it is zero; thus SF = ma doesn't work in such an accelerating, reference frame, i Newton's Third Law of Motion Newion’s second law of motion describes quantitatively how forces affect ‘motion. But where, we may ask, do forees come from? Observations suggest that « foree applied to any object is always applied by another object. A horse pulls a wagon, a person pushes a grocery carl, a hammer pushes on a nail, a magnet attracts a paper clip. In each of these examples foree is exerted on one ‘object, and that foree is exerted by another object. For example, the force cexerted om the nail is exerted by the hamm SECTION 4-5 Newton's Third Law of Motion FIGURE 4-6 Example 4-3, A force i exerted om an object and is ‘exerted by anciher object nNEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION CAUTION “Audion and reaction forces act ‘on differen objects FIGURE 4-7 A hammer striking & nail, The hammer exerts force an the mail and the nail exerts a force pack on the hammer. The later force decelerates the hammer and brings it to rest FIGURE 4-9 An cxample of Newton’ tied lave when an ice skater pushes against the wall, the wall pushes back and this force ‘eauses het to accelerate away Rocket acceleration But Newton realized that things are not so one-sided, True, the hammer exerts a force on the nail (Fig, 4-7), But the nail evidently exerts a force back fon the hammer as well, for the hammer’s speed is rapidly reduced to zero upon contact, Only a strong force could cause such a rapid deceleration of the hammer. Thus, said Newton, the wo objects must be treated on an equal bai ‘The hammer exerts a foree on the nail, and the nail exerts a foree baek on the hammer. Ths is the essence of Newton's third law of motion: Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second exerts an equal force in the opposite direction on the first. ‘This law is sometimes paraphrased as “to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.” This is perfectly valid. But to avoid confusion, it is very important to remember that the “action” foree and the “reaction™ force are acting on different objects. Force exerted ‘on hand by desk 4 FIGURE 4-8 I your hand pushes against the edge of a desk (the force vector is shown in red) the desk pushes back against your hand (this force veetor & shown ina different color, violet {o remind ws that this force aets on a different object), Fores exerted fon desk by han As evidence for the validity of Newton's third law, look at your hand when you push against the edge of a desk, Fig. 4-8, Your hand's shape is distorted, Clear evidence that a force is being exerted on it. You can see the edge of the desk pressing into your hand. You can even fee! the desk exerting a force on your hand: if hurts! The harder you push against the desk, the harder the desk pushes hack on your hand. (You only fee! forces exerted on you; when you exert a force on another object, what you feel is that object pushing back on you.) As another demonstration of Newton's third law, consider the ice skater in Fig. 4-9. There is very litle friction between her skates and the ive, so she will move freely if a force is exerted on her. She pushes against the wall; and then she starts moving backward, The force she exerts on the wall cannot make Aer start moving, for that force acts on the wall. Something hhad (o exert a force on her to start her moving, and that force could only have been exerted by the wall, The force with which the wall pushes on her is, by Newton's third law, equal and opposite to the force she exerts on the wall ‘When a person throws a package out of a boat (initially at rest), the boat starts moving in the opposite direction. ‘The person exeris a force on the package, The package exerts an equal and opposite force back on the person, and this force propels the person (and the boat) backward slightly Rocket propulsion also is explained using Newton's third law (Fig, 410). 4 common misconception is that rockets accelerate because the gases rushing out the back of the engine push against the ground or the atmosphere, Not true What happens, instead, is that a rocket exerts a strong force on the gases, expelling them; and the gases exert an equal and apposite foree on the rocker. T is this latter force that propels the rocket forward—the force exerted on the rocket by the gases. Thus, a space vehicle is maneuvered in empty space by firing its rockets in the direction opposite to that in which it needs to accelerate ‘When the rocket pushes on the gases in one direction, the gases push back on the rocket in the opposite direction. 78 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motionpushing against the ground.) Consider how we walk. A person hegins walking by pushing with the foot backward against the ground. The ground then exerts an equal and opposite force forward on the petson (Fig. 4=11), and itis this force, om the person, that moves the person forward, (If you doubt this, try walking normally where there is no friction, such as on very smooth slippery ice.) Ina similar way, a bird flies forward by exerting a backward foree on the air, but it is the air pushing forward on the bird's wings that propels the bird forward. [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 4=a] What exerts the force on a car? What ‘makes a ear go forward? RESPONSE A common answer is that the engine makes the car move forward. But it not so simple. The engine makes the wheels go around. But if the tires are om slick ice or deep muck they just spin, Friction is needed. On sofid ground, the tires push backward against the ground because of friction, [By Newton's third law, the ground pushes on the tires in the opposite direc tion, accelerating the car forward. We tend to associate forces with active objeets such as humans, animals, engines, of a moving object like a hammer, It is often difficult to see how an inanimate abject at rest, sueh as a wall or a desk, oF the wall of an ice rink (Fig. 4-9), can exert a foree. The explanation is that every material, no matter how hard, is elastic (springy), at least to some degree. A stretched rubber band can exert a force on a wad of paper and accelerate it to fly across the room, Other materials may not stretch as readily as rubber, but they do stretch or compress when a force is applied to them, And just as a stretched rubber band exerts a force, so does a stretched (or compressed) wal, desk, or car fender. From the examples discussed above, we can see how important it is to remember o” what object a given force is exerted and by what object that force is exerted. A force influences the motion of an object only when itis applied on that object. A force exerted by an object does not influence that same object: i only influences the other abject on which it is exerted. Thus, to avoid confusion, the to prepositions om and by must always be used—and used with eare One way to keep clear which force acts on which abject is to use double subscripts, For example, the force exerted on the Person by the Ground as the person walks in Fig. 4“L1 can be labeled Fyg. And the force exerted on the zground by the person is Rip. By Newton's third law Bop = Fra. 42) wand Fy have the same magnitude (Newton's third law), and the minus sign reminds us that these two forces are in opposite directions Note earefully that the wo forces shown in Fig. 4-11 act on different objects—henice we used slighty different colors for the vector arrows repre senting these forces, These two forces would never appear together in a sum ff forces in Newton's second law, SF = ma. Why not? Because they act on diferent objects is the acceleration of one particular object, and SF must include only the forees on that one object. FIGURE 4-10 Another example of Newcon’s third la the launch of a rocket. The rocket engine pushes the gases downward, and the gases exert an equal and opposite force ‘upward on tho rocket, accelerating it upward. (A rocket docs not accelerate as a resi ofits prapeling gases Howe we ean mall FIGURE 4-11 We can wall forward boeause, when one foot prshes backward against the ‘round. the ground pushes forward ‘on that foot. The two forces shown fact on different objects Herzen Hoxizonal forse exerted Troe exerted ‘nde ground omthe ty person's peren’s fot foot Fy the groan for Wr JInanimate objects cam exer a force (duet elastcuy) ‘> PRostem sotviNG Tor each fore, be elem on which objet ‘ats and by which objec tis exerted. inl applies only eo fores ating ‘om an object NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION SECTION 4-5 79FIGURE 4-12. Example 4-5, sowing only horizontal forees id Michelangolo has block of marble for ture. Shown here is his assistant polling it on asiod away ‘rom the quarry Forces on the assis: tant are shown as ed (magenta) aerows, Forces on the sled are purple serous. Forces acting on the ground tke orange arrows, Action-reaction {orces that are equal and opposite ae labeled by the same subscripts but reversed (such as Fe, and Fo) and are of different colors heeatse they act on different objects > pRostem SoLVING ‘A suudy of Newton's second and third aves Fore on assistant cxered by sled Bas * Force om cxeried hy eround FIGURE 4-12 Example 4-5. The horizontal forces om the assistant Fore on sled Foree on exer by assistant sssisunt” exerted bled <2 Pction Fomeon Force on forceon ground > gromd assistant Sledexered exerted exerted exerted hyeround by sled byassisant by ground (-Fro) [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 45] Third law clarification, Michelangelo's assist has been signed the task of moving a black of marble using a sled (Fie. 412). He says to his boss"Whon Texert a forward force on the sted, the sled exerts an equal and opposite force backward. So how can T ever start it moving? No matter how hard T pull, the backward reaction force always cavals my forward force, so the net force must be zer0. Tl never be able to move this load Ts this a case of «litle knowledge being dangerous? Explain RESPONSE Yes Although it strc thatthe action and reaction forces are equal in mngniide, the assistant has forgotten thot they aro exerted on cifferent dbjects The forward (“action”) foree is exerted by the assistant on the sled (Fig. 4-12), whereas the backward “reaction” forse is exerted by the sled om the assstant, To determine if the asistant moves or not. we must consider only the forces on the assistant and then apply =F = mai, where SF is the net force on the assistant is the aoeleration ofthe asstantand ‘Thote are two forees on the asistant that affect his forward motions they are shown as bright red (magenta) nrrows in Figs 4-12 and 4-13 they are (1) the horizontal force Fy,, exerted on the assistant by the ground (the harder he pushes backward against the ground, the harder the ground pushes forward on him— Newton's thie law), and 2) the force Fxg exerted on the asstant by the sled, palling backward on him: soc Fig 4-13. 