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Kinetics Overview
Kinetics Overview
Chemical Kinetics
We will now study:
Kinetics: the study of how fast chemical reactions occur.
(in contrast to Thermodynamics: which determines if a reaction take place)
Our goal: is to understand chemical reactions at the molecular level.
Speed of a reaction: is measured by the change in concentration with time.
Important factors which affect rates of reactions:
reactant concentration
temperature
action of catalysts
surface area
pressure of gaseous reactants or products
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Kinetics
Studies the rate at which a chemical
process occurs.
Besides information about the speed at
which reactions occur, kinetics also sheds
light on the reaction mechanism (exactly
how the reaction occurs).
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Outline: Kinetics
Reaction Rates
Rate Laws
Half-life
Arrhenius Equation
Mechanisms
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
Reaction Rates
Rxn Movie
Reaction Rate
Chemical Kinetics
Thermodynamics does a reaction take place?
Kinetics how fast does a reaction proceed?
Reaction rate is the change in the concentration of a
reactant or a product with time (M/s).
A
D[A]
rate = Dt
D[B]
rate =
Dt
13.1
1.
2. Concentrations of reactants
As the concentration of reactants increases,
so does the likelihood that reactant molecules will collide.
3. Catalysts
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Temperature
Generally, as temperature
increases, so does the
reaction rate.
This is because k is
temperature dependent.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
time
D[A]
rate = Dt
D[B]
rate =
Dt
Chung (Peter) Chieh
University of Waterloo
Rate Laws
2FClO2 (g)
rate = k [F2][ClO2] 1
Chung (Peter) Chieh
University of Waterloo
Rate Law
Reactants (decrease)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
cC + dD
Products (increase)
cC + dD
Rate = k [A]x[B]y
N2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Example Reaction:
Concentration and Rate
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community Collegef
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Rate Laws
A rate law shows the relationship between the reaction
rate and the concentrations of reactants.
For gas-phase reactants use PA instead of [A].
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Rate Laws
Exponents tell the order of the reaction with
respect to each reactant.
This reaction is
First-order in [NH4+]
First-order in [NO2]
The overall reaction order can be found by
adding the exponents on the reactants in the
rate law.
This reaction is second-order overall.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Differential form:
How much A is left after time t? Integrate:
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
= mx + b
2FClO2 (g)
rate = k [F2]x[ClO2]y
rate = k [F2][ClO2]
slope of
tangent
slope of
tangent
slope of
tangent
[Br2]final [Br2]initial
D[Br2]
average rate = =Dt
tfinal - tinitial
instantaneous rate = rate for specific instance in time
rate a [Br2]
rate = k [Br2]
rate
= rate constant
k=
[Br2]
= 3.50 x 10-3 s-1
Chung (Peter) Chieh
University of Waterloo
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
[C4H9Cl] M
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
A plot of concentration
vs. time for this reaction
yields a curve like this.
The slope of a line
tangent to the curve at
any point is the
instantaneous rate at
that time.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
Reaction Rate
Here s an example of a reaction
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
-D[C4H9Cl]
Dt
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
D[C4H9OH]
Dt
A + B C
A+ DE
k
B + E F
A+ F B
output
Given some initial concentrations, what is output give some prescribed input?
