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    Tri T Ha Digital Satellite Communications 2nd Bookos Org PDF

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    Mandovi Borthakur

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    Digital Satellite Communications Second Edition Tri T. Ha Naval Postgraduate School About the Author ‘Tri 7. Ha, Ph.D,, ie Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, Other McGraw-Hill Communications Books of Interest “Azevedo + 1S: THE STRATEGIC DIALOG MANAGER ‘Beam » COMMAND, CONTHOL, AND COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS ENGINEERING CChorafas * THe.COMPLETE LAN REFERENCE Cooper (Ranade, Ed.) * COMPUTER & COMMUNICATIONS SECURITY Dayton (Ranade, Ed.) * WTEGRATING DIGITAL SERVICES Pols = aie MechAN? LL COMPILATION OF DATA COMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS Fortier « naNoGOK OF LAN TECHNOLOGY Fihenas + MANUALOF SATELLETE COMMUNICATIONS Inglis + ELeCTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS TANDDOOK Knightion * STANDARDS FOR OFEN SYSTEMS CONNECTION“ Lee * MOBILE CELLULAR TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS [Lee + MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING ‘Nemiow » KEEPING THE LINK: ETERNET INSTALLATION & MANAGEMENT (Owen » DIGHEAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS Ranade + AOVANCED S¥A NETWORKING FRanade * WeTHOBUCTION TO SNA NETWORKING Ronade * VSAM: PERFORMANCE, DESIGH, AND FINE-TUNING Remade, Rona * SAM: CONCEPTS, PROGRAMMING, AMD DESIGN hee + ERROR CORRECTION CODING THEORY Sebin + sinct-stocaND SYSTEMS AND CRCUTTS Sarch + 1wtEORATING VOICE ANO DATA Sarch; Abbatiello » THLECOMMUNICATIONS A DATA COMMUNICATIONS FACT OOK Tugel, Tuga + OATA TRANSMISSION Ungaro + NETWORKING SOFTWARE UuntueRstono of cantanera pretiorcea ceseccces=~ TMM oorssaz7 Digital Satellite Communications Second Edition Tri T. Ha Naval Postgraduate Schoo! AIS SRY | bow be R26 McGraw-Hill Publishing Company ew Yoo St Louis Sen Fancieo, Axalord, Bogett ‘Stat anburg_Usbon Larson Madi, Menco Iitan Monees! Now Dah Pass 'Sorapen sa Pose, Sages ‘Syaray Toyo. Torn DIGITAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS: INTERNATIONAL EDITION Copyright © 1990 [Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Book Co - Singapore for manufacture ant export, This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is eonsigne: by McGraw-Hill Copyright © 1990 by McGraw-Hill, Ine. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, oF stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. First edi \n published by MacMillan in 1986. 34567890KHL 98765 ‘The sponsoring editor for this book was Danicl A. Gonneau and the production supervisor was Suzanne Babcut, It was set in Times Roman by J.M. Post Graphic Corp. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Datal Ha, Tri Ti, Date. Digital satellite communications /TriT. Ha -- 2nd ed em. (McGraw-Hill communications series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-07-025389-7 1. Artifical satelite in telecommunication. 2. Digitat communications. I. Title Series. 89-13462 ap Information contained in this work has becn obtained by McGraw-Hill, Inc, | Hom sures ete to be rll However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantees the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any cerrors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work i published with the understanding that McGraw-Iill and its authors are Supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other | professional services. Ifsuch services are required, the assistance of an [ appropriate professional should be sought When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-100752.0) Printed in Singapore t Ree EL & For my daughter Renee Lan-Huong Contents chapter I MW 12 13 13.1 13.2 133 134 135 13.6 14 1S Preface List of Acronyms List of Symbols Elements of Satellite Communication SATELLITE FREQUENCY BANDS SATELLITE SYSTEMS, TRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING Pulse Code Modulation Delta Modulation Time Division Multiplexing-Putse Code Modulation Digital Hierarchy Frequency Division Multiplexing Transmultiplexing MODULATION MULTIPLE ACCESS xvii xix xxiii “4 15 7 7 a 22 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 270 272 273 274 Bu 34d 32 Ra Bld INS 3.16 32 32d 3.2.2 3.23 chapter 2 chapter 3 FREQUENCY REUSE BY ORTHOGONAL POLARIZATIONS ADVENT OF DIGITAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATION REFERENCES PROBLEMS Communications Satellite: Orbit and Description ORBITAL PERIOD AND VELOCITY EFFECTS OF ORBITAL INCLINATION AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION COVERAGE ANGLE AND SLANT RANGE ECLIPSE PLACEMENT OF A SATELLITE INA GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT SATELLITE DESCRIPTION ‘Communications Subsystem Telemetry, Command, and Ranging Subsystom Altitude Control Subsystem Electrical Powor Subsysiem REFERENCES PROBLEMS, Earth Station EARTH STATION ANTENNA Antenna Types Antenna Gain Antenna Pointing Loss Etfective Isotropic Radiated Power Antenna Gain-to-Noise Temperature Ratio G/T Measurement HIGH-POWER AMPLIFIER, Redundancy Configurations Carrier Combining Power Combining 25 28 29 29 31 92 38 a 44 46 48 52 59 62 66 67 68 70 70 n 76 78 at 82 88. 93 94 96 7 33 33.1 3.3.2 34 341 34.2 BS 3.5.1 35.2 36 BT 4d 42 420 422 423 424 425 426 427 43 43d 43.2 433 434 chapter 4 LOW-NOISE AMPLIFIER Redundancy Configurations Nonlinearity UPCONVERTER Conversion Process ‘Transponder Hopping, Polarization Hopping. and Redundancy Configuration for Upconverter DOWNCONVERTER Conversion Process Transponder Hopping, Polarization Hopping, and Redundancy Configuration for Downconverter MONITORING AND CONTROL RELIABILITY REFERENCES APPENDIX 3A; THERMAL NOISE SOURCE PROBLEMS Satellite Link BASIC LINK ANALYSIS INTERFERENCE ANALYSIS Carrier-to-Noise lus Interference Ratio Interference into or from Adjacent Satellite Systems Terrestrial Interference Cross-polarization Interference Adjacent Channel Interference intermodulation Interference Intersymbo! Interference RAIN-INDUCED ATTENUATION Prediction of Attenuation Effect of Rain Attenuation on ‘System Noise Temperature Carrier-to-Noise plus interference Ratio including Rain-Induced Attenuation Path Diversity aa 102 104 105 108 108 109 11 112 114 116 120 124 125 128 129 130 136 198 142 181 182 154 156 187 157 187 165 166 167 “44 45 46 46.1 46.2 Sa 52 53 54 55 56 57 61 64d 612 613 62 chapter 5 chapter 6 RAIN-INDUCED CROSS-POLARIZATION INTERFERENCE ‘SYSTEM AVAILABILITY