1 he pushes hard enough onthe ground, the force on him exerted by the ground, yc, will be larger than the sled pulling back, Fxg, and the assistant aceclerates forward (Newton's second law). The sled, on the other hand, necelerates forward when the force on it exerted by the asss- tant i greater than th fitional fore exerted haekowird on it by the ground (that is when By, has greater magnitude than Fy, in Fig. 4-12). s the assistants mass, Using double subscripts to clarify Newton’s third law can become cumber- some, and we won't usually use them in this way. Nevertheless, if there is any confusion in your mind about a given force, go ahead and use them to identify fon what object and by what object the force is exerted. We will usually use a single subscript referring to what exerts the force on the object being discussed. EXERCISE A A massive (ruck collides head-on with a small sports car. (0) Whiel vehicle experiences the greater force of impact? (6) Which experiences the greater acceleration? (e) Which of Neston’s laws is useful to obtain the correct answer? Weight—the Force of Gra’ and the Normal Force AS we save in Chapter 2, Galileo claimed that all objects dropped near the surface of the Earth will fall with the same acceleration, if air resistance can be neglected The force that causes this acceleration is called the force of gravity or gravitational force. What exerts the gravitational force on an object? It is the Earth, as we Will 80 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motiondiscuss in Chapter 5, and the force acts vertically’ downward, toward the center of the Earth, Let us apply Newton's second law to an object of mass m falling due to gravity: for the acceleration, a, we use the downward acceleration due to gravity, ‘Thus. the gravitational foree on an object, Kean be written as By = mg 4-3) Weigh = gravitational force ‘The direction of this force is down toward the center of the Earth, The magni tude of the force of gravity on an object is commonly called the object's weight, Tn ST units, ¢ = 9.80m/s? = 9.81N/kg,' so the weight of a 1,00-kg mass on Earth is 1,00Kg x 9.80 m/s = 980N, We will mainly be concerned with the weight of objects on Earth, but we note that on the Moon, on other planets, or in space, the weight of a given mass will be different than it is on Earth, For example, on the Moon the acceleration due to gravity is about one-sixth what it is on Earth, und @ 1.0-kg mass weighs only 1.7%. Although we will noc use British units, we note that for practical purposes on the Earth, a mass of Tky q CAUTION ‘weighs about 22h. (On the Moon, | kg weighs only about 0.416.) Mass 05 weight ‘The force of gravity acts on an object when it is falling, When an object is at rest on the Earth, the gravitational force on it does not disappear, as we know if ‘we weigh it on a spring scale. The same force, given by Eq. 4-3, continues to act. Why, then, doesn't the object move? From Newion’s second law, the net force ‘on an object that remains at rest is zero, There must he another force on the object to balance the gravitational force. For an object resting on a table, the table exerts this upward force; sce Fig, 4~I4a. The table is compressed slightly beneath the object, and due to its elasticity, it pushes up on the object as shown ‘The force exerted by the lable is often called a eomaet foree, sines i occurs Conor fore when two objects are in comlact, (The force of your hand pushing on a cart is also a contact force.) When a contact force acts perpendicular to the common surface of contact, itis referred to as the normal foree (“normal” means perpen- Nora jorce dicular); hence itis labeled Ry in Fig. 4-14a, FIGURE 4-14 (a) The net foree on an ‘object at rest is zero according to Newton's second lav: Therefore the downward force of sravity (Fg) on an object must be balanced by an upvsard force (the normal force Fy) exerted by the table in this eas. (b) FG is the force exerted on the table by the statue and is the reaction force to By per Newton's third lays (RL is showin in a different color to remind weit acts on a different object) The w) Foon Rei netsbow “The two forces shown in Fig, 4+ Ia are both acting on the statue, whieh remains a rest, so the Vector stim of these 1Wo forces must be zero (Newton's q CAUTION. second la), Henoe Ry and Fy must be of equal magnitude and in opposite 0) al raat ovveare wot directions. But they are not the equal and opposite forces spoken of in Newton's. 0 Feton prs third law. The action and reaction forces of Newton's third law act on different objects, whereas the Wo forces shown in Fig. 4—Lda act on the same object. For ch ofthe forces shown in Fig. 4~14a, we ean ask, “What i the reaction force? ‘The upward force, By, om the statue is exerted by the able. The reaction to this force is a force exerted by the statue downward on the table. It is shown in i 4-14), where itis labeled Fy. This force, Fy, exerted on the table by the statue, i the reaction foree to Fy in accord with Newton’ thitd las, What about the other force on the statue, the force of gravity Fe exerted by the Earth? Can You guess what the reaction is to this force? We will see in Chapter 5 that the reaction force is also a gravitational force, exerted on the Earth by the statue The concept f-vertia” i edt geviy The bet definition of verticals that it i the dretion in whch objects fall A surface that hornota” onthe ther hand, 4 surface on wih a ond jst wom start rling: gravity has nn eect Hevzontl i perpendicular to vertical 'Sinee IN = 1hgea/s? Seetion 41), Ln/s?= IN SECTION 4-6 Weight—the Force of Gravity; and the Normal Force 81@ a © a FIGURE 4-15 Example 4-6. (0) A 10. gift bow is at rest on a table.(h) A person pushes dowen fon the bor with a force of U0N. {6} A person pulls upsard on the box witha farce of 41(1N. The forces ae all assumed to act along a line: they are shown slightly displaced in ‘order to be distinguishable. Oniy forces acting on the box are shown, @ caution The normal force ts mot necessarily equal 19 the weight @ caution The normal fore Ft not rnecesariy betta [SEMELE Weight, normal force, and a box. A friend has given you ‘special gilt,a box of mass 10.0 kg with & mystery surprise inside. The box is resting on the smooth (frictionless) horizontal surface of a table (Fig. 4~15a) (a) Determine the weight of the box and the normal foree exerted on it by the able. (b) Now your friend pushes down on the box with a foree of 40.0 N, as in Fig. 4-15b, Again determine the normal force exerted on the box by the table. (0) If your friend pulls upward on the box with a force of 40.0N (Fig. 4-15e), ‘what now is the normal foree exerted on the box by the table? APPROACH The box is at rest on the table, so the net force on the box in ‘each case is zero (Newton's second law). The weight of the box equals mg in all three cases, SOLUTION (a) The weight of the box is mg = (10.0 kg)(9.80 m/s?) = 98.0, And this force acts downward. The only ather force on the box is the normal force exerted upward on it by the table, as shown in Fig.4-15a. We chose the upward direction as the positive y direction; then the net force =F, on the box is ZF, = Fy — mg. The box is at rest, so the net foree on it must be zero (Newion’s second law, BF) = may, and ay = 0). Thus 0, 2A = mg fand we have in this case Fy= mg, ‘The normal force on the box, exerted by the table, is 98.0N upward, and has magnitude equal to the box’s weight () Your friend is pushing down an the box with a force of 40,0N. So instead of only two forees acting on the box, now there are three forces aeting on the bbox, as shown in Fig. 4=15b, The weight of the box is still mg = 98.0. The net force is EF, = Fy ~ mg ~ 400N, and is equal to zero because the box remains at rest. Thus, since @ = 0, Newton’s second law gives DA, = Fy — mg ~ 40.0N = 0. We solve this equation for the normal force: Fy = mg + 40.0N = 980N + 40.0N = 1380, Which is greater than in (@).The table pushes back with more foree when a person pushes down on the box. The normal force is not always equal to the weight! (6) The box’s weight is still 98.0.N and acts downward. The force exerted by your friend and the normal foree both act upward (positive direction), as ‘shown in Fig, 4=15e, The box doesn't move sines your friend's upward force is fess than the weight. The net force, again set to zero in Newton’s second law because a= 0, is Fy— mg + 40.0N = 0, Fy = mg ~ 400N = 980N ~ 400N = S80N, ‘Tho table does not push against the full weight of the box because of the upward pull exerted by your friend, NOTE The weight of the box (=m) does not change as a result of your friend's push or pull. Only the normal force is affected. Recall that the normal force is elastic in origin (the table in Fig. 4-15 sags slightly under the weight of the box). The normal force in Example 4-6 is vertical, perpendicular to the horizontal table. The normal force is not always vertical, however. When you push against a vertical wall, for example, the normal force with which the wall pushes back on you is horizontal. For an bjeet on a plane inclined at an angle to the horizontal, such as a skier or ear on ‘hill, the normal force acts perpendicular to the plane and so is not vertical 82 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion[EGIL Accelerating the box. What happens when a person pulls upward on the box in Example 4-6 (c) with a force equal to, or greater than, the box's weight, say Fy = 100.0N rather than the 40,0N shown in Fig, 4=15e? APPROACH We can start just as in Example 4-6, but be ready for a surprise SOLUTION The net force on the box is Ir p (10D0N) Fy~ mg + Fy = Fy = 98.0N + 1000N, and if we set this equal to zero (thinking the acceleration might be zero), we would get Fy = 20. This is nonsense, since the negative sign implies Fy ne OBO) points downward, and the table surely eannat pul! down on the box (unless there’s glue on the table). The least Fy can be is zero, which it will be in this FIGURE 4-16 Example 47. The cease, What really happens here is that the box aecclerates upward because the box accelerates upward because net force is nat zero, The net force (setting the normal force Fy = 9) is Fo> ma Fe — mg = 100,0N ~ 98.0 20N upward, See Fig. 4~16, We apply Newton's second low sind see that the box ‘moves upward with an acceleration 3A; 20N “m= Too ks = 0.20/82 Additional Example Apparent weight loss. A 65-kz woman descends in an levator that briefly accelerates at 020g downward when leaving a floor, She stands on a seale that reads in kg. (a) During this acceleration, what i het weight and what does the seale read? (5) What docs the seale read when the levator descends at a constant speed of 200m/s? APPROACH Figure 4-17 shows all the forces that act on the woman (and FIGURE 4-17 Example 4-8. ‘only those that act on her). The direction of the acceleration is down which we Lake as positive SOLUTION (a) From Newton’s second law, SP = ma ng = Fy = (208) We solve for Fx Fy = mg ~ 0:20mg = 080mg. and it acts upward. The normal force Fy is the foree the scale exerts on the person, and is equal and opposite to the foree she exerts on the. scale: F&= 080mg downward. Her weight (force of gravity on her) is stil ‘mg = (65 kg)(98m/s") = 640 N, But the scale, needing to exert a force of only 0.80ng, wil give a reading of 080m = 52k. (6) Now there is no acceleration, a= 0, so by Newton's second law, mg ~ Fy =0 and Fy = mg. The scale reads her true mass of 65g, NOTE The scale in (a) may give a reading of S2kg (as an “apparent mass"), but her mass doesn’t change as a result of the acceleration: it stays at 65 kg. SECTION 4-6 Weight—the Farce of Gravity; and the Normal Force 83FIGURE 4-18 (0) Two forces, Fy and Fi, xerted by workers and Bact oma crate (h) The sum, or sultant of Fy and Fy i Fe FIGURE 4-19 Example 4-9: Two force vectors act on a boat > pRostem SOLVING Free-body diagram denifying every force Solving Problems