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Molecule
A
Molecule
B
A + B C
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Reactant A
time
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Molecule
A
Reactant A
A1
A2
t1
t2
time
Change in time: Dt=t2-t1
Average rate of change in concentration during time Dt =
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
[A]
t
Reactant A
A1
A2
t1 t2
Derivative of A with
Respect to time
[]
dA
dt
dA
= [. A ]
dt
Rate of change of A
Degradation constant
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Concentration of A
D A
dA
= k .[D] [. A]
dt
Rate of change of A
Concentration of D
Concentration of A
Production constant
Degradation constant
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
A + B C
dA
[ ][ ]
= !k.A.B
dt
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
nA + mB C
[ ]
n
m
dA
n m
= !kA
[ ][B ]
dt
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
k1
D Ak
2
A + B C
k2
C A+ B
[ ]
dA
= k1.[D] [. A] k2 . A.B + k2C
dt
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
D A
[ ]
dA
= k[.D ] .[A ]
dt
[ ]
dA
=0
dt
Production of A balances degradation
A is constant
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
k[.D] .[A ]= 0
[ K].[D ]
[A] =
Example of Transcription
Reaction Kinetics
Transcription
Transcription
factor
start
DNA
end
gene
promoter
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
terminator
mRNA Translation
Proteins
mRNA
ribosomes
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
start
end
gene
promoter
A + DNA A : DNA
k2
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
terminator
Fast
slow
A + DNA A : DNA
Fast
d [ A : DNA]
= k1. A.DNA k2 .[ A : DNA] = 0
dt
DNAtotal
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
k1. A.DNA
[ A : DNA] =
k2
DNAtotal
DNA =
k1. A
(1 +
)
k2
k1. A.DNA
[ A : DNA] =
k2
k1
A
k2
[ A : DNA] =
DNAtotal
k1
1+ A
k2
k2
= kd
k1
Dissociation constant
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Hill Function
A
kd
[ A : DNA] =
DNAtotal
A
1+
kd
[ A : DNA]
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
DNAtotal
k2
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
A
kd
dmRNA
= k3 .
DNAtotal 1mRNA
A
dt
1+
kd
Cooperativity
start
end
gene
promoter
A 3
( )
kd
dmRNA
= k3 .
DNAtotal 1mRNA
A 3
dt
1+ ( )
kd
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
terminator
Cooperativity
n molecules
start
end
gene
promoter
A n
( )
kd
dmRNA
= k3 .
DNAtotal 1mRNA
A n
dt
1+ ( )
kd
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
terminator
Repressor
start
end
gene
promoter
dmRNA
1
= k3 .
DNAtotal 1mRNA
X n
dt
1+ ( )
kd
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
terminator
1
k3 .
DNAtotal
X n
1+ ( )
kd
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Order of Reactions
Order of Reactions
A reaction is zero order in a reactant if the change in
concentration of that reactant produces no effect.
A reaction is 1st order if doubling the concentration
causes the rate to double.
A reaction is 2nd order if doubling the concentration
causes a quadruple increase in rate.
-3rd orderdoubling concentration leads to 23 (or 8 times) the rate.
Note-- The rate constant, k, does not depend on concentration!
Once we have determined the rate law and the rate constant, we
can use them to calculate initial reaction rates under any set of
initial concentrations. (See Practice Problems for examples.)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Zero-Order Reactions
D[A]
rate = Dt
[A] - [A]0 = kt
rate = k [A]0 = k
[A] is the concentration of A at any time t
[A]0 is the concentration of A at time t=0
13.3
This equation has the general form for a straight line, y=mx+b, so
a plot of [A]t vs. t is a straight line with slope (-k) and intercept [A]0.
[A]t
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
(slope= -k)
Time (s)
ln[A]t = kt + ln[A]0
This equation has the general form for a straight line, y=mx+b, so
a plot of ln[A]t vs. t is a straight line with slope (-k) and intercept ln
[A]0.
(slope= k)
ln[A]t
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Time (s)
First-Order Processes
Consider the process in
which methyl isonitrile is
converted to acetonitrile.
CH3NC
CH3CN
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
First-Order Processes
CH3NC
This data was
collected for this
reaction at 198.9C.
Does
rate=k[CH3NC]
for all time intervals?
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
CH3CN
First-Order Processes
If a reaction is first-order:
a plot of ln [A]t vs. t will yield a straight line
with a slope of -k.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
First-Order Processes
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Half Life
Half-Life
Half-life is defined
as the time required
for one-half of a
reactant to react.
Because [A] at t1/2 is
one-half of the
original [A],
[A]t = 0.5 [A]0.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Half-Life
For a first-order process, set [A]t=0.5 [A]0 in
integrated rate equation:
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Half-Life
Half-life is the time taken for the concentration of a
reactant to drop to half its original value.