SATELLITE LINK DESIGN Link without Frequency Reuse Link with Frequency Reuse REFERENCES PROBLEMS Frequency Division Multiple Access FDM-FM-FOMA SINGLE CHANNEL PER CARRIER FM-FOMA TELEVISION COMPANDED FON-FM-FOMA AND See aM: FOMA INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS Teer FROM AMPLITUDE NONLINEARITY INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS ASS TING FROM BOTH BEPLITUDE AND PHASE NONLINEARITIES opTIMIZED. GARRIER-TO-INTERMODULATION PLUS NOISE RATIO. REFERENCES APPENDIX 5A: LEAST-SQUARES FITTING "APPENDIX 5B: BESSEL FUNCTIONS PROBLEMS Time Division Multiple Access TDMA FRAME STRUCTURE Reference Burst Traltie Burst Guard Time ‘Toma BURST STRUCTURE 170 W7 178 179 183, 186 186 192 194 202 204 205 206 213 218 219 220 221 223 226 226 227 228 228 229 6.2.2 6.23 624 63 64 65 65.1 6.5.2 68.1 6.8.2 69 69.1 6.9.2 69.3 69.4 6.95 6.10 6.10.1 6.10.2 6.10.3 Unique Wora Signaling Channel Tralfic Data TDMA FRAME EFFICIENCY TOMA SUPERFRAME STRUCTURE FRAME ACQUISITION AND ‘SYNCHRONIZATION Receive Frame Acquisition and Receive Frame Synchronization Transmit Frame and/or Burst Acquisition and Transmit Frame ‘and/or Burst Synchronization SATELLITE POSITION DETERMINATION Single-Station Ranging ‘Three-Station Ranging Satellite Position Error: Single-Station Ranging Satellite Position Error: ‘Three-Station Ranging Errors in Dy BURST TIME PLAN CONTROL AND COORDINATION BY THE REFERENCE STATION Burst Position Control Trallic Coordination: Burst Time Plan Change TOMA TIMING Slip Rate in Digital Terrestrial Network ‘TDMA System and Terrestrial Network Interconnection Plesiochronous Interfaces ‘Asynchronous interfaces Synchronous Interfaces TOMA EQUIPMENT TOMA Processor Terrestrial Intertace Module ‘TDMA Monitoring and Control 238 239 240 281 243 247 249 258 258 262 264 265 265 269 270 270 om 279 282 286 288 290 293 295 295 297 298 611 a 72 74 74 74.1 74.2 743 744 75 76 2 78 Bl 82 83 a4 85 86 87 chapter 7 chapter 8 ADVANCED TOMA SATELLITE SYSTEMS REFERENCES PROBLEMS Efficient Techniques: Demand Assignment Mulliple Access and Digital Speech Interpolation THE ERLANG 8 FORMULA TYPES OF DEMAND ASSIGNMENTS DAMA CHARACTERISTICS REAL-TIME FRAME RECONFIGURATION Frame and Burst Structures for DA-TOMA Capacity Search for DA-TOMA Repacking On-Going Calls, How Fast Is Frame Reconfiguration? ! DAMA INTERFACES + ‘SCPC-DAMA SPADE DIGITAL SPEECH INTERPOLATION REFERENCES PROBLEMS Satellite Packet Communications PRELIMINARIES MESSAGE TRANSMISSION BY FOMA\ THE M/G/1 QUEUE MESSAGE TRANSMISSION BY TOMA PURE ALOHA: SATELLITE PACKET SWITCHING SLOTTED ALOHA PACKET RESERVATION TREE ALGORITHM 300 302 303 306 308 ait 318 32t 321 326 327 333 335 337 339 343 348 348 352 353 354 358 362 366 378 379 9.2 921 922 923 93 93.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 94 95 95.1 952 96 9.6.1 9.6.2 97 98 99 9.10 9.10. 9.10.2 9.10.3 9.10.4 9.10.5 chapter 9 yeas convents sit REFERENCES PROBLEMS Digital Modulation OPTIMUM COHERENT DEMODULATION PHASE-SHIFT KEYING Probability of Error Phase Ambiguity Resolution by Unique Word Phase Ambiguity Resolution by Differential Encoding QUATERNARY PHASE-SHIFT KEYING Probabilily of Error Phase Ambiguity Resolution by Unique Word Phase Ambiguity Resolution by Differential Encoding M-ARY PHASE-SHIFT KEYING FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING Coherent FSK Nonooherent FSK M-ARY FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING ‘Coherent MFSK Noncoherent MFSK ‘QPSK AND MSK BAND-LIMITED NONLINEAR SATELLITE CHANNEL COMPUTER SIMULATION OF A SATELLITE CHANNEL DIGITAL MODULATION WITH ERROR-CORRECTION CODING Concept of Error-Correction Coding Linear Block Coding Error Rate with Linear Block Coding Convolutional Coding Trellis-Coded Modulation REFERENCES APPENDIX 9A: GRAM-SCHMIOT ORTHOGONALIZATION 382 382 384 384 392 399 402 404 407 412 415 419 424 427 427 428 432, 433 435 437 442 449 454 487 462 466 468 473 479 480 AR ARAN ARAN “ web od bSLBSUGE EL LEH 8 iv CONTENTS chapter 10 10.1 10.1.1 10.12 10.2 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.2.4 10.2.5 103 103.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4 10.3.5 104 chapter I] wd id mt? mAs u2 APPENDIX 98: POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY PROBLEMS Cartier and Symbol Timing Synchronization CARRIER RECOVERY FOR MPSK ‘Analysis Performance in Noise PHASE-LOCKED LOOP Pincple of Operation Steady-State Tracking Performance Transient Response Phase ster Due to Noise Hang-up CARRIER RECOVERY CIRCUIT WITH CARAS WGAND BANDPASS FILTER BAD AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL LOOP Single Tuned Bandpass Fiter Double-Tuned Bandpass Fier Cycle Siping Interburst Interference Burstto-Burst Frequency Variations sywBOL TIMING RECOVERY Giacuir REFERENCES PROBLEMS Satellite Spread Spectrum Communications DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEMS PN Sequence Error Rate Performance in Uniform Jamming Error Rate Performance in Pulsed Jamming DIRECT SEQUENCE CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS 481 484 488 488 490 492 499 500 505 505 506 508 509 512 513 514 520 524 531 536 536 539 541 541 544 847 550 «60 1123 24 N25 3 4 ms 6 Rd 12.2 RB RA 24d RAD Rs BA 2 Ba 134 chapter 12 chapter 13 CONTENTS x ‘Sequence-Asynchronous iar SioDs-CDMA. Random Access DS-CDMA DS-CDMA Link Analysis FREQUENCY HOP SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEMS FREQUENCY HOP CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS: DS ACQUISITION AND ‘SYNCHRONIZATION FH ACQUISITION AND SYNCHRONIZATION SATELLITE ON-BOARD PROCESSING REFERENCES APPENDIX 11A: CHERNOFF BOUND PROBLEMS Very Small Aperture Terminal Networks VSAT TECHNOLOGIES NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS MULTIACCESS AND NETWORKING ! NETWORK ERROR CONTROL Go-Back-N for SCPC or DS-CDMA Channels Link Contro! for Variable Length Packet Aloha/TOM POLLING VSAT NETWORKS REFERENCES PROBLEMS Mobile Satellite Networks OPERATING ENVIRONMENT MSAT NETWORK CONCEPT CDMA MSAT NETWORK STATISTICS OF MOBILE PROPAGATION REFERENCES PROBLEMS 561 564 566 568 572 873 879 581 581 582 583 586 586 688 594 599 602 605 610 613 614 615 61s 617 625 629 631 631 Preface ‘The second edition of Digital Satellite Communications is an expanded version ofthe first edition, Within the past few years the progress of satellite technology has resulted in the creation of very small aperture terminal (VSAT) networks and of the forthcoming mobile satellite (MSAT) networks that can extend ve- hicular communications from the urban to rural areas. Both networks can handle voice as well as data traffic, It is therefore necessary to update the first edition to include VSAT (Chap. 12) and MSAT (Chap. 13) networks. Furthermore, some VSAT and MSAT networks are and will be using spread spectrum tech- nology such as direct-sequence code division multiple access (DS-CDMA). Thus, a more detailed discussion of DS-CDMA is incorporated in the second edition (Chap. 11). Another addition is convolutional coding and trellis-coded modulation (Chap. 9). Also for the instructor a solutions manual is available from the publisher on request. 