with Newton's Laws: Free-Body Diagrams Newton's second law tells us that the acceleration of an abject is proportional to the net force acting on the object. The met force, as mentioned earlier isthe rector sum of all forees acting on the object. Indeed, extensive experiments have shown that forces do add together as veetors precisely according to the rules we developed in Chapter 3. For example, in Fig. 4—18, «wo forces of equal ‘magnitude (100N each) are shown aeting on an object at right angles to each other. Intuitively, we ean see that the object will start moving at a 45” angle and thus the net force acts at a 45° angle. This is just what the rules of vector addi- tion give, From a -ythagoras, the magnitude of the resultant force = Mi Adding force vectors. Calculate the sum of the two forees exerted on the boat by workers A and B in Fig, 4-19, APPROACH We add force vectors like any other vectors as described in Chapter 3.'The first step is to choose an xy coordinate system, as in Fig. 4-124, and then resolve vectors into their components, SOLUTION The two force veciors are shown resolved into components in Fig, 4-19b, We add the forces using the method of components. The compo- nents of Fy are Fay = Frcos45.0° = (40,0N)(0.707) = 28.3, Fay = Fy sin 450° = (40.0'N)(0.707) = 28.3, The components of fy are Figg = +Fyc0s 37.0" = +(30.0N)(0.799) = +240, Fay = ~Fusin 37.0 = ~(G0.0N)(0602) = —18.1N. Fa, is negative because it points along the negative y axis, The components of the resultant foree are (se2 Fig, 4-19) Frac = Fax + Fac = 283N + 240N = 52.3, Fay = Fay + Fay = 283N ~ 1&1 = 10.2, “To find the magnitude of the resultant force, we use the Pythagorean theorem. = VRP + (HOZPN = 533N. ing question isthe angle 6 thatthe net force By makes with Fu = VF + Fly ‘The only remai the v axis, We use: Fy 10.2N mn Fy SBN o.t9s, and to-'(0.195) = 11.0°, The net foree on the boat has magnitude $3.3N and acts at an L1.0° angle to the x axis, ‘When solving problems involving Newton's laws and force, itis very impor- tant to draw a diagram showing all the forces acting on each object involved. Such a diagram is called a free-body diagram, or foree diagram: choose one object, and draw an arrow to represent each force acting on it. Include every force siting on that objeet. Do not show forces that the chasen abject exerts on other objects, To help you identify each and every force that is exerted on your chosen object, ask yourself what other objects could exert a force on it. If your problem involves more than ane object, separate free-body diagram is needed for each object 84 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of MotionMetin Fy FIGURE 4-20 Example 4-10) Which is the correct feee-body F diagram for a hockey puck sliding | cross frictionless ice? Nig To VF (CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 2-10] The hockey puck. A hockey puck is sliding at constant velocity across a flat horizontal ice surface that is assumed to be frictionless, Which of the sketches in Fig. 420 is the correct free:-body diagram for this puck? What would your answer he if the puck slowed down? RESPONSE Did you choose (a)? If so, can you answer the question: what exerts the horizontal force labeled F on the puck? If you say that it is the force needed to maintain the motion, ask yourself: what exerts this. force? Remember that another object must exert any force—and there simply isn’t any possibility here. Therefore, (a) is wrong. Besides, the force F in Fig. 4—20a ‘would give rise to an acceleration by Newton's second law. Tt is (B) that is correct, as long us there is no frietion, No net force acts on the puck, and the puck slides at constant velocity across the ice In the real world, where even smooth ice exerts at least a tiny frietion force, then (c) is the correct answer, The tiny friction force is in the direction opposite (o the motion, and the puck’s velocity deereases, even if very slowly: Here now is a brief summary of how to approach solving problems involving Newton's laws, [EGET Newton's Laws; Free-Body Diagrams 1. Draw a sketch of the situation, 2. Consider only one object (at a time), and draw a free-body diagram for that object, showing all the acts, and by what object that force is exerted, Only forces acting on a given object can be inchuded in XE = mii for that object. forces acting on that object. Include any unknown forces that you have to salve for. Do not show forces that ihe chosen object exerts on other objects. Draw the arrow for each force vector reasonably accurately for dircetion and magnitude. Label each force, including forees you must solve for, as to its source (gravity, person, friction, and so on). If several objects are involved, draw a free- body diagram for cach object separntely, showing 3. Newton's second law involves vectors, and it is usually important to resolve vectors into compo- nents, Choose x and ) axes in a way that simplifies the calculation, For example, it often saves work if you chaase one coordinate axis to be in the direc- tion of the acceleration. 4. For each object, apply Newton's second law to the x ‘and y components separately. That is, the x compo- rent of the net force on that object is related to all the forees acting an dhat object (and only forees the component of that object's. acceleration ating on that object). For each (and every) force, EF, ~ ma,, and similarly for they direction you must be clear about: on what object that force 5. Solve the equation or equations for the unknown(s), ‘This Problem Solving Box should not be considered a prescription. Rather itis a summary of things to do that will start you thinking and getting involved in the problem at hand. When we are concerned only about translational motion, all the forces on a given object ean be drawn ns aeting at the center of the object, thus treating the ‘object as a point particle, However, for problems involving rotation or statics. the place where each force acts is also important, as we shall sez in Chapters 8 and 9 Force arow placement ‘on diagrams In the Examples that follow, we assume that all surfaces are very smooth so that friction can be ignored. (Friction, and Examples using it, are discussed in Section 4-8) SECTION 4-7. Solving Problems with Newton's Laws: Free-Body Diagrams 85on o) FIGURE 4-21 (2) Pulling the box. Example 4-11; (b) is the free-body diagram forthe box, and (c) is the free:body diagram considering all the forces to act ata point (transla- tiosal motion oaly, which is what we have here). we PROBLEM SOLVING ‘Conds can pul ut can't puke tension exists throughout a cord [SEULESEEEN Pulling the mystery box. Suppose 9 friend asks 10 ‘examine the 10.0-kg box you were given (Example 4-6, Fig. 415), hoping to {guess what is inside: and you respond, “Sure, pull the box over to” you.” She then pulls the box by the attached cord, as shown in Fig, 4-21a, along the ‘smooth surface of the table. The magnitude of the force exerted by the person is Fy = 40.0N, and itis exerted at a 309° angle as shown, Calculate (a) the acceleration of the box, and (b) the magnitude of the upward force Fy exerted by the table on the box. Assume tha friction can be neglected APPROACH We follow the Probiom Solving Box on the previons page. ‘SOLUTION 1. Draw a sketch: The situation is shown in Fig, 4-21a; it shows the box and the force applied by the person, Fy 2. Free-body diagram: Figure 4-21b shows the free-body diagram af the box. ‘To draw it correctly, we show all the forces aeting on the hox and ony the forces aeting on the box. They are: the force of gravity ms the normal fore exerted by the table Fy: and the force exerted by the person Fy. We are interested only in translational motion, so we ean show the three forces acting ata point, Fie 4-2e. 3. Choose axes and resalve veetors: We expect the motion to he horizontal, so wwe choose the « axis horizontal and the y axis vertical. The pull of 40.0N hhas components Fi, = (40.0 N)(cos30.0°) = (40.0 N)(0.866) = 34.6N, Foy = (40.0N)(sin 30.0") = (40.08) (0.500) = 200. In the horizontal (2) direction, Fh, and mg have zero components. Thus the horizontal component of the net force is Fry 4. (a) Apply Newton’s second law to determine the x component of the acceleration’ Fog = ma. 5. (a) Solve: (340N) : oe Ee Ty Moms ‘The acceleration of the box is 3.46 m/s? tothe right (6) Next we want to find Fy. 4. (6) Apply Newton's second law to the vertical (y) direction, with upward as positive: 2A, = may Fy- mg + Fr, = ma, 5. (b) Solve: We have. mg = (10.0 kg)(9.80 m/s?) = 880N and, from point 3 above, Fy, = 200N. Furthermore, since Fi, < mg, the box does not move verticalyes0 ay = 0, Thus F,—980N + 200N = 0, B= 10N. NOTE Fis less than mg: the table does not push against the full weight of the box because part of the pull exerted by the person is in the upward dreetion Tension in a Flexible Cord When a flexible cord pull on an objet, the cords sad to be under tension, and the force it exerts on the object isthe tension. If the cord has negligible mass the foree exerted atone end is transmitted Undiminished to each adjacent piece of cord along the entre lengih tothe olher end. Why? Because. SF = mil = O for the cord if the cons mass mi ero (oF negligible) ao mater what ais Hence the forces pling onthe cord at it two ends mist add up wo rero (Fy ond —F), Note that exile cords an strings xn only pal They cae push because they end 86 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of MotionFIGURE 4-22 Example 4-12.(a) Two boxes A ond By arceonneced bya cond. person alls hriontally on box A with force Fp = 40.0. (b) Free body diagram for box A. (e) Free-hody diagram for box B. ox B Box A @ (Our next Example involves two boxes connected by a cord, We can refer to this group of objects as a system. A system is any group of ane or more objects we choose (0 consider and study. Two boxes connected by a cord. Two boxes, A and B, ‘are connected hy & lightweight cord and are esting on a smooth (fitionless) lable. The boxes have masses of 12.0kg and 10.0kg. A horizontal force Fy of 40.0N is applied to the 10.0-kg box, as showa in Fig, 22a, Find (a) the actel- eration of each box. and (b) the tension in the cord connecting the boxes. APPROACH We streamline our approach by not listing each step. We have wo boxes so we need to draw a iree-body diagram for each box. To draw them correctly, we must consider the forees on each box by itslt so that Newton's second law ean be applied to each, The person exerts a force Fp on box A. Box A exerts a foree Fy on the connecting cord, and the cord exerts an opposite but equal magnitude force F, back on box A (Newion’s third law). These two horizontal forces on box A are shown in Fig, 4-226, along with the force of aravity my downward and the normal force Fas exerted upssard by the table. ‘The cord is light, so we neglect its mass The tension at each end of the eord is thus the same, Hence the cord exerts a force F; on the second box. Figure 4~22¢ shows the forees on box B, which arc Fy, yg, and the normal force Fy: ‘There will he only horizontal mation. We take the positive w axis to the right SOLUTION (a) We apply SF, = may to box A: BP = Fe~ Fes man [box A] For box B, the only horizontal force is Fy. s0 Dh = Fe = myay. [box B ‘The boxes are connected, and if the cord remains taut and doesn't streteh, then the two boxes will have the same acceleration a, Thus a, = ay = a. We are given mg = 10.0 kg and my = 120kg. We can add the two equations above to eliminate an unknown (Fy) and obtain (rng + mgla = Fe = Fe + Fe i Fy 400N “Tin time DKS ‘This is what we sought. 