For a first order process, half life, t is the time taken for
[A]0 to reach [A]0(see the book for the next equation s derivation.)
t= ln() = 0.693
k
k
First-Order Reactions
The half-life, t, is the time required for the concentration of a
reactant to decrease to half of its initial concentration.
t = t when [A] = [A]0/2
ln
t =
[A]0
[A]0/2
k
Ln 2 0.693
=
=
k
k
13.3
First-order reaction
A
product
# of
half-lives
1
[A] = [A]0/n
16
13.3
13.3
Second-Order Processes
So if a process is second-order in A, a
plot of 1/[A] vs. t will yield a straight line
with a slope of k.
First order:
If a reaction is first-order, a plot of ln [A]t vs. t will yield a straight line
with a slope of -k.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Time (s)
0.0
50.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
John
D. Bookstaver
[NO2], M
0.01000
0.00787
0.00649
0.00481
0.00380
ln [NO2]
-4.610
-4.845
-5.038
-5.337
-5.573
Second-Order Processes
Time (s)
0.0
50.0
100.0
200.0
John
D. Bookstaver
300.0
[NO2], M
0.01000
0.00787
0.00649
0.00481
0.00380
1/[NO2]
100
127
154
208
263
This is a straight
line. Therefore, the
process is secondorder in [NO2].
1/[A]t = kt + 1/[A]0
This equation has the general form for a straight line, y=mx+b, so
a plot of l/[A]t vs. t is a straight line with slope (k) and intercept of 1/
[A]0.
1/[A]t
(slope= k)
Time (s)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Second-Order Reactions
D[A]
rate = Dt
1
1
= kt
[A]
[A]0
13.3
Equations of Reactions of
Various Orders
Order
0
Rate Law
rate = k
rate = k [A]
[A]2
rate = k
Concentration-Time
Equation
[A] - [A]0 = - kt
ln[A] - ln[A]0 = - kt
1
1
= kt
[A]
[A]0
Half-Life
t =
[A]0
2k
Ln 2
t =
k
1
t =
k[A]0
13.3
Outline: Kinetics
First order
Second order
Second order
Rate
Laws
Integrate
d Rate
Laws
Half-life
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
complicated
complicated
Outline: Kinetics
First order
Second order
Second order
Rate
Laws
Integrate
d Rate
Laws
Half-life
k(T)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
complicated
complicated
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Collision Model
Most reactions speed up as temperature increases.
- Example: food spoils when not refrigerated.
-&+,*!+#$!',-'$-+*(+&,-!,2!,-$!,2!+#$!*$('+(-+/!,*!3*,09'+/!(
!',%3)&'(+&,-!+,!,9*!0$2&-&+&,-!,2!+#$!*$('+&,-!*(+$!/,!2(*<!1
$! *$('+&,-4! ! B#$! /+,&'#&,%$+*6!
/&%3)6!
The Orientation
Factor*$2$*/! +,! +#$! -9%7
9'+! (33$(*&-:!
+#$! *$('+&,-!
! P,*!must
$A(%3)$<!
In order for&-!
reaction
to occur the$89(+&,-4!
reactant molecules
collide +#$!
in the correct orientation and with enough energy to form products.
7$*!3*,'$//<!9/$0!&-09/+*&())6!+,!3*,09'$!(%%,-&(<!&/H!
- For Example:
QClI!R!KD
! 2
+ NOCl
NO +KCl
I!!!!!IQD
-$!+#$!*(+$!,2!+#&/!*$('+&,-!&-!(-6!,-$!,2!+#*$$!1(6/<!76!%,-
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Activation Energy
Activation Energy
In other words, there is a minimum amount of energy
required for reaction: the activation energy, Ea.
Just as a ball cannot get over a hill if it does not roll
up the hill with enough energy, a reaction cannot
occur unless the molecules possess sufficient energy
to get over the activation energy barrier.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
A+B
Exothermic Reaction
C+D
Endothermic Reaction
13.4
Energy Diagrams
Exothermic
Endothermic
50 kJ/mol
300 kJ/mol
150 kJ/mol
100 kJ/mol
(c) Delta H
-100 kJ/mol
+200 kJ/mol
Activation Energy
Arrhenius: molecules must possess a minimum amount
of energy to react. Why?
In order to form products, bonds must be broken in the
reactants. Bond breakage requires energy.
Molecules moving too slowly, with too little kinetic energy,
don t react when they collide.