1 would like to take this opportunity to thank my advisor and academic mentor Professor Robert W. Newcomb (University of Maryland), my long time friends Dr. Ferial El-Mokadem and Dr. Gerd Keiser, my colleagues Professors John P, Powers, R. Clark Robertson, end Robert D. Strum, and my family for their moral suppor. 1 also would like to thank my former colleagues at GTE for providing supporting materials for the first edition and Professors Simon Haykin (MeMaster University) and Leon Couch Il (University of Florida) who reviewed the first edition and Dr. Don Torrieri who reviewed the second edition and provided many helpful comments. I also wish to thank Hien T. Ha for typing the second edition manuscript. Finally I dedicate this book to my daughter Renee Lan-Huong who brings so much joy to my life. Monterey, California June 1989 On SB80095 19° TAAAANAA ACK ‘acu ‘AREA ‘ARQ ‘AWGN PF Bsc cor cert cer CDMA. conus esc DA-FDMA DA-TDMA DAMA DAU pos bc persk Dic Mc Desk Ds DS-CDMA bst EIRP QL Fcc, DM FDMA FEC FH FH.CDMA acknowledgment antenna conto! unit assisted recive frame acqui sutomatie request for retransmission auditve white Gaussian noise bandpass filter binary symmetric channel Intemational Radio Consultative Commitee Invemational Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Commitee cartier and clock recovery code division multiple access Continental United States common signaling channel demand assignment-frequency division multiple acess ‘einand assignmest-time division mulipte access demand assignment multiple access data acquisition unit iect broadcasting satellite downconvener ferential encoding PSK with coberent detection data link contro! diserete memoryless channet differential encoding PSK with noncoherent detection direct sequence direct sequence-code division multiple access Aigital speech interpolation effective isotopic radiated power equalizer Federal Communication Commission frequency division multiplexing frequency division multiple access Forward error corection Frequency bop frequency hop-cade division multiple access Xx LIST OF ACRONYMS PM TSK PA 1F nD. INTELSAT iu LAN ENA Lo Lec LPP Mac MESK MPSK MSAT MSK MTTF MTTR NaK Nec om cgesk PC PCM PLL PN Ro Rs: PSK Qusk Rov RF REA RES RET su scr. SCPB-DAMA, scPc SCPC-DAMA frequency modulation Arequeney-shil keying high-power amplifier intermetiate fequency independent and identically distributed International Telecommunications Satelite Organization International Teleeommunicaion Union local area network low-noise amplifier local oscilatoe linear preditive coding low-pass fer ‘monitoring and contro! Meaty frequency sift Keying Mary phaseshft Key snabile satelite minimum shift keying meantime to failure ‘mean time t0 repair nepatve acknowledgment network contol center ‘orthogonal mode transducce offset quaternary phase shit keying personal computer pulse code modulation phase-locked loop peudo-noise Irimary reference burst primary reference station phase shit keying ‘quaternary phase-shif Keying, receive butst timing radio frequency , teceive frame acquisition rective frame synchronization receive Fame timing short burst single channel pee burst single channel per burst-demand assignment multiple access single chanel per eaerier single channel per eatrier-deman assignment multiple access SRB SRS. SS-TDMA ssp ssB. SSB-AM-PDMA 1 ™ 3 Ter ToM TDM ‘TDMA TFA TFS. TPT TIM RT 1S Ww TWA veo vsaT ware Ust oF ACRONYMS x11 secondary fees baat secon retention Sseliteched TOMA toretiane sot fig shad nie sidean-mpliode modlaton-srequeny vision mail 1 Stes caer transmit agiston tate bors transit ut tinng teleoded motion te dvs molesting time dion lil aces tsi fame seiton tans frame syteroiaion tans fee ing testi ince module Ting and reterenc ospondr tenet yehonzaon tceien teeing wave tbe ampli Spooner votageconled xin very sal peste termina Wo Sdmistuive Radio Conference VO VAAAAAAR AAA a List of Symbols a bite radius (42,168,2 km), trafic intensity 4 amplitude, area, azimuth angle by baseband signal ® ‘bandwidth aa) blocking probability a 3-dB bandwidth Bom ms bandwidth (10.95) 2 CDMA spread bandwidth BO, input backofl BO, output backoff « Tight velocity (2.997925 % 10° kr) c carrier power G Speviodie autocorrelation of PN sequence € channel eapacity a Hamming distance, Euclidean distance 4 downlink slant range a free distance the distance feo satelite to station 4, reference distance a uplink slant range > antenna diameter Dy transmit fame delay E clevaton angle B nergy per bit axiy LIST OF syMooLS BR & Ei) Erfolx) tn leg Jog: Nya No 5 ts) p.) a Pe Pe p energy per coded bit energy per symbol expected value of x complementary emer fonction (9.31) frequency force, noise figure universal constant, rectangular pulse antenna gain, channel talc sssymptotic coding gain impulse response orbital alitude (35786.045 km), transfer function inclination angle imerference power modified Bessel function of order n ofthe first kind imaginary number, summation index, product index jamming power jamming density Bessel function of order of the fst kind Boltzmann constant (1.38 % 107 1K), information block length ina codeword, numberof users in DS-CDMA, number of inputs t0 convolutional encoder degree Kelvin, randomized interval, constrain length, ratio of direct-toxtit fuse power ratual logarithm logarithm of base 10 logarithm of base 2 length, power loss, packet length in bits atmospheric attenuation ‘dovwnlink fee-space atenuation uplink free space attenvaton sass, motibvam frequeney reuse factor Mf = 28 in Mary signaling. shit register Teng length of a code word noise power, processing gain, PN sequence period or length effective noise power total encoder memory noise power spectral density tefetve noise power spectral density transition probability, fraction of shadowing probability density function of x packet correct probability given k interusers power Availablity probability probability of bit ertor detection probability false alarm probability robability of symbol error , tii of in convolutional encoder Pett 1 a) @ oe) ® R 5 BEC pean xguecs ae oe esses pees ust oF syMNOLS xxv probability of x successful probability of a packet slocorrelstion Function of random binary sequence number of quantized levels of a coded DMC Gaussian integral (9.29) distance reliability, resistance, channeteapacity bit rate cant radius (6378.155 kim) chip rate symbol rate signal channel throughput ower spectral density signal-to-noise power ratio. cerrorcorecting capability time noise temperature bit duration ambient temperature (290 K) ‘equivalent noise temperature feame length satelite propagation delay symbol duration, system noise temperature unit step fonction teve anowaly ‘rbital velocity, voltage, amplitude sapertare window rosspaarizaton desimination, x coordinate envelope of a burst, ‘yeooadinate 2 random varinble + coordinate coupling coefficient, voice activity factor coupling coefficient, polarization on a multipath reftcetion interference factor ‘maximum root mean squace of panial eross-corelations paril erss-coreation relletion oeticient duty cycle diferent atenuation iferavial phase rms surface error of antenna, threshold of unique word detection ‘antenna efficiency, interbeam interference factor carrier phase, antenna off-axis angle canh station latitude eth station longitade wavelength, a constant in Chernoff bound, latitude, arival rate mean value, mean hang-up rate 3.1416 Aaaad VAAAHAARTIRAAA Digital Satellite Communications chapter Elements of Satellite Communication ature of communications satellites is their ability to simulta thereby providing distance- ions. This capability applies to nul to mobile terminals on and, in the air, and at sapacity can be dynamically allocated to users sures make satellite communications systems unique in design, ‘This chapter serves as an overview of satellite com: res the render for more elaborate study in the rest of “The unique neously link all users on the earth's st insensitive point-to-multipoint communi munication and pre the book, ‘Arthur C. Clarke, author of many famous books on exploration, wrote in IVireless World in 1945 [1] that a satellite with a circular equato- Fial orbit at a correct altitude of 35,786 km would make one revolution every 24 hz that is, it would rotate at the same angular velocity as the earth. An observer looking at such a geostationary satellite would see it wging ata fixed spot in the sky. Clarke showed that three geostationary lites powered by solar energy could provide worldwide com- munications for all possible types of services. Clarke's vision became a reality 20 years later when the futernational Telecommunications Satel- lite Organization (INTELSAT), established in 1964, launched the Early Bird (INTELSAT 1) in Apeil 1965. Many INTELSAT satellites have been Inunched ‘or are in the planning stages, ranging from instruments with a small eapacity (240 voice circuits oF one television channel) to those with a huge capacity TAR NA AAR AS igure 1 INTELSAT sateltes, 3 Ha=30 kite 1010" ‘Very low frequency (VLF) 30-300 kit Jot-10" Low frequency (LF) 300 KH2-3 Mite 1010" Medium frequency (ME) 3-30 MHz 1ot-10 High frequeney (HF) 30-300 Mite 10-1 Very high fequeney (VHF) 300 MM2=3 GHz 1-10 Urahigh frequency (UHF) 3-30 GHz 10-10 Supethigh fequency (SHP) 30-300 GHz to-%10" Extremely high frequency (EHF) 102-10" GHz 3103 x 10-" Infrared, vse Hiht leavolet (40,000 voice circuits for INTELSAT VI) and covering three regions—the At- lantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans (Fig. 1-1). By 1989 hundreds of geostationary satellites were in service. A summary of satellite locations ean be found in (2). 1.1 SATELLITE FREQUENCY BANDS Communications systems employ the electromagnetic frequency spec- trum shown in Table 1.1, The frequencies used for satellite com- munications are allocated ia superhigh-frequency (SHF) and ¢x- tremely high-frequency (EHF) bands which are broken down into sub- bands as stimmarized in Table 1.2. Spectrum management is an important ‘activity that facilitates the orderly use of the electromagnetic frequency spectrum not only for satellite communications but for other telecom- munications applications as well. This is done under the auspices of the ‘Table 1.2 Satellite frequency spectrum ae 12 a4 8 en 3 mis 127 Ka 17-40 Millimeter 440-300 ngxaee 4 prorat sarenerti comaruntenTions International Telecommunication Union (ITU) which is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN). It predates the UN, having come into existence in 1932 as a result of the merging of the Jaternational Tele ‘graph Union (1865-1932) and the Radio Telegraph Union (1903-1932), ‘There are four permanent organs of the ITU: (1) the General Secretariat, headquartered in Geneva and responsible for executive management and technical cooperation: (2) the International Frequency Registration Board (IF RB), responsible for recording frequencies and orbital positions. ‘and for advising member countries on operation of the maximum practical number of radio channels in portions of the spectrum where harmful inter- ference may occur’ (3) the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR, from the initial letters in French), responsible for studying tech hical and operational questions relating {0 radiocommunications which results in reports, recommendations, resolutions, and decisions published ‘as-a group in the Green Books every 4 yr following CIR plenary as- Ssemblies: and (4) the Inernational Telegraph and Telephone Consulta tive Committee (CCITT), responsible for studying technical, operational, ‘and tarriff questions refating to telegraphy and telephony and for adopting reports and recommendations. “The ITU has developed rules and guidelines called radio regulations ‘ata series of international radio conferences held since 1903. ‘The 1979 World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC-79) was the most recent in this long series, The frequency bands allocated by WARC-79 for satellite communications involve 17 service eategories (although some fof them represent special subestegories), as listed in Table 1.3. and three geographic regions: region 1 whieh inchides Europe, Affiea, the USSR. and Mongolia: region 2 which inchules North and South America and Greenland: and region 3 which inches Asia (exeept the USSR and Mongolia), Australia, and the Southwest Pacific. Tables tt and 1.S show the WARC-79 frequency allocations for fixed satellite service (FSS) and broadcasting satellite service (BSS). Satellite services Fiot Meteorol Intersattite