1.82m/s’ Alternate Solution We wovld have obtained the same result had we SF PROBLEM SOLVING considered a single system, of mass ing + my, acted on by a net horizontal Tetras force equal to Fy. (The tension forces #; would then be considered internal to the system as a whole, and summed together would make zero contribution to the net foree on the whole system.) (6) From the equation above for box B (F; = mya), the Cension inthe eord is Fy = mga = (120 kg)(1.82 m/s?) = 21.8. ‘Thus, F; is less than F(= 40.0 N), a8 we expect, since Fy acts to accelerate only ry. CAUTION NOTE It might be tempting to say that the force the person exerts, Fp, acts not wpe object ure only only on box A but also on box Blt doesn't Fp acts only on box A. affects box Bi forean aro ‘ia the tension in the cord, which ats on box B and accelerates it SECTION 4-7 Solving Problems with Newton's Laws: Free-Body Diagrams 87@ewvsics apriieo ator las Anco mahi] & ) FIGURE 4-23 Example 4-13, (0) Atswood's machine in the form ‘of an elevator-couuterwight system, (B) and (¢) Free-body liagrams for the two objects. ‘> pRootem sotvinG ‘Check your reli by seeing if works in stiations where the answer iseasily guessed Additional Examples Here are some more worked-out Examples to wide range of Problems Elevator and counterweight (Atwood’s machine). ‘A system of two objects suspended aver a pulley by a flexible cable, as shown in Fig, 4-230, is sometimes referred 10 a8 an Atwood's machine, Consider the reallife application of an clevator (mg) and its counterweight (1) To mini- mize the Work done by the moter to raise and lower the clevator safely, and ric. are similar in mass. We leave the motor out of the system for this ealeulation, and assume that the eable’s mass is negligible and that the mass of the pulley. as well as any frietion, is small and ignorable. These assumptions ensure thatthe fension Fr in the cable has the same magnitude on both sides fe you practice in solving a of the pulley. Let the mass of the counterweight he me = 1000kg. Assume the mass of the empty elevator is 850kg, and its mass when carrying four passengers is mp = 1150kg. For the latter case (me = 1150kg), calculate (a) the acceleration of the elevator and (h) the tension in the cable. APPROACH Again we have two objects, and we will need t0 apply Newton's, sevond law to each of them separately. Each mass has two forces acting on it gravity downward and the cable tension pulling upward, Ky. Figures 4-236 find c show the free-body diagrams for the elevator (mp and for the counter- weight (mc). The elevator, being the heavier, will accelerate downward, ‘whereas the counterweight will accelerate upward.'The magnitudes of their accelerations will be equal (we assume the cable doesn’t stretch). For the counterweight, me g = (1000 kg)(9.80 m/s?) = 9800, so Fy must be areater than 9800N (in order that me will accelerate upward). For the elevator, ‘meg = (1150 kg)(980m/s') = 11300N, which must have greater magnitude than Fy so that my accelerates downward. Thus our calculation must give Fy between 9800 N and L300 N. SOLUTION (a) To find Fy as well as the acceleration a, we apply Newton's second law, ZF = ma, to each object. We take upward as the positive y direction for both objects, With this choice of axes, ae = a becuse me: erates upward, and ay = —a because mg accelerates downward. Thus Fy meg = meag = — mea Fy ~ mcg = mode = +mca. ‘We can subtract the first equation from the second to get (me ~ me} = (me + mejay, where a is now the only unknown, We solve this for a me — me _ 11S0ke — 100k» ‘ Img ¥ mic © TIS kg > 100Dky 27S ~ O68 m/s ‘The elevator (mp) accelerates downward (and the counterweight me upward) at_a = 0,070g = 0.68 m/s" (©) The tension in the cable Fy can be obtained from either of the wo EF = ma equations setting a = 0.070g = 0.68m/s': Fy = meg ~ mea = mlg — a) 150 kg (9:80 m/s? ~ 0.68 m/s?) = 10,500, Fya meg + mca = mele + a) 000 ks (9.80 m/s# + 0.68 m/s") = 10,500, ‘which are consistent. As predicted, our result lies between 9800 N and 11,300. NOTE We can check our equation for the acceleration a in this Example by noting that if the masses were equal (my = me). then our equation above for ‘a woilld give a=, a8 we should expect. Also, if one of the masses is Zero (say, me = 0), then the other mass (mg #0) would be predicted by our equation to accelerate at a = g, again as expected. 88 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion[CONCEPTUAL EXAWPLE 2-14] The advantage of a pulley. A mover is ‘uying to lilt a piano (slowly) up to a second:-story apartment (Fig, 4-24), He is using a rope looped over two pulleys as shown. What force must he exert on the rope to slowly lift the piano’s 2000.N weight? RESPONSE The magnitude of the tension force Fy within the rope is the same at any point along the rope if we assume we can ignore its mass, First hotice the forces acting on the lower pulley atthe piano, The weight of the piano pulls down on the pulley via a short cable. The tension in the rope, looped through this pulley, pulls up rice, once on each side ofthe pulley. Let ‘us apply Newton's second law to the pulley—piano combination (of mass m): 2F ~ mg = ma To move the piano with constant speed (sst_@ = 0 in this equation) thus requites a tension in the rope, and hence a pull on the rope, of Fy — mg ‘The mover can exert a force equal i haf the piano’s weight, We say the pulley has given a mechanical advantage of 2, since without the pulley the mover would have 10 exert tice the force Getting the car out of the mud. Finding her car stuck ithe muda bright graduate ofa good physics course ties a strong rope to the back bumper of the ear, and the ofher end to a boulder, as shown in Fig. 4-250, She pushes at the midpoint of the rope with her maximum effort, which she estimates to be a foree Fy ~ 300N. The car just begins to budge withthe rope at an angle # (sce the Figur), which she estimates tobe 5°. With ‘vit force s the rope palling on the car? Neglect the mass af the rope APPROACH First, note that the tension in a rope is always along the rope. [Any component perpendicular to the rope Would cause the rope to bend oF bhackle (as it does here where Fy acts)—in other Words a rope can support tension force only along its ength. Let Band Fey be the foresson the hoalder fandom the car, exerted via the tension inthe ropé-as shown in Fig. 4-25a, Let us choone to look atthe forces on the iny section of rope whee she pushes The ree- body dingram is shown in Fig. 4=25h, which shows Fy as well the tensions in the rope (note that we have ised Newtons third laws Fy ~ ~Fy- Pac ~~ Fes) At the moment the car budges the acceleration is sil esentallyZer0,s0 = 0. SOLUTION For the x component of ZF = mai = 0 on that small section of rope (Fig 256), have SDA, = Fyycos 0 ~ Fac cos = 0. Hence Fay = Fixe. and thes forces represent the magnitude ofthe tension in the ‘rope, call it Fy; then we can write Fy = Fin = Fee. In the y dircetion, the forces acting are Fy. and the components of Fy and Fyc that point inthe negative y dletion each equal to F sin), So forthe y eomponent of SF = mi, we have BF, = Fy — 2Fsind = 0 We solve this for Fy, and insert @ = 5° and Fy = 300N, which were given: F300. 2sin@ — 2sins® THON. A ‘When our physics graduate exerted a force of 300N on the rope, the force produced on the car was [700 She was able to magnify her effort almost six times using this technique! NOTE Notice the symmetry of the problem, which ensures that Fan = Fae NOTE Compare Figs 4-25a and b. Notice that we cannot write down Newton's second law using Fig. 4~25a because the force veetors are not acting ‘on the same abject. tis only by choosing a tiny section of rope as our object, and using Newton's third law (in this case, the boulder and the ear pulling back fon the rope with torees Fy and Fc), that all forces apply to the same object. FIGURE 4-24 Example 4-14 Howse get out ofthe mud FIGURE 4-25 Example 4-15, () Getting a car ont of the sud, sliowing the forces on the boulder, ‘on the car, and exerted by the person. (b) The free-bod diagram forees om a small segment of rope St PROBLEM SOLVING Tseany symmetry present to simply aprobiem SECTION 4-7 Solving Problems with Newton's Laws: Free-Body Diagrams 89FIGURE 4-26 An object moving to the right ona table or floor. The to surfaces in gomtaet are rough, at least on a mieroscopic sale Kinetic friction Fak FIGURE 4-27 Wren an object is pulled by am applied foree (a) along a suracs, the free of fieton FR eppores the motion. The magaic tude of Fy is proportional othe ‘magnitud ofthe normal force (F) 90 CHAPTER 4 & ] Problems Involving Friction, Inclines Fri Until now we have ignored friction, but it must he taken into account in most practical situations Friction exists between two solid surfaces because even the ‘smoothest looking surface is quite rough on a microscopic scale, Fig. 4~26, When We try t0 slide an object across another surface, these microscopic bumps impede the motion. Exacily what is happening at the mieroseopie level is not yet fully understood, Its thought that the atoms on a bump of one surface may come so close to the atoms of the other surface that attractive electric forces between the atoms can “bond” as a tiny Weld between the two surfaces Sliding an object across a surface is often jerky, perhaps due to the making nnd breaking of these bonds Even when a round object rolls across a surtace, there is still some Iric: tion, ealled rolling fricdon, although itis generally much less than when an object slides across a surface. We focus now on sliding friction, which is usually called fietion (Kinetic is from the Greek for moving”). ‘When an object slides along a rough surface, the foree of kinetic friction acts, opposite to the direetion of the abject’s velocity."The magnitude of the force of kinetie frievion depends on the nature of the (Wo sliding surfaces. For given surfaces, experiment shows that the frietion force is approximately proportional to the normal force between the two surfaces, which is the force that either object exeris an the other, perpendicular to their common surface of contact (322 Fig, 4-27). The force of friction between hard surfaces in many eases depends very little on the total surface area of contact; thal is, the friction forve om this book is roughly the same whether itis being slid on its wide face or on its spine, assuming the surfaces have the same smoothness. We consider a simple model of friction in which we make this assumption that the friction force is independent of area. Then we write the proportionality between the friction force F and the normal force Fy as an equation by inserting a constant of proportionality, Fi, = mF ‘This relation is not a fundamental law; i i an experimental relation between the magnitude of the friction force Fi,, which acts parallel to the two surfaces, and the magnitude of the normal force Fy, which acts perpendicular to the surfaces, It is nor a veetor equation since the two forces have directions perpen- dicular 1o one another. The term sy is called the coefficient of Kinet friction, and its value depends on the nature of the two surfaces Measured values for a variety of surfaces are given in Table 4-2. These are only approximate, however, since 