Activation Energy
Activation
Energy
Consider theConsider
rearrangement
the rearrangement
of methyl
Consider
isonitrile:
of methyl
the rearrangement
isonitrile: o
Consider the rearrangement of methyl isonitrile:
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Activation Energy
The change in energy, E, for the reaction is the difference in
energy between CH3NC and CH3CN.
The activation energy, Ea , is the difference in energy between
reactants, CH3NC, and the transition state.
The rate depends on Ea. If the hill is taller, the reaction rate is
slower. If the hill is shorter the rate is faster.
Notice that if a forward reaction is exothermic (CH3NC CH3CN),
then the reverse reaction is endothermic (CH3CN CH3NC).
The methyl isonitrile molecule needs to gain enough energy to
overcome the activation energy barrier.
From kinetic molecular theory, we know that as temperature
increases, the total kinetic energy increases and the number of
molecules with energy greater than Ea increases.
So as long as the temperature is high enough, the reaction can
make it over the hill and proceed.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Reaction Mechanisms
Reaction Mechanisms
The sequence of events that describes the
actual process by which reactants become
products is called the reaction mechanism.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Mechanisms
Reactions may occur all at once or
through several discrete steps.
Each of these processes is known as an
elementary reaction or elementary
process.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Mechanisms
The overall progress of a chemical reaction can be represented
at the molecular level by a series of simple elementary steps
or elementary reactions.
The sequence of elementary steps that leads to product
formation is the reaction mechanism.
2NO (g) + O2 (g)
2NO2 (g)
NO + NO
N2O2
+ Elementary step:
N2O2 + O2
2NO2
Overall reaction:
2NO + O2
2NO2
Unimolecular reaction
Bimolecular reaction
Bimolecular reaction
A
A+B
A+A
products
rate = k [A]
products
rate = k [A][B]
products
rate = k [A]2
Reaction Mechanisms
Up until now, we have only been concerned with the reactants and
products. Now we will examine what path the reactants took in
order to become the products.
The reaction mechanism gives the path of the reaction.
Mechanisms provide a very detailed picture of which bonds are
broken and formed during the course of a reaction.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Reaction Mechanisms
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Intermediates
Intermediates are species that appear in a reaction
mechanism but not in the overall balanced equation.
An intermediate is always formed in an early elementary step
and consumed in a later elementary step.
Elementary step:
NO + NO
N2O2
+ Elementary step:
N2O2 + O2
2NO2
Overall reaction:
2NO + O2
2NO2
Multistep Mechanisms
In a multistep process, one of the steps will
be slower than all others.
The overall reaction cannot occur faster than
this slowest, rate-determining step.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
NO3 + NO (slow)
Step 2: NO3 + CO
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Step 1 is an equilibrium:
it includes the forward and reverse reactions.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Rate = k[NO2]2
The experimentally determined rate law is
Rate = k[NO2]2
This supports, (but does not prove), our mechanism.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
2NOBr(g)
k1
k-1
k2
NOBr2(g)
2NOBr(g) (slow)
(fast)
[NOBr2]= (k1/k1)[NO][Br2]
Arrhenius Equation
Arrhenius Equation
Svante Arrhenius developed a mathematical
relationship between k and Ea:
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Arrhenius Equation
Taking the natural
logarithm of both
sides, the equation
becomes
1
RT
y = mx + b
When k is determined experimentally at
several temperatures, Ea can be calculated
from the slope of a plot of ln k vs. 1/T.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
k = A exp( -Ea/RT )
(Arrhenius equation)
Ea is the activation energy (J/mol)
R is the gas constant (8.314 J/Kmol)
T is the absolute temperature
A is the frequency factor
-Ea 1
Ln k = + lnA
R T
13.4
Arrhenius Equation
This is how the rate constant of a chemical
reaction varies with respect to temperature and
other variables.
ln(k) = - Ea/R(1/T) + ln(A)
where...
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
k= rate constant
Ea = Activation Energy (in kJ/mole)
R = Gas Constant
T = Kelvin temperature
A = Frequency Factor -- a constant indicating
how many collisions have the correct
orientation to lead to products.