Space opeation Mutie ‘Amateur Jain mobile Ralndsterinaion avitime mobile Radionavigation Aeronautical mobile Aeranautialradionivgation roadeasting Maritime radionvigation Tian exploration Standard Fequency ss time sit Space reseech ‘Table 1.4K Frequeney range (GH) 25-2505 2535-20655 2655-200 34-42 4548 5725-585 5385-10025 128-775 19-84 107-117 nea ns23 1n7-1295 ass 1416s 14s 148 3-07 7-181 equeney allocation ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 5 for fixed satelite service Frequency Restietonst range (Gilz)_ Restetons* m2 wid In, 2b. 3a wens tn, 2u% 30" Jn 26,30 25-31 " a B7s40s 0d a as-os 4 Iu, 28,38 472-492 a u 492-5020 u 4 S04-si4 ws & 114 ° 14-755 " aie 92-95 ° 120 3 wor-05 u 9-164 « 27 arm ¥ ws75 ow “1, Region 1:2 eyion 2: 3, region 3: w, uplink earth to space): d downline (space to earth): #, not allocated b, Bidirectional for bro Frequeney 042-079 25-269 earn nena pais W327 127-1275 ns wosaas FAG “Television only reception only: 1. region 3. able 1.5 Frequency allocal ig satellite servi ngs (GH) Tinks, Restriction Ns only hz only 2. e oly 3c only 2 Yenly community 1: 2yregion 2:3, TAA AANA ARMA AN AA 6 biGiTAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS 1,2 SATELLITE SYSTEMS [A satelite system consists basically of a satellite in space which Hinks ay earth stations on the ground, as shown schematically in Fig, 1. say sor generates the baseband signal which is routed to the earth s- tn eough the terrestrial network. The terrestrial network can be 9 16- phone switch ora dedicated link tothe earth station At the earth 8 reo teseband signal is processed and transmitted by a modulated Fowie esa (RF) cartier tothe satellite. The satellite can be thought of 0s 6 taoperepeaterin space. ILseceives the modulated RF enriers p's uplink (carth-torspace) frequency spectrum from all the earth stavions Mt the (Rover, amplifies these carriers, and retransmits them back ‘0 earth in neMTowalink (epace-to-eath) frequency spectrum, which is él from the uplink frequency spectrum in order to avotd interference, The remiving earth station processes the modulated RF carrier dow 'e the receiving Signal which i sent through the terrestrial network to Ne Hote a See ecial communications satelites today wilize a SOOM anteotthe the pink and a $00-MEz bandwidth on the downlink The vay. used frequency spectrum is the 6/4-GHz, band, wih Mijn of §.725 10 7.078 GHzand a downlink of ¥4t0 48 O12 The 6/4 crt sand for geostationary satelites is becoming overcrowded Dees’ an used by common carriers for terrestrial microwave inks; satel ‘erestial Terrestrial network User fear User igure 12 A basi steite syster LHLEMENTS OF SATRLLITE COMMUNICATION 7 ites are now being operated in the 14/12-GH2. band using an uplink of 12.75 to 14,8 GHz and a downlink of either 10.7 to 12.3 GHz or 12.5 to 127 Gliz. The 14/12-GHz band will be used extensively in the future na is not yet congested, but one problem exists—rain, which attenuates 14/12-GHz signals much more than it does those at 6/4 GHz. The frequency spectrum in the 30/20-GHz band has also been set aside for commercial satellite communications, with a downlink of 18.1 to 21.2 GHz and an uplink of 27.5 to 31 GHz. Equipment for the 30/20-GHz band is still in the experimental stage and is expensive. “the typical S00-MHz, satelite bandwidth at the 6/4 and 14/12-GHlz bands cean be sepmented into many satellite transponder bandwidths. For example, ight transponders can be provided, each with a nominal bandwidth of $4 MHz sin a center-to-center frequency spacing of 61 MHz. Modem communications satellites also employ Frequency reuse 10 increase the number of transponders in the 500 MHz allocated to them. Frequency reuse can be accomplished through ‘nthogonalpolsrizatons where one transponder operates in one polarization (e+ \ertcal polarization) and a cross-polarized transponder operates inthe orthogonal polarization (e-., horizontal polarization). Isolation of the two polarizations can te maintained at 30 dB or more by staggering the center frequencies ofthe cross- polaried transponders s0 that ony sideband energy ofthe RF carers overlaps, Fe shown in Fig, 1-3. With onhogonal polarizations a satelite can double the umber of transponders in the available 500-MHYz. bandwidth, hence double its Capacity. A review of orthogonal polarizations wil be presented in Sec. 1.6. With this brief discussion of a general satellite system we will now take a look at an earth station that transmits information to and receives Jnformation from a satellite. Figure 1.4 shows the functional elements fof a digital earth station. Digital information in the form of binary digits from the tervestrial network enters the transmit side of the earth station find is then processed (bulfered, multiplexed, formatted, ete.) by the thascband eqitipment so that these forms of information can be sent 10 the appropriate destinations. The presence of noise and the nonideal na- ture of any communication channel introduce errors in the information being sent and thus limit the rate at which it ean be transmitted between the source and the destination. Users generally establish an error rate hove which the received information is not usable. If the received infor- imation does not meet the error rate requirement, error-correction coding performed by the encoder can often be used to reduce the error rate 0 the eceptable level by inserting extra digits into the digital stream from the fomipt of the baseband equipment. These extra digits earry no informa: ‘centuate the uniqueness of each information mes- yys chosen so as to make it unlikely that the channel age to destroy its tion but are used 1 sage. They are alwa disturbance will corrupt enough digits in a mes uniqueness, yp & yo wesTeIp Yo0IgfeuonsUN Ft aan vevanico | srenpousgt—el sapcasa at g moony : YS A “OO soydue 3 samod seuenuoody, soreinpow 49po2u; = “UGH 3 asspucnoen pong 35001 £020 Ret Rena) at ne ny ano nc tA man got sel Gen a RE eT Poth ep to ep en oe on an Gh Oe Ee oe Ga Meo ET we we meso ee an 1D On GL EH RE TH OF HOT Ae AL __A8_AS__Aw__ Aenea an Gh So Se ven Ge Gn en om RO AMANADAD AA a sAAAAA ‘igits, where M = 2*and each kigit set or symbol is used to select one of the Af waveforms. For example, in one particular binary modulation Scheme called phaxe-shift keying (PSK), the digit 1 is represented by the snaveform sf) = A COS unt and the digit 0 is represented by the waveform Mtn) = TA 605 ext, where wy isthe intermediate frequency. (In this book ihe letter symbols w and J will be used to denote angular