1 depends on whether the surfaces are wet or dry, on how much they have been sanded or rubbed, if any burrs remain, and other such factors. But jy is roughly independent of the sliding speed. as wel as the area in contact. TABLE 4-2 Coefficients of Friction’ Coefficient of Cocficient of Surfaces StatieFriion,y, Kinetic Frietion, 1 ‘Wood on wood os 02 Tew on ice 04 (03. Metal on metal (lubricated) 045 07 Steel on steel (unlubricated) 07 16 Rubber on dry conerete 10 ng. [uber on wet concrete or us uber on other solid surfaces 4 1 “Teflon” on Teflon in aie 04 os “Teflon on stee in ai 04 os Lubricated ball bearings 4, and the box begins to slide down, Additional Examples Here are some more worked-out Examples that can help you for solving Problems [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE G=19]] To push or to pull a sled? Your lite sister wants a ride on her sled, If you are on flat ground, will you exert less force if you push her or pull her? See Figs. 4-30a and b. Assume the same angle # in each case, RESPONSE Lotus diaw free-body diagrams forthe sled-sister combination, as shown in Figs. 4~30e and d. They show forthe two eases the forces exerted by you, F (an unknown), hy the snow, Fy and F,, and gravity mg (a) TF you puish her, and # > 0, there is a vertically downward component to your force Hence the normal force upward exerted by the ground (Fig. 4-30) will be larger than mg (here m is the mass of sister plus sled), (6) Ifyou pul her, your force has a vertically upward component, so the normal force Fy will be less thin mg, Fig. 4-30d, Becuuse the tition force is proportional to the normal force, fy wll be les if you pull her. So you exert less force if you pl he. © Fw Pulling against friction, 10.0-kz box is pulled along a horizontal surface by a force Fy of 4Q.0N applied at a 30.0° angle. This is like Example 4-11 exeept now there is friction, and we assume a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0:30, Caleulate the aeceleration. APPROACH The free-body diagram is like that in Fig, 4-21, but with one more foree, that of friction; see Fig, 4-31 SOLUTION ‘The calculation for the vertical (y) diteetion is just the same as in Example 4-11, where we saw that Fry ~ 20.0N, Fr = 346N, and the normal force is Fy = 780. Now we apply Newton’s second law for the horizontal (x) direction (positive to the right), and include the friction force: Fag ~ Fg = may ‘The friction force is kinetic as long as Fi = ay By is less than Fy (=34.6 N), which it is Fig = my Fe = (030)(980N) = 234. 92 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of MotionFionce the box dacs accelerate: 346N 10.0kg ~ Tn the absence of friction, as we saw in Example 4-11, the acceleration would bbe much greater than this NOTE Our final answer has only two significant figures because our least significant input value (4 = 0.30) has two. | EXERCISE B If yy Fy were greater than Fy, what would you conclude? Two boxes and a pulley. In Fig. 4-223, (wo boxes ate connected by a eord running over a pulley: The coefficient of kinetic friction between box A and the table 80.20, We ignore the mass of the cord and pulley and ny fiction inthe pulley, which means we ean assume that a. foree applied to one end ofthe cord will have the sume magnitude atthe other end. We wish 1o find the acceleration, a, ofthe system, which wil have the same magnitude for both boxes assuming the cord doesn't straich, As ox B moves down, box A moves tothe right APPROACH We need a free-body diagram for each box, Figs 4-22b and ,s0 wwe can apply Newton's second law to each, The forces on box A are the pulling force of the cord Fy, gravity my, the normal foree exerted by the table Fy, nd a fiction force exeried by the table Fy; the forees on ox B are gravity ‘msg. and the cord pulling up. Fy. SOLUTION Fox A does not move vertical the normal force just balanees the weight, Fy = mgg = (5.0kg)(98 m/s?) = 49. Tn the horizontal direction, there are two forces on box A (Fig. 4~32b): Fy, the tension in the cord (whose value we don't know), and the force of friction Fi, = su Fu = (0.20)(49N) = 98N, Te horizontal acceleration is what we wish to find; we use Newton's second law in the x diteetion, SF, = itqa,, which becomes (taking the positive direction to the right and setting @,, = @): BF qa = Fr ~ Fp = mga [box A] Next consider box B The force of gravity my g = (2.0kg)(9.8m/s*) = 19.6N pulls downward; and the cord pulls upward with a force Fy. So we can write Newton's second law for box B (taking the downward direction as positive) BF = mag — Fr maa. [box B] [Notice that if @ # 0, then F; is mot equal to 19 81 ‘We have two unknowns, a and Fy, and we also have two equations. We solve the box A equation for Fy Fi and substitute this into the box B equation so Newton's second law tells us Fy + mya, iy g — Fig = mga = mya Now we solve for a and put in sumerical values mys ~ Fy _ 19.6N ~98N my + imy SKE + 20KE which is the acceleration of box A to the right, and of box B down. Tf we wish, we can caleulate F; using the first equation: SN + (50k3)(1.4m/¢) lam/s, Fea Fig + mga IN. NOTE Box B is not in free fall. It does not fall at a = g because an addi tional foree, Fy. is acting upward on it FIGURE 4-32 Example 4-20) 50ke A 20K @ By Fy | msg 0) F ©) mgt Pesution Tension ina cord supporting a falling object may not equal object's weight SECTION 4-8 Problems Involving Friction, inclines 93FIGURE > pRootem SoLvING Good choice of coordinate system Simplifies the cateutation eMVSiCs ApPLieD ‘Skiing @) 38 Forcos on an object, sliding dow an incline Now we consider what happens when an object slides down an ineline, suet fas a hill or ramp. Such problems are interesting because gravity is the accel- trating force, yet the aeceleration is not vertical. Solving problems is usually easier if we choose the sy coordinate system so the x axis points along the ineline and the y axis is perpendicular to the incline, a8 shown in Fig, 4-33 Note also that the normal force is not vertical, but is perpendicular to the sloping surface of the plane in Fig. 4~33. EXERCISE C Is the gravitational force always perpendicular co an inclined plane? Is it always vertical? EXERCISE D [s the normal force always perpendicular to an inclined plane? Is it always vertical? The skier. The skier in Fig, 4-34 has just begun descending the 30° slope. Assuming the coefficient of kinetic trietion is 0.10, calculate (a) ler acceleration and (b) the speed she will reach after 4.05. APPROACH We choose the « axis along the slope, positive pointing down- slope in the direction of the skier’s motion. The y avis is perpendicular 10 the surface as shown. The frees ating onthe skier ane gravity, F, ~ mg which points vertically downward (no! petpendicular to the slope), and the 10 forces exerted on her skis hy the snow-—the normal fore perpendicular fo the snowy slope (not vertical), and the fietion force parallel (othe surface These three forces are shown acting at one point in Fig 4-3b, for convenience, and is our free-body diagram for the skier. FIGURE 4-34 Example 4-21. A skier descending a slope: Fe, = mig is the force of gravity (weight) on the skier 94 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of MotionSOLUTION We have to resolve only one vector into components the weight Fe and its components are shown as dashed lines in Fig. 434. To be general, we use # rather than 30° for now. We use the definitions of sine (side opposite”) and cosine (“side adjacent”) to obtain the components; Fox = masind, Fa, = —mg cose. where Fay is in the negative y direction, (a) To calculate the skier's seecleration down the hill, a., we apply Newton's second law to the x direction: 2B, = ma mg sind ~ my Fy = ma, where the two forees are the * component of the gravity force (+ direction) and the frietion foree (x direction). We want to find the value of az, but we don’t yet know Fy in the last equation, Let's see if we can get Fy from the y component of Newton's second lav BF, = may Fy — mgcos = may = 0 where we set ay = 0 because there is no motion in the y direction (perpen dicular to the slope). Thus we caa solve for Fy Fy= mgcoso ‘and we can substitute this into our equation above for ma, mgsind — (ing e080) = ma, ‘Thore fs an m in each term which can be canceled out. Thus (setting @ and jy, = 0.10): dy = gsin30" ~ ppg 60s 30 = 0.50g ~ (0.10)(0.866)y = O.4ly. ‘The skier’s acceleration is 0.41 times the acceleration of gravity, which in numbers is a= (0.41)(98m/s') = 4.0m/s’. It is interesting that the mass canceled out here, and so we have the usctul conclusion that the acceleration doesn't depend on the mass. That such a cancellation sometimes occurs,and “+ PROBLEM SOLVING thus may give a useful conclusion as well as saving calculation, is a big. Tisofen helo to pur numbers advantage of working with the algebraic equations and putting in the 0%) ico" numbers only at the end. (6) The specd after 4.05 is found, since the acceleration is constant, by using Eq.2-Hla: wea = 0+ (40m/s*)(4.0) = 16m/s, where we assumed a start from rest. Tn problems involving a slope or “inclined plane," it is common to make an error in the direction of the normal force or in the direction of gravity. The Dincinns of eaviy audio nornal normal force is not vertical in Example 4-21, It is perpendicular to the slope of 0 =< plane. And gravity is nor perpendicular to the slope ar plane—gravity acts vert cally downward toward the center af the Earth, uTION SECTION 4-8 Problems Involving Frietion, inclines 95& Problem Solving—A General Approach A basic part of a physics course is solving problems effectively. The approach discussed here, though emphasizing Newton's laws, can be applied generally for ther topics diseussed throughout this hook. | PROBLEM SOLVING [Efentel 1. Read and reread written problems carefully. A common efror is to skip a word or two when reading, which can completely change the meaning of a problem. 2. Draw an accurate picture or diagram of the situa- tion. (This is probably the most overlooked, yet ‘most crucial, part of solving a problem.) Use arrows to represent veetors such as velocity or force, and label the vectors with appropriate symbols, When dealing with forces and applying Newton's laws, ‘make sure to include all forees on a given object, including unknown ones, and make clear what forces act on what object (otherwise you may make an crror in determining the net force on a particular object). A separate free-hody diagram needs to be drawn for each object involved, and it must show all the forces acting on a given object (and only on that object). Do not show forces that aet on other object, 3. Choose a convenient xy coordinate system (one that makes your caleulations easier, such as one axis in the direetion of the acceleration). Vectors are to be resolved into components along the coor- dinate axes. When using Newton's second law, apply ZF = ma separately to x and y components, temembering that x diteetion forees are related to faq, and similarly for y. If more than one object is involved, you can choose different (convenient) ‘coordinate systems for each, 4, List the knowns and the unknowns (what you are trying to determine), and decide what you need in order to find the unknowns For problems in the present Chapter, we use Newton's laws More generally, it may help to see if one or more relationships (or equations) relate the unknowns to the knowns. But be sure each relationship applicable in the given case. It is very important to know the limitations of each formula or relationship—when it is valid and when not, In this book, the more general equations have been sziven numbers, but even these can have a limited range of validity (often stated in brackets to the right of the equation). 