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of computation
Tom Carter
http://astarte.csustan.edu/ tom/SFI-CSSS
June, 2005
1
The quotes
}
}
}
}
}
No royal road
Mathematical certainty
I had a feeling once about Mathematics
Terminology (philosophy and math)
Rewards
To topics
Introduction
An
n=0
=
=
=
in
=
{}
{, {}}
general
{0, 1, 2, . . . , n}.
= {0, 1, 2, . . .}.
P (S) = {T | T S}.
We then have the fact that for any set
S,
|S| < |P (S)|.
Pf: First, it is easy to see that
|S| |P (S)|
since there is the one-to-one function
f : S P (S) given by f (s) = {s} for
s S.
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12
No royal road
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Finite automata
14
(r, x).
r(s,a)
L(M) = {x A | (s0, x) F 6= }.
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19
a, for a A
Sets :
{}
{a}, for a A
If r and s are
regular, then
so are :
If R and S are
regular, then
so are :
r+s
rs
r
RS
RS
R
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A couple of examples:
The regular expression
(00 + 11)(101 + 110)
represents the regular set (regular
language)
{101, 110, 00101, 00110, 11101, 11110,
0000101, 0000110, 0011101, 0011110, . . .}.
Exercise: What are some other strings in
this language? Is 00110011110 in the
language? How about 00111100101110?
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L(M) =
Rn
0j .
sj F
We also have
R0
ij = {a A | (si, a) = sj }
(for i = j, we also get . . . ),
and, for k 0,
k Rk (Rk ) Rk .
Rk+1
=
R
ij
ik
kk
kj
ij
Mathematical certainty
26
Markov models
T=
p11 p12
p21 p22
...
...
pn1 pn2
p1n
p2n
...
...
pnn
P
where 0 pij 1, and j pij = 1.
A couple of examples:
First, a generic Markov model for DNA
sequences:
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30
L(G) = { T | S }.
The language of such a grammar is called
a context free language.
32
R
(R)
RR
35
36
Terminology (philosophy
and math)
Somebody once said that philosophy is the
misuse of a terminology which was invented
just for this purpose. In the same vein, I
would say that mathematics is the science of
skillful operations with concepts and rules
invented just for this purpose.
Eugene Wigner
37
41
Rewards
42
Languages
Regular
Deterministic
context free
Context free
Context
sensitive
Recursive
Recursively
enumerable
Machines
DFA or NFA
Deterministic push-down
automata
Nondeterministic PDA
Linear bounded automata
(Turing, bounded tape)
Turing machines that
halt on every input
General Turing machines
46
Turing machines
49
Computability and
tractability
59
60
61
63
Some examples:
1. Factoring a number is NP. First, we
recognize that if M is the number we
want to factor, then the input size m is
approximately log(M ) (that is, the
input size is the number of digits in the
number). The elementary school
algorithm (try dividing by each number
factorization. Factoring is a
particularly important example because
various encryption algorithms such as
RSA (used in the PGP software, for
example) depend for their security on
the difficulty of factoring numbers with
several hundred digits.
65
(bi, bj )).
k i,jn
66
Computational complexity
To top
References
[1] Bennett, C. H. and Landauer, R., The
fundamental physical limits of computation,
Scientific American, July 3846, 1985.
[2] Bennett, C. H., Demons, engines and the second
law, Scientific American 257 no. 5 (November)
pp 8896, 1987.
[3] Campbell, Jeremy, Grammatical Man,
Information, Entropy, Language, and Life, Simon
and Schuster, New York, 1982.
[4] Chaitin, G., Algorithmic Information Theory,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,
1990.
[5] Chomsky, Noam, Three models for a description
of a language, IRE Trans. on Information Theory,
2:3, 113-124, 1956.
[6] Chomsky, Noam, On certain formal properties of
grammars, Information and Control, 2:2, 137-167,
1959.
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