frequency and frequency, respectively, and we will refer to both of them as frequency.") “The modulated 1F cartier from the modulator is fed to the upcon verter, where its intermediate frequency ty is translated to the uplink RE frequency w, in the uplink frequency spectrum of the sitellite. “This modulated RF carrier is then amplified by the high-power amplifier (HPA) to suitable level for transmission to the satelite by the antenna, On the receive side the earth station antenna receives the low-level modulated RF cartier in the downlink frequency spectrum of the satelite ‘A jow-noise amplifier (LNA) is used to amplify this low-level RI carrier fo keep the carrier-to-noise ratio at a level necessary to meet the error rate requirement. The downconverter accepts the amplified RF carrier fom the output of the low-noise amplifier and transtates the downlink frequency «wy to the intermediate frequency ay, The reason for downcon- verting the RF frequency of the received carrier wave to the interme, Trequeney is that itis much ensier to design the demodulator to work on 140 Milz than at a downlink frequency of 4 or 12 GHz. The frodulated IF carrier is fed to the demodulator, where the information is Gatracted. The demodulator estimates which of the possible symbols was transmitted based on observation of the received IF carrier. The probably ity that a symbol will be correctly detected «lepencts on the cirvier oy veige ratio of the moxlulated carrier, the characteristics of the satelite ‘and the detection scheme employed. ‘The decoder performs 2 ccupy the same orbital arc “The FCC ruling poses a major challenge to antenna engineers to design a directional feed for controlling the amount of energy received off= ‘xis by the antenna feed, thus reducing interference from an adjacent sat~ allite, This challenge is especially great because the trend in earth stations fetoward smaller antennas, but smaller antennas have a wider beamwidth find thus look at a wider angle in the sky. The FCC ruling specified that, as of July 1, 1984, all new satellite cearth station antennas had to be manufactured to necommodate the spac fing of 2° and that, as of January 1, 1987, all existing antennas must be modified to conform to the new standards. 1.3 TRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING In the above section we took a look at a simplified satellite com- munications system where digital information (a sequence of symbols it Stead of continuous signals) is carried between terrestrial networks. His~ torieally, analog transmission has dominated satellite communications since its inception. Even today many satellite systems still transmit tele phone and (elevision signals using frequency modulation (FM), and this Trend will continue for some time to come because of the large investment 's. With the advent of digital electronics and com- igital transmission 10 in existing earth station: puters, many earth stations have begun to use prove satellite capacity over analog transmission, ‘These digital earth tions ean interconnect digital terrestrial networks or analog terrestrial networks with appropriate analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion equipment. Ack tage of digital transmission is that it permits integration of jnformition in various forms. Such analog information as speech and 12 pica, saTELAaTE COMMUNICATIONS LN slllliiull Figure 1.5 Sampling of an analog sign al signals ean be converted (o digital form and thereby combined with, for transmission, switching, processing, and retrieval 1.3.1 Pulse Code Modulation One commonly used technique for converting an analog signal to form is pulse code nodulation (PCM) which requires three operations: sampling, quantizing, and coding. Sampling converts the continuous Analog signal into a set of periodic pulses, the amplitudes of which repre Sent the instantancous amplitudes of the analog signal at the sampling in tant, as shown ia Fig. 1.5. A question naturally arises: What sampling Tate js required in order to reconstruct the signal completely from these samples? Nyquist [3,4] proved that, ifthe analog signal is band-limited 10 fa bandwidth of B hertz, the signal can be completely reconstructed if the fe is at least the Nyquist rate which is 28. For example, tele Jeech is band-limited to 4 kHz and thus requires 8000 samples continuous amplitude range, the ampli= samplin phone sp per second, Since analog signals have Samples are also continuous in amplitude. When the continuous tude samples are transmitted over a noisy channel, the receiver cannot discern the exact sequences of transmitted values. This effect of noise in the system can be minimized by breaking the sample amplitude into liscrete levels and transmitting these levels using a binary scheme. ‘The process of representing the continuous amplitude of the samples by a ft rite set of levels is called quaniizing. 1f 7 quantized levels are employed to renfesent the amplitude range. it will take log: 1” bits to code cach sample, In telephone transmission 256 quantized levels are employed. hhence each sample is coded using log, 256 = 8 bits. and thus the digital bit fate is ROOK SS = 64,000 bits per second (pst PLEMENT OF SATELLETE COMMUNICATION 13 1.3.2 Delta Modulation It has been found that analog signals such as speech and video signals generally have « considerable amount of redundancy; that is, there is a significant correlation between successive samples when these signals are ‘sampled at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate, For example, the frequency spectrum of the human voice is 300 to 3400 Hz but it is sampled at 8000 samples per second in a PCM system. When these correlated samples are coded as in a PCM system, the resulting digital stream contains redundant information. The redundancy in these analog signals makes it possible to predict a sample value from the preceding sample values and to transmit the difference between the actual sample value and the predicted sample value estimated from past samples. This results in a technique called difference encoding. One- of the simplest forms of difference encoding is delta modulation which provides a stair- case approximation of the sampled version of the analog input signal as shown in Fig. 1.6. The difference between the input and the appro: mation is quantized into two levels, +4 and ~A, corresponding to a posi tive and a negative difference, respectively. Thus at any sampling instant the approximation is increased by A or decreased by A depending on whether it is below or