5. Try to solve the problem approximately, to see if it is doable (to check if enough information has been sven) and reasonable. Use your intuition, and ‘make rough ealeulations—see “Order of Magnitude Estimating” in Seetion 1-7. A rough caleulation, or fa reasonable guess about what the range of final ‘answers might be, is very useful. And a rough caleu- Tation can be checked agninst the final answer to catch errors in calculation, such as ina decimal point or the powers of 10. 6. Solve the problem, which may inchide algebraic ‘manipulation of equations and/or numerical ealeu- lations. Recall the mathematical rule that you need fas_many independent equations as you have unknowns; if you have three unknowns, for ‘example, then you need three independent equa- tions. It is usually best to work out the algebra symbolically before putting in the numbers Why? Because (@) you can then solve a whole class of similar problems with different numerical values; (6) you can check your result for eases already understood (say, @ = 0° or 1); (e) there may be cancellations or other simplifications; (d) there is usually less chance for numerical error; and (e) you ‘may gain better insight into the problem. 7. Be sure to keep track of units, for they can serve as fa check (they must balance on both sides of any equation). 8. Again consider if your answer is reasonable. The use ‘of dimensional analysis, described in Section 1-8, can also serve as a check for many problems [summary Newton's three laws of moti describing motion Newton's first law (the law of inertia) states that ifthe ret force on an object is zero, an object originally at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion in astraigh ine vith constant velocity are the basic classieal laws Newton's second law siates that the aveeleration of an object is directly propartional to the not foree acting on it, land inversely proportional to is mass EE = mi [Newton's second law is one of the most important and f ‘mental laws in lassical phys. 96 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of MotionNewton's third law states that whenever one object exerts a fosee on a second object, the second abject always exerts a force on the fist object which is equal in magnitude ‘nut opposite in direction: Fay > Fan coo) ‘whore Figg isthe foree om object B exerted by object A. The tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion js called inertia. Mass is a measure ofthe inertia of an abject. Weight refers to the gravitational foree on an object. and is equal to the product of the object's mass m and the acceler- ation of gravity & By =m a Foree, which is a vector, can be considered as a push of ‘ul: or. rom Newton’s second law, oreo can ho defined as an action capable of giving rise to acceleration. The net force on | fan abject is the vector sum of all forces acting om it When to objects slide over one another, the force of friction that each object exorts on the other can he written approximately as Fy = 4 Ay. where Fy isthe normal force {ibe forge each object exerts on the other perpendicular their contact surfaces), and 44, i6 the coetfciont of kinetic fiction. Ifthe objects dre at Test relative to each other, then Fic is just lagge enough to hold hem a rest and satisfies the inequality Fy <4, Fy. Whore jy is tho coefficient of state friction For solving problems involving the forees on one oF more jects itis essential to. draw a free-body diagram for each ‘object, showing all the forces acting on only that abject. Newton's second law can be applied to the veetor eompo- nents for each object. [Questions J. Why doos a ehild in a wagon seom to fall backward when you give the wagon a sharp pull forward? 2 A box cests on the (frictionless) bed of a truck. The truck Grivor starts the truck and accelerates forward. The ox immediately starts to slide toward the rear of the truck ‘bed, Discuss the motion of the box, in terms ef Newton's Jaws, as sean (a) by Mary standing on the ground beside the truck, and (6) by Chris who i riding on the truck (Fig. 4-35), FIGURE 4-35 Question 2 3. If the accsloration of an object is zero, are no forces acting on i? Explain, 4. Only one foree acts on an object. Can the object have zero acceleration? Can it have zero velocity? Explain, ‘When a golf hall is dropped to the pavement, it bounces back up. (a) Isa force needed to make it ounce back up? (b) Iso, what exerts the force? 6. I you walk along log Mating on lake, why does the log move in the opposite direction? 7. Why might your foot hurt if you kick a heavy desk or a wall? 8 When you ure running and want co stop quiekly. you must decelerate quickly. (a) What is tho origin of the force that causes you fo stop? (5) Estimate (using your own experi- fence) the maximum rate of deceleration of a person running at top speed to eome to rest. A stone hangs hy a fine thread from the ceiling, and a section of the same thread dangles from the bottom of the stone (Fig. 4-36). Ifa person gives a sharp pull on the angling thtead, where is the thread likely to break: below the stone oF above it? What ifthe person gives a slow and steady pull? Explain your answers } FIGURE 4-38 Question. 10. ‘Te force of gravity om a 2-ky rack is twice a8 great as that on a 1-kg rock, Why then doesn't the heavier rock fall faster? 1. Would a spring scale earried to the Moon give accurate resus if the scale had been calibrated (a) im pounds, or (@) in kilograms? 12 You pull a box with a constant foree across a frictionless table using an attached rope Hckd horizontally If yo! nome poll the rope with the same force at an angle to the her zontal (withthe box remaining flat on the table), does the acceleration of the box (a) emain the same, (B)inctease, or (6) decrease? Explain, 13, When an object falls freely under the influence of gravity thors isa net force mg exerted on it by the Earth. Yet by Newton's third law the object exerts an equal and oppo- site force on the Farth. Why doesn’c the Barth move? 14, Compare the effort (or force) needed to lift a 10g object ‘when you are on the Moon sith the forse needed to itt ‘on Earth, Compare the force needed to throw a2-kg object Dorizonally with a given speed on the Moon and on Earth. Questions 971S. According to Newton's third law, each team in @ tug of ‘var (Fig, 4-37) pulls with equal force on the other team. What, then, determines which team will win? FIGURE 4-37 Question 15, tg of war, Describe the forees on each of the ceams and on the rope 16, A person exerts an upward foree of 40’ to hold a bag of | proceries. Describe the “reaction” foree (Newton's third In) by stating (a) its magnitude (4) its direction, (€) om what object its exerted, and (d) by what object itis exerted. 8 1. a4, 1. When you stand stil on the ground, how large a force does the ground exert om you? Way doesnt this force ‘make you rise up into the air? Whiplosh sometimes results from an automobile accident when the victim's car is struck violently from the rear Explain why the head of the vietim seems to he thrown backward in thie situation. Is it really? |A heavy crate resis on the bed of a flatbed truek, When the truck accelerates the erate remains where it on the tsucks0 if, too, accelerates What force eauses the crate to accelerate? 9. A block is given a push so that it slides up a ramp. After the block reaches fs highest point, it slides hack down hut the magnitude of its acceleration is less om the descent than on the ascent. Why’? What would your bathroom scale read if you weighed Yourscif on an inclined plane? Assume the mechanism functions property. even at an angle Problems 4-4 104-6 Newton's Laws, Gravitational Force, Normal Force 1. (2) What foree is needed to accelerate a child on a sled (otal mass = 60.0 kg) at 1.25 m/e? 2 (A net force of 255N accelerates a bike and rider at 20m/s2, What i the mass of the bike and rider together? 43. (1) How much tension musta rope withstand if ti used fo aceelerate a 9-kg cat horirontally along a fctionless surface at 120./s*? 4. (1) What isthe weight of a 76-kg astronaut (@) on Earth, (B)on the Moon (g = 1.7 m/s"), (¢) on Mars (g = 3.7 m/s?) {din ovter space traveling with constant velocity? 5. (HI) A 200rkg box rests om table, (a) What is the weight Of the box and the normal force acting on it? (2) A 009-ke box is placed on top ofthe 20.0-kg box, as shown, ig 4-38. Determine the normal force that the table exerts on the 200k box and the normal force that the 20.04 box exerts on the 19.0-kg bos, FIGURE 4-28 Problem 5. 6. (1) What average foree is required wo stop an 1100-kg ear in 80sif the ear i traveling aL 9 kro/h? 98 CHAPTER 4 Dynar 1 15, Newton's Laws of Motion (II) What average force is needed to accelerate a “on-gram pellet from rest to 12Sm/s over a distance of (080m along the barrel ofa rifle? | (Ul) A fisherman yanks a fish vertically out of the water ‘with an acceleration of 25m/s? using very light fishing Tine that has a breaking strength of 22N. The fisherman ‘unfortunately loses the fish as the tine snaps. What can you say about the mass of the lish? (II) A O.140-K3 baseball traveling 350m/s strikes the catcher's mitt, whic, in bringing the ball «rest, recoils ‘nackeiard I.)em, What was the average forco applied by the ballon the glove? | (HI) Hos much tension musta rope withstand i itis used to accelerate a 200. car vertically upward at O80 m/s"? (1A paricular race car can cover a quartile track (2m) in 60s starting from a standstill. Assuming the acceleration is constant how many "e's" does the driver experiance? If the combined mass of tho driver and race at is 4S Ep, what horizontal force mus the toad exert on the tires? » (II) A 12.0-bg bucket is lowered vertically by a rope in which there is 163N of tension ata given instant, What is the acceleration of the bucket? Is it up a down? | (II) An elevator (mass 4850 kg) isto be designed so that the maximum acceleration # (Ung. What are the ‘maximum and minimum forces the motor should exert on the supporting cable? (11) A 75:kg petty thet wants to eseape from a third-story jail window: Unformnatels, a makeshift rope made of shects tied together can support a mass of only SSg How might the thief use this “rope” wo escape? Give a quantitative answer (Ht) A person stands on a bathroom scale in a motionless elevator. When the elevator begins to move. the scale briefly reads only (175 of the person's regular weight Calculate the acceleration of the elevator, and find the ireation of aveleration,16, (II) The cable supporting a 2125-kg elevator has a ‘maximum strength of 21,750. What maximum upward acceleration can it give the elevator without breaking? (ID (a) What isthe aeceleration of ovo falling sky divers (mass 132ke ineluding parachate) when the upward foree of air resistance # equal fo one-fourth of their weight? (b) Atter popping open the parachute, the divers descend leisurely to the ground at constant speed. What ‘now isthe force of aic resistance on the sky divers and their parachute? See Fig. 4-2. FIGURE 4-39 Problem 17. 