Arrhenius Equation
Taking the natural
logarithm of both
sides, the equation
becomes
1
RT
y = mx + b
When k is determined experimentally at
several temperatures, Ea can be calculated
from the slope of a plot of ln k vs. 1/T.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
1/T
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
MaxwellBoltzmann
Distributions
MaxwellBoltzmann Distributions
Temperature is
defined as a
measure of the
average kinetic
energy of the
molecules in a
sample.
At any temperature there is a wide
distribution of kinetic energies.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
MaxwellBoltzmann Distributions
As the temperature
increases, the curve
flattens and
broadens.
Thus at higher
temperatures, a
larger population of
molecules has
higher energy.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
MaxwellBoltzmann Distributions
If the dotted line represents the activation
energy, as the temperature increases, so does
the fraction of molecules that can overcome the
activation energy barrier.
As a result, the
reaction rate
increases.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
MaxwellBoltzmann Distributions
This fraction of molecules can be found through the expression:
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Catalysts
uncatalyzed
catalyzed
13.6
Catalysts
Catalysts increase the rate of a reaction by
decreasing the activation energy of the
reaction.
Catalysts change the mechanism by which
the process occurs.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Catalysts
One way a
catalyst can speed
up a reaction is by
holding the
reactants together
and helping bonds
to break.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Catalysts
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Heterogeneous Catalysts
Often we encounter a situation involving a solid catalyst in contact
with gaseous reactants and gaseous products
Example: catalytic converters in cars.
- Many industrial catalysts are heterogeneous.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Heterogeneous Catalysts
Example:
C2H4(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)
In the presence of a metal catalyst (Ni, Pt or Pd) the reaction
occurs quickly at room temperature.
Here are the steps
- First, the ethylene and hydrogen molecules are adsorbed onto active
sites on the metal surface.
- Second, the HH bond breaks and the H atoms migrate about the metal
surface and runs into a C2H4 molecule on the surface.
- Third, when an H atom collides with a C2H4 molecule on the surface,
the CC -bond breaks and a CH -bond forms.
Dan Reid
a
Champaign CHS
Heterogeneous Catalysts
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Enzymes
Enzymes are
catalysts in
biological systems.
The substrate fits
into the active site of
the enzyme much
like a key fits into a
lock.
John D. Bookstaver
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles
John D. Community
Bookstaver College
St. Charles
John D. Community
Bookstaver College
St. Charles Community College
St. Charles Community College
Enzyme Catalysts
Enzymes are biological catalysts. There may be as many
as 30,000 enzymes in the human body. (Ex: Lactase)
Most enzymes are protein molecules with large molecular
masses (10,000 to 106 amu).
Enzymes have very specific shapes.
Most enzymes catalyze very specific reactions.
The substances that undergo reaction at the active site on
enzymes are called substrates.
A substrate locks into an enzyme and a fast reaction
occurs. The products then move away from the enzyme.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Enzyme Catalysts
Only substrates that fit into the enzyme lock can be involved
in the reaction.
If a molecule binds tightly to an enzyme so that another
substrate cannot displace it, then the active site is blocked and
the catalyst is inhibited (enzyme inhibitors).
Many poisons act by binding to the active site blocking the
binding of substrates. The binding can also lead to changes in
the enzyme.
Enzymes are extremely efficient catalysts.
The number of individual catalytic events occurring at an
active site per unit time is called the turnover number.
Large turnover numbers correspond to very low Ea values.
Dan Reid
For enzymes,
turnover numbers are very large 103 to 107/sec
Champaign
CHS
Enzyme Catalysis
13.6
Enzyme Catalysts
NO2 + NO2
NO + NO3
Step 2:
NO3 + CO
NO2 + CO2
NO + CO2
NO2
What can you say about the relative rates of steps 1 and 2?
rate = k[NO2]2 is the rate law for step 1 so
step 1 must be slower than step 2
Chung (Peter) Chieh
University of Waterloo
13.5
HOOBr, HOBr
None
Ostwald Process
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g)
Pt catalyst
2NO2 (g)
HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)
Hot Pt wire
over NH3 solution
13.6
Catalytic Converters
CO + Unburned Hydrocarbons + O2
2NO + 2NO2
catalytic
converter
catalytic
converter
CO2 + H2O
2N2 + 3O2
13.6