above the analog input signal. A digital output of 1 ‘or 0 can be generated according to whether the difference is +4 or ~A. In delta modulation, overloaiding can occur if the amplitude of the analog input signal changes too fast for the encoding to keep up. Increasing the step size 4 will result in poor resolution, and increasing the sampling rate + will lead to higher digital bit rate. A better scheme for avoiding overloading is to detect the overloading condition and to adjust the step size A toa larger value. This is called adaptive delia modulation. Delta ‘modulation has been used to encode speech with good quality at 32,000 bps. Another important approach in digital encoding of analog signals is i fF ase nie alee road 9 0 00000 0 0 Figure 6 Delia sedation e cog "AMABAAANAT bines the simplicity of delta modulation anu ee aes BM. and in many applications it can provide good reproduclton sire oe signals comparable to PCM with a considerable eduction in the igital bit rate. To rar eher new strategies to encode speech at lower Bi ates tan Ihe ove nao (12), One etd is linear predictive coding (LPC) which scenes Jpeect compression by estimating a speech signal as «linear Fonche of past Svat of the speech quantizing system, Nearll-qaliy speech voreee (peech, Siting systems) at 4.8 kbps are now Being developed for mobile satellite ccommanieations (13,14), 1.33 Time Division Multiplexing-Pulse Code Modulation Information trafic between a terrestrial network and an cart tae" aanoemuch more than a PCM channel at 64,000 bps. In order (oo any more channels simultaneously over a single transm/ssi facility sivas a wire pair or coaxial cable, multiplexing mus! Be ‘employed. One atthe most widely used multiplexing techniues for telephone do ch sig: one Mision mutiplesing-pulse code modulation (TDM-PEM) ae eg L.2, Here 24 speech signals are fed 1024 contacts fa fo Staynchronized electronic switehes at che transmit and Feces ends. The dee aeirye amplitude ofthe speech signals is repeatedly sAmPle ns the aortrates, Each ofthe 24 speech signals is sampled every 1 as and ic rped to form atime division-multiplexed signal, Each sample of the ine rr vionemaiplexed signal is quantized and converied 19 5 Bebit Wie nerd, The B-bit PCM codeword forms a time sl Sor ponding toa sample from one ofthe 2 speech signs. TAY four time spontfonm a. 125-us frame which consists of 192 bits and an, additional Hn ofr the end ofthe frame thats used for establishing and TANCE ing frame timing. Normally the receiver checks the 193rd bit every frame ir ar gure that it has not lost synchronization. If synchron'ato has teen lost, the receiver can scan for the framing wisi and be resynchronized. Since there are 193 bts/125 #8, the total bitrate is 1.544 Mbps. PS daion tothe voice signal, the frame also carries signaling infor- mation needed to transmit teleplione dial tones a8 ‘well as on-hook and off Freak signats, Every sixth frame, the least significant bi re cighth bit) of oe veice channel is deleted and a signaling bit s inserted Ps place. ais type of TDM-PCM bitstream is employed in the Bell system's TI carrier which is used in North America [5] Switen Switeh speech signal 1 a ee a |______— 125 us ——— Time slot} Time slot 2 Time slot 24 TH I a pamrom earrrem ——e-siT PCM Framing bit igure 1.7 Time division molilexing-pulse code mosiltion ‘An international standard also exists for PCM transmission. The CCITT has a recommendation for a PCM earier at 2.048 Mbps. In this farrier, there are 32 8-bit time slots in each 125-us frame. Thirty of these ime slots are used for speech at a bit rate of 64 kbps, one for synchro. vidion and one for signaling. The 2.048-Mbps PCM carriers are used outside North America and Japan. 134 tal Hierarchy Yo transmit igtzed analog signals such as tlenhone speech and visual signals having different bit rates, and data with a diversified bt rate over thesame transmission channel, higher-order digital multiplexing ora digi- Mux Figure 1.8 Digi HLEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION IT tal hierarchy must be used. Figure 1.8 illustrates the Bell System di hierarchy which consists of four levels. The respective data signals with bit rates of 1.544 Mbps (Tl), 6.312 Mbps (T2), 44.736 Mpbs (T3), and 274.176 Mbps (T4) correspond to levels 1,2, 3, and 4. Level | is the out- put of a DI channel bank which time division-multiplexes and PCM-en- codes 24 speech signals, or one of the four outputs of a D3 channel bank which multiplexes and encodes 96 speech channels, or the output of a data multiplexer which multiplexes cata with bitrates of 2.4, 4.8, 9.6, and 56 kbps. The DS-I data signal is carried by the TI carrier system over a ire pair. Level 2is formed by multiplexing four DS-1 data signals and is carried by aT? carrier system over a wire pair. Level 3 is formed by m tiplexing seven DS-2 data signals and is carried by a T3 carrier system over coaxial cable. Level 4 is formed by multiplexing six DS-3 data sig- nals and is carried by a T4 carrier system over coaxial cable. 1.3.5 Frequency Division Multiplexing Another form of multiplexing that characterizes analog communications is frequency division multiplexing (FDM), as shown in Fig. 1.9. Twelve speech signals, each of which occupies a bandwidth from 300 to 3400 Hz, fare used to modulate 12 separate carriers each 4 KHz apart. The output of the modulator, which is the product of the speech signal and the carrier, consists of a lower sideband and an upper sideband centered around the cartier frequency. The signals are then passed through 4-kH2 bandpass filters that reject the upper sideband and pass only the lower sideband. “This technique is called single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC) gen- ration, ‘Twelve lower sidebands are then combined to form a group that ‘occupies the frequency band from 60 to 108 kHz. Five groups can be ‘multiplexed in a similar fashion to form a supergroup of 60 speech signals that occupies the band from 312 to 552 kHz, and five supergroups form master group of 300 speech channels that occupies the band from 812 10 2044 kHz, 1.3.6 Transmulliplexing, Despite the explosive progress in digital telecommunications technology, a major portion of terrestrial transmission facilities still uses a frequency division multiplexing hierarchy and will do so in the future because of the large investment in existing systems. For a digital earth station to inter- face with such an analog terrestrial network, some means for conversion between a FDM hierarchy and a digital hierarchy