18, (IT) A person jumps from the root of a house 3.9m high. ‘When he strikes the ground helow. he bends his knecs so that his torso decelerates ever an approximate distance of (0.70m. If the mass of his torso (excluding legs) is 421 find (a) his velocity just before his fet strike the ground: and (b) the average force exerted on his torso by his legs 4-7 Newton's Laws and Vectors | (1) A box weighing 77.0N sests on a table. A rope tied tho box runs vertically upward over a pulley and n weight is ( foung trom the other end A (Fig. 4-40), Determine the . fotse that the table exerts on 2 the box if the weight hanging fn the other side of the pulley weighs (a) 300N, (6) GION, and (€) 900N, FIGURE 4~40 Problem 19, 20, (1) Draw the free-hody diagram for a haskethall player (a) ust before leaving the ground on a_jump, and () while in the air. See Fig, 4-41 FIGURE 4-41 Problem 2 21, (1) Sketch the free-body diagram of a baseball (a) at the ‘moment itis hit by the bat, and again (6) after it has left the bat and is flying toward the outlield 22, (1) A 650N force acts in a northwesterly direction, A second 650-N force must ho exerted in what direction so that the resultant of the (Wo forces points westward? Ilustrate Your answer with a vector diagram, 23, (I) Arlene iso walk aos a “high wire” strung hetween two Builings 10m apart. The gin the one when she is at the midpoint is 10.0". as showin in Fig. 4-42. I her ‘mass is $0.0kg. what i tho tension inthe rope at this point? FIGURE 4-42 Problem 23. 24 (U1) The two forces Fy and By shown in Fig. 4484 and by (looking down) act on a 27.0-kg object on a frictionless tabletop. If Fy = 1D2N and Fy = 160N, find the net force on the ebjeet and its acceleration for (a) and (b) Ry ea b @ i) FIGURE 4-43 Problem 24 25, (U1) One paint bucket is hanging by a massless cord from another 32-kg paint 1 Jnucket, also hanging by a mass: less cord, as shown in Fig. 4-4. (a) Uf the buckets are at nest ‘what is the tension in each cord? t (6) If the owo buckets are pulled upivurd with an acceleration of L/S? hy the upper card calculate the tension. in each FIGURE 4-44 Problem 25, Problems 9926, (II) A person pushes a 14.0-kg lawn mower at constant speed with a force af = SON directed along the handle, hich is alan angle of 45.0° to the horizontal (Fy. 4-45) (@) Draw the free-hody diagram showing all forces acting fon the mower. Calculate (b) the horizontal friction foree on the mower, then (¢) the normal force exerted ‘erically upward on the mower by the ground. () What foree must the person exert an the lawn mower to accel- erate i¢ from rest t0 1.5n/s in 2.5 seconds, assuming the same friction force? FIGURE 4-45 Problem 26 27. {H1) Two snoweats tow a housing unit to a new locaton at McMurdo Base, Antartica, as shown i Fig, 4-46, The sum of the forees Fy and Fy exerted on the unit by the hori zontal cables is parallel to the line L, and, Fy Determine Fy and the magnitude of Fy + Fy. 8 Fy 28. (U1) A tran locomotive is puling two ear of the same mass behind it Fig. 447. Determine the ratio of the tension in the coupling beeen the locomotive and the fst car (Fy) (otha between the frst ear and the second car (Fr) for any nonesto aessleraion of the tain. FIGURE 4-46 Problem 27 ‘Top view a wile —_— FIGURE 4-47 Problem 2s, 100 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton's Laws of Motion 29, (II) A window washer pulls herself upward using the bucket pulley apparats shown in Fig, 4-48. (a) How hard must she pull downward to raise herelf slowly at constant speed? (6) Itshe ineroases this force by 15%, what wil her aeselor: tom be? The mass ofthe person ps the bucket is 6S he ! rune 8 30, (II) At the instant a race began, a 65-kg sprinter exerted a fore of 72UN on the starting block at a 22° angle with respect to the ground. (2) What was the horizontal aceler ation of the sprinter? (b) I the force was exerted for 0.38 ith what speed did the sprinter leave the starting block? (ll) Figure 4-89 shows a black (mass ma) an a smooth horizontal surface, connected by’ a thin eord that passes ‘ver a pulley 10 @ second block (my) which hangs vert cally. (a) Draw 8 fee-body diagfam for each block, showing the foree of gravity on each, the force (tension) exerted by the cord, and any normal foree. (4) Apply. Newton's second law to find formulas for the acceleration ‘of the system and for the tension in the eord. Ignore fee tion and the masses of the pulley and cor FIGURE 4~49 Problem 31. Mass my rests on a smooth horizontal surface, ‘mg bangs Vertically. 32, (11) A pale of fuzzy dice is hanging by a string from your rearview mirror, While you are accelerating from a stop Tight to 2Rm,/s in 40s, hat angle # does the string make withthe vertical? See Fig, 4-50. FIGURE 4-50 Problem 32.23, (I) Thee blocks on a fritonless horizontal surface are tn contact with cach other, shown im Fg 4-51. force is applied w block A (mass ma) (a) Draw a fee-budy diagram foreach block. Detormine (6) the eceleration of the sate (in terms of gm. and Mic) () the nt Force con each block, and (the free of conta that each bck torso ts eis (2) TF my ~ my = me = 12.03 and F = O6ON, give mumerial answers to (8), (e) and). Do your answers make sense intuitively? FIGURE 4-51. Problem 33, |M, (IUD The wo masses shown in Fig. 4-52 are each initially I.A'm above the ground, and the massless frictionless pulley is 48m above the ground, What maximum height {does the lighter object reach alter the system is released? [lin Fist determine the acceleration of the lighter mass land then its velocity at the moment the heavier one bits tho ground. Ths is its “launch” speed. Assume it doosn’t PT 22ke 32ue FIGURE 4-52 Problem 34, 85. (IM) Suppose wo boxes om a frotionless table are’ connected by a heavy cord of mass 1.0, Calculate the Aaceoleration of each box and the tension at each end of the cord, using the free-bods diagrams shown in Fig 4-53 Assume Fy =400N, and ignore sayging of the cord. Compare your results to Example 4-12 and Fig 4-22. For Cont ' se mc= LOE o ) 4-8 Newton's Laws with Fietion: Inlines 26, () If the sovtcent of Kine friction between a 35 erate and the Toor is 030, what horizon force is reared to move the crate at 9 stendy speed across the flor? What horizontal force required ifm zero? 37. () A force of S80N is required to stat & 80g box ‘roving across a horizontal concrete foo.) What is the Continent of ati frton between the box andthe Hoe? (6) If the 48.0-N force continues, the box accelerates at 0.70 m/s*, What is the coefficient of kinetic friction? 38 {) Suppoxe tha you are sanding on 3 train accelerating 020g What minimum cofcent of state tion must etween four fet andthe floor i you ae not to slide? 2, () Whats the maximum acceleration a car can undergo {tthe coeficient of state frtion between the tres and the ground is 080% (U) The coefficient of stati frition between hard ruber fn normal street pavemont is about 08-On how teen a hil (aximam angle) en yo leave a car parked? (M) A 1.0 box is released on a 32 incline and ace. ‘erates down the incline at 0.30m/s*. Find the friction force impeding is motion, What is the etiient of Kinetic tion? 42, (1) A car can decelerate at —4.80 m/s? without skidding Shen coming to rest on a level soad, What wold Aecelertion be ifthe road were ineined at 13” uphill? ‘Aste the sme state friction coffcent 45, {1 (a) A bo sits at rest on a ough 30° inlined pane Draw the fre body diagram, showing ll the frees ating «othe box. (6) How would the diagram change the bot stre sliding dow the plane? (e) Hom would changeit the box were sliding up the plane after an iil shove? 44, (M) Drag-ace ties in contact with an asphalt surfce have avery high coefiient of static tion. Asuming a consint aeration and no slipping des estimate the oxifcen of state friction needed form drag acer to over 1m in 125 starting rom ret 45, (I) The cvetcient of kinetic tion fora 2-4 bobled fon enc is 0.10 What fore is requited to push t down 1160" incline and achieve a spool of Cn hat the end or7sm? (1) For the systom of Fe 4-52 (Example 4-20) how Tange m mass wool! box A have to hve fo prevent any ron from occuring? Asume fy ~ 030. (11) bow sven a push so that i slides aos the foo. How fac ill go. given tht the coefficient of kinetic ition i 0.20 an the push imparts an inal speed of 40m/s? s 41 46, a Far Fp © FIGURE 4-53 Problem 35. Free-body diagrams for two boxes on a table gonnected by a heavy cord and being pulled to the sight as in Fig, 4-22. Vertical forees, Fy and Fg. are not show. Problems 10148. (1) Two erates, of mass 7Skg and 110 kg, are in contact tnd at rest om a horizontal surface (Fig. 4=S4).A 620 force is exerted on the Sky crate. Ifthe eoetficient of kinete friction i 0.15, calculate (a) the aceleration of the system, and (6) the force that cach crate exerts on the other. (e) Repeat with the erates reversed. con FIGURE 4-54 Problem 48, 49, (II) A Mathed truck is carrying a heavy’ crate. The coef cient of static friction Between the erate and the bed of the truck is 0.75, What is the maximum rate at which the driver can decelerate and sill avoid having the erate side Dpainst the eab of the truck?” 50. (II) On an dey day. you Worry about parking your car in| our driveway, which hasan inline of 12°. Your neighbor's driveway has an incline of 9", and the driveway across the street is at 60". The coefficient of static friction between tire rubber and ice is 0.15. Which driveway(s) will bo safe to park in? SL, (ID) A ehild slides down a slide with a 28" incline, and at the bottom her speed is precisely half what it would have bem ifthe slide had been frictionless Calculate the cock ficient of kinetic fiction hetween the slide and the child 52, (II) The earton showsn in Fig. 4-55 les on a plane tiked at fn angle # = 22(0" to the horizontal, with yy, = 0.12 (a) Determine the acceleration of the carton as it slides down the plane. (B) It the carton slarts from rest 9.30m up the plane from its base, what willbe the earton's sped ‘when it reaches the bottom af the incline? FIGURE 4-55 Carton on inclined plane, Problems 52 and $3, ‘53 (11) A carton is given an initial speed of 3.0m/s up the 220" plane shown in Fig. 4-55. (a) How far up the plane will i go? (b) How much time elapses before it returns to its starting point? Ignore frition 4 (Il) A roller coaster reaches the top of the steepest hill ‘with a spiced of .0 em’ It shen descends the hill hich s at an average angle of 45" and is 45.0m long. spoodd when it reaches the bottom. Assume. jay 55. (Tl) An I80-kg box is released on a 370" incline and Accelerates down the incline at 0.270'm/s2 Find the fre: lion force impeding its motion. How large is the coeff cient of kinetic Tretion? 