is needed. This ean be ichieved by a FDM-TDM converter, for example between two super ‘groups (120 speech channels) and five TI carriers (120 PCM channels) as shown in Fig. 1.10, It consists of a FDM multiplexer or demultiplexer pR2000 VENANANATIA srauve4g svomsau vows | os] wf owen q : i 2 | xnwaorcon wos) ues 5 wonnquise | 3 | XAMAGIOM) | snoubsodne ee en ee ornare eae Taienio> WOLWOD 20 nicrvaL saresste: commUntestiOns [Sian see woos | chal [sea oe sone a ro-10m [oxcnannats| ,, O90 [aseemops | 9A | nk ran | | llc [sccm] “tame” [ssiners| Sin won zechel [isms Figure 11 FDM-TDM transmulileser and PCM channel banks connected back to back. On the transmit side the FDM supergroups are demultiplexed to 120 individual speech channels which are then time division-multiplexed and PCM-encoded by the chan- rel banks into five separate 1.544-Mbps TI carriers. On the receive side, the five separate 1.544-Mbps TI carriers are PCM-decoded and time division-demultiplexed into 120 individual speech channels which are then frequency division-multiplexed into two supergrouips. A four-wire distribution frame is used for the purpose of individual channel manipula tion such as reordering, adding, deleting, and testing, ‘A special type of FDM-TDM converter called a transnutiplexer can interconvert FDM speech signals and TDM-PCM signals at the mul tiplex level and thus avoid breaking the signals down into individual Sheech channels. as shown in Fig. 1.11 where two supergrouns are con Verted to five T1 carriers at 1.S44 Mbps each, With the use of a distribu on frame, individual channels can be reordered. added. deleted. and tested. The fundamental element of a transmultipleser is shown in Fis. 112, FDM-TDM conversion is accomplished by removing any un wanied out-of-band components from the FDM signal with an analog bandpass filter (312 to 582 kHe for two supergroups). The Bltered signal js passed through an A/D converter to produce a digital stream. The ind Vidual channel in this digital stream is processed by the digital signal processor via a real-time signal-processing algorithm. Transmultiplexer performance can be superior to that achievable with the convention@l EDM.TDM conversion equipment shown in Fig. 1.10, with approxi- mately 2:1 and 5:1 reduction advantages in cost per voice channel and in size, respectively. Dour rom Aealon avpanaoia data signal iter converter ae a Figure 1.12 Fuodamental elements ofa transnltinler ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 21 1.4 MODULATION ‘As mentioned in See. 1.2, modulation must be employed 0 transmit baseband information over a bandpass channel. In analog modulation such as frequency modulation, which is extremely popular in satellite communications, the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the FM demodulator is an intuitive measure of how Well the FM demodulator can recover the analog information signal from the received modulated carrier in the presence of additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). The ontput signal-to-noise ratio is defined as the ratio of the average power of the analog information signal to the average power of the noise atthe output of the demodulator. In digital modulation, the performance of the demodulator is measured in terms of the average probability of bit error, or the bit error rate as it is often called, The binary information, which consists of sequences of | and 0 digits, can be used to modulate the phase, Frequency, or amplitude of a carrier. Consider the carrier A cos (ax! + @), where dis the carrier amplitude, ais the carrier frequency, and ¢ is the cartier phase. To transmit the binary digit orbit 1, is set to Orad, and to transmit the bit 0, @ is set to a radians. Thus | is represented by the waveform Acosee!, and 0 is represented by the waveform A costuct + 2) =—A cos at. This type of discrete phase modulation is called phase-shift keying (PSK). Similarly, 1 can be transmitted by using the waveform A cos wit and 0 transmitted by using the waveform A cos taut. where «, # ws, This type of digital modulation is ealled frequenc shit keying (FSK), where two waveforms at different carrier frequencies toy and w» are used to convey the binary information, The problem with digital modulation is that sometimes the binary digit | is transmitted but the demodulator decodes it as 0, or vice versa, because of perturbation of the carrier by noise; this results in bit errors in the demodulation ofthe binary information, The average probability ofbit error P, is a convenient measure of the performance of the demodulator and is a function of the ratio ofthe energy. per bit to the noise density, Ey/Ns, where the energy per bit Ey is the energy of the carrier during a signaling interval or bit du- fation Ty and Nol2 is the noise power spectral density. When the baseband information is transmitted ata rate of R bits per second, the bit duration is simply Ty = IIR seconds, and this is also the signaling interval of the waveform that represents a particular bit. For example, in PSK ‘modulation, =A cosmt = OSTST SQ) =A cosa 0 S0STs where si(t) represents 1 and s(t) represents 0. By definition we have PSECOIDIGE FAPODOSTIAT Mote that 4 = cture mies Note thats gaageearier power C, andthe noise power Nv measored teat cewer noise bandwidth B. By definition, the average carrier power is cng [Petrone (2) aveform during the signaling interval Ty and where s(t) is the carrier w farrier waveforms have identical EL] is the expected value. If all the © energy E, during any signaling interval, then Es 2 a Recall that the power spectral density of noise is Nol2 and that the nese eeeavidth is B. Hence the noise power measured within the noise Dandwidth for both positive and negative frequencies is N=NB aa) c -Therefore itis seen thatthe ratio ofthe energy per bit wo the noise de can be expressed as bch -7,0($) Roe OCR a9 where CIN is the average carrero-noise ratio. In satelite com were CIN itis the quantity CIN that is directly evaluated, as we wit ae Chap. 4. Once the CIN is knovn and the bandwidth of he aesriver ig selected, EylN can be calculated, as well as the average proba: bility of bit error Py which is a function of Ex/Ne 1.5 MULTIPLE ACCESS One advantage of communications satellites over other transmiciot ois is their ability to link all earth stations together, thereby providing pointto-multipoint communications, A satelite transponder be ace aoined by many earth stations and therefore it necessary 10 NOYe tech-

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