'S6,(11) A small box is held in place against a rough wall by someone pushing on it with a forse directed upward at 28° shove the horizontal. The eoolicionts of static and kinetic friction hetwcen the bar and wall are 040 and 1030, respectively: The box slides down unless the applied oreo has magnitude 131N-Whar is the mass of tho box? 57. (I) Piles of snow on slippery roofs can become: dangerous projectiles as they melt, Consider a chunk of snow at the ridge of a roof with a piteh of 30”. (a) What is the minimum value ofthe eneticient of state friction that sill keep the snow fom sliding down? (b) As the snow hegins to melt, the coefficient of static fiction decreases nd the snow eventually slips. Assuming that the distance fram: the chunk to the edge of the roat is 50m and the coetficent of kinetic friction i 0.20, calulate the speed of tho snow ehunk when it slides off the roof (c) Ifthe edge ‘of the roof is 10.0m above ground, what isthe speed of the snow when it hits the ground? [58 (HID (a) Show that the minimum stopping distance for aa automobile traveling. at speed » iS equal 0 /2u,8. where ysis the coeiicient of static Irction between the lires and the road, and g is the acceleration of gravity (8) What is this distance for a 121Nkg_ cor traveling 9Skm/hif w= 075? (111) A coffee cup on the dashboard of a ear slides foeward on the dash when the driver decclerates trom 45 km/h to rest in 315 oF less, but net i he deeclerats in 4 longer time. What is the coefficient of static fiction Jretween the eup and the dash? (11) A small lock of mass mis given an initial speed ‘up a ramp inclined at angle # tothe horizontal. It travels @ distance « up the ramp and comes to rest. Determine & formula for the coefficient of kinetic frition between block and ramp, L, (D) The 75-kg climber in Fig. 4-56 is supported in the ‘eimney" by the frietion forces exerted on his shoes and hack. ‘The “Matic cnet sof friction between hs shoos and the wall, and hetween his back and the wall, are 080 and 0.60, respectively. What is the minimum sormal forse he must exert? Assume the walls are vertical and that fiction forces are hath at 4 maximum, Ignore his {vip an tho rope 2 FIGURE 4-56 Problem 61 102, CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton's Laws of Motion62. (ID) Boxes are moved on a conveyor belt from where they fare filed to the packing station Illm away: The belt initially stationary and must finish with zero speed, The most rapid transit is aceomplished ifthe helt aecelorates for half the distance, then decelerates forthe final half ofthe trip. H the coefficient of static friction between a box and the belt is (0.60, what isthe minimum transit time foreach box? 68. (IE) A Hoek (moss mn) ying on a tritionless inetined | plane i connected to a mass mr bya massless cord passing ver a pulley, as shown in Fig. 4-S7. (@) Determine a formula for the acceleration of the ssstem of the ti oeks in teams of my, mp, @ and. (b) What conditions apply to masses mand’; for the acceleration to be in one dines- tion (sam down the plane), or in the oppesite direction? Problems 63 and oi. General Problems FIGURE 4-57 (64 (IID (@) Suppose the coeticient of kinotic fiction between doy and the plane in Fig 4-57 is py = (115, and that my =m, =2.7ky. As my moves down, determine the ‘magnitude of the acceleration of m, and ms, given @ = 25°. (6) What smallest value of jx, will Keep this system from accelerating? 65. (UID A bicytist of mass 65g (including the bicycle) can coast down 2 6.0 hillaa steady speed of 60kra/h because ‘fais resistance, How mueh foree must be applied 1 climb the hill a the same speed and same air resistance? (66. According to a simplified model of a mammalian heart at ‘each pulse approximately 20, of hlood is accelerated from 10.25.m/s to 0.35 m/s during a period af 10s What is the ‘magnitude of the force exerted by the heart muscle? 69. A person has a reasonable chance of surviving an autos ‘mobile crash ifthe deceleration is no more than 30e's" Caleulate the force on a 70-kp person undergoing, this acecleration, What distance is traveled if the person is ‘brought to res a tis rate from 100 km/h? 8 (@) If the horizontal acceleration produced hy an earthe| {quake isa, and if an abject going to “hold its place” on tho ground, show thatthe eooicent of static friction with the ground must Be at least j= a/@. (6) The famous Loma Prieta earthquatve that stopped the 1989 World Series produced ground accelerations of up to4.0 m/* in the San Francisco Bay Area, Would a chair have stated to side on ‘linoleum floor with eveffsien of state fition 125? 69, An 11S0kg ear pulls a 4504kg trae. The car exerts a havi zontal force of 28 % 10°N against the ground in order to fcoelerate. Wha forse does the cat exert on the trailer? “Assume an elfective friction cocficient of 0.15 forthe tale. "70. Police investigators, examining the scene of an accident involving two cars, measure T2--long skid marks of one of the ears, which nearly eume to a stop before colliding. The coefficient of Kinctic friction between ruber and the ‘pavement is about 0.80. Estimate the initial speed of that car assuming & [vel road, ‘71. A car starts rolling down a -in-+ hill (-in-4 means that for each 4m traveled along the road. the elevation change is Lm), Hw fost is it going when it reaches the bottom alter traveling 85m? (a) Ignore frietion. (4) Assume an elfective evefficient of friction equal 10 0.10. ‘A 20-kg purse is dropped from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisn and falls SSm before reaching the around with a speed of 29m/s. What was the average force of air resistance? "73, A eyelist is coasting ata steady speed of 12 m/s but enters ‘a muddy stretch where the effective eneticient fiction is O60. Will the exeist emerge from the muddy stretch ‘without having to pedal if the mud lasts for 11m? If so. ‘what will bo the spood upon emerging? “74. A city planner is working on the redesign of a hilly portion ofa cits. An important consideration is how steep ihe roads can be so that even low-powered cars can get up the hill without slowing down. A partieular small car, with a mass of 1100kg. can accelerate on a level road from rest to 21 m/s (75 km/h) in 14.08 Using these data, caleulate the maximum steepness of hil "75, Francesca, who likes physics experiments, dangles her ‘watch from a thin pieee of string while the jetliner she isin takes off from JFK Airport (Fig, 458). She notices tha the string makes an angle of 25- with respect to the vertical asthe aircraft aecelerates for takeoff, which takes about 18. Fsti- mate the takeoff speed of the alrerat re Lem 1S \ ' t 1 Pr FIGURE 4-58 b Problem 75, mal General Problems 103“76. A 280-kg blocks connected to an empty 1.35-ky bucket by a cord running over a frictionless pulley (Fig. 4-59) “The coelficient of static friction between the table and the block is 0.450 and tho cnefticiont of kinctic friction between the table and the black is 0.420. Sand is grad- ally added to the bucket until the system just begins to move. (a) Caleulat tho mass of sand added to tho bucket. (}) Calculate the acceleration ofthe system. 280k9 FIGURE 4-59 Problem 76 77 In the design of a supermarket, there are to be several amps connecting diferent parts of the store. Customers will have to push grocery earis up the ramps and i is obviously desirable that this not be too dificult. The engi- nicer has done a survey and found that almost no one complains if the foree direcied up the ramp iso more than DON Ignoring fiction, at what maximum angle # show the amps be bull, assuming a full 30g grocery cart? ‘78. (@) What minimum force F is needed c lift the piano mass 1) using the pulley apparatus shown in Fig, 4-00? () Determine the tension in each section of rope: Fri. Faas Fra. and Fre Fala lta Fes F FIGURE 4-60 \ \ \ aoe mangle of 45° force that the 79. A jot oirrafe accelerating at 3Sm/ above the horizontal, What the tot cockpit seat exerts on the 75-kg plc? 80. In the design process for a child-restrant chair, an engi reer considers the following set of conditions: A I2-ky child is riding in the chair, which is securely fastened 19 the sont of an nutomabile (Fig. 4-61). Assume the auto ‘mobile is involved in 2 head-on collision with ancther vehicle. The inital speed yp of the car is 45 km/h, and this spood is reduced to zero during the collision time of 020s. Assume a constant car deceleration during the collision and estimate the net horizontal force F that the Straps of the restraint chair must exert an the child in ‘order to keep her fixed to the chait. Treat the child a8 & particle and stale any additional assumptions made uring your analysis FIGURE 4-61. Problem 8!) BL. A 7650-kg holicopter accelerates upward at 0.80'm/s* ‘while iting» 1250+, frame ata construction site, Fig. 4-62 (a) What is the lift foree exerted by the air on the heli copter rotors? (b) What isthe tension in the eable (ignore its mass) that connects the frame to the helicoptes? (6) What force does the cable exert on the helicopter? Problem 81 FIGURE 4-62 82, A super highspeed 12-car Taian train has @ mass of {660 metsic tons (660,001 kg). It can exert a maximum force of 400 EN horizontally against the tracks, whereas at maximum velocity (300 km/h), i€ exerts a free of bout 150 KN. Calculate (a) its maximum acceleration, and (b) estimate the force of air resistance at top speed, 8, A 65g ice skater consts with no effort for 75 m until she ‘ops. If the coelfcient of kinetic friction between her skates and the ice is 4 = 0.20, how fast was she moving Al the start of her coast? 104 CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Newton's Laws of MotionSM Two rock climbers, Bill and Karen, use safety ropes of similar length. Karen's rope is more clastic, called dynamic rope by climbers. Bill has a static rope, not recommended for safety purposes in peo climbing. Karan falls freely about 2.0m and then the tape stops her over a distance of 101m (Fig. 4-63). (a) Estimate, assuming that the force is constant, how largo free she wil feo from the rope. (Express the result in multiples of her wight.) (®) In a similar fall Bill's rope streteles by 30em only How many times his weight will the rope pull on him? ‘Which climber is more likely to be host? FIGURE 4-63 Problem 84 85. A fisherman in a boat is using a “10-Ib test” fishing line. This means thatthe line ean exert a force of 45 N withou breaking (1b = 4.85N). (a) How heavy a fish can the fisherman land ithe pulls the fish up vertically at constant spead? (6) If he accelerates the fish upward at 2.0m/s*, ‘what maximum weight fish ean he land? (c) Is it possible te Tanda 1541b tout on Uh est line? Why oF why not? 86, An elevator in a tall building is allowed wo reach a ‘maximum speed of 3Si/s going down, What must the tension be inthe cable to stop this elevator over a distance ‘of 26m if the elevator has a mass of 1300kg including fceupants? Tivo boxes, = LDke with « coefficont of kinetic frie tion of 0.10, and ma = 20kg. with a coefficient of 0.20, are placed on a plane inclined at 6 = 30°. (a) What Acceleration does each box experience? (4) 1a taut string is connected to the boxes (Fig, 4-64), with mp initially farther down the slope, what i the acceleration of each ‘box? (¢) IF the initial configuration is reversed with rm, starting lower with a (aut string, what is the acceleration ‘of each box? FIGURE 4-64 Problem 87. 8S. A TS0bkg person stands on a seale in an elevator. What does the scale read (in N and in kg) when the elevator is (a) at rest () ascending at a constant speed of 30m/s (c) falling at 3.0m/s (a) accelerating upward at 30 m/s? (e) accelerating downward at 3.0m/s 9, Taree mountain climbers who are roped together are ascending an icefield inclined at 21.0" to the horizontal The last climber slips palling the second climber off his fect The first climber fs able to hold them both. 1 eoch climber has a mass of 75kg, calculate the tension in each df the 1wo sections of rope between the three embers Ignore friction herscen the feo nd the fallen climbers Answers to Exercises As (a) The same: (b) the sports ear (c) third law for part (a) Second law for part (b). The force applied by the person is insufficient to keep the bor moving : Nosyes Dz Yes:no, General Problems 105