Professional Documents
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I.
Introduction
A.
Up until this point, we have focused on the flow of resources into the "economic system"
Economic System
outputs
Firms
Households
inputs
extraction
residuals
B.
II.
We now want to talk about the flow of wastes back into the system, specifically addressing
two questions
1.
2.
A Pollution Taxonomy
A.
The damage caused by waste disposal depends crucially upon the environment's ability to
absorb the waste.
B.
Note: It is not that the system destroys the waste (this would contradict the first
law of thermodynamic). Rather, the system transforms it into a substance not
considered to be harmful to the ecological system, or dilutes it so that the resulting
concentration is not harmful.
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2.
3.
Examples:
a.
b.
If emissions exceed the absorptive capacity of the system, they will accumulate in
the environment and cause damage.
Absorptive
Capacity of the
Environment
Emissions
Load
C.
Pollution
Accumulation
Pollution
Damage
Classification of Pollutants
1.
By absorptive capacity
a.
b.
i.
Nonbiodegradable bottles
ii.
iii.
Carbon dioxide
14-2
ii.
2.
b.
Nonbiodegradable plastics
ii.
carbon dioxide
b.
i.
water pollutants
ii.
plastics
4.
III.
i.
ii.
The above taxonomy is useful because, as we shall see, different pollutants require
different policies. Failure to recognize these distinctions can lead to flawed,
counterproductive policies.
14-3
A.
As in all previous chapters, the efficient allocation is one that maximizes the present value
of the net benefits.
B.
Different approaches need to be considered in dealing with fund versus stock pollutants.
C.
Stock Pollutants
1.
2.
Example:
a.
Consider a good (X) whose production costs are zero and for which
consumers perceive a marginal net benefit of MB = A.
b.
c.
Now suppose the production process also generates a stock pollutant, with
a marginal costs to society of MC = bA for each period exposed to the
pollutant. Suppose further that b = .1.
d.
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0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
5.0%
7.0%
9.0%
11.0%
13.0%
15.0%
17.0%
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
3.
Stock pollutants have many of the same problems as nonrenewable resources with
rising extraction costs.
a.
b.
ii.
ii.
14-5
c.
D.
iii.
iv.
ii.
Fund Pollutants.
1.
b.
If the emissions are less than the absorptive capacity, no problem exists.
However, as in renewable resources, one has to be concerned with what
processes are allowed to contribute to using up the renewable resource:
"absorptive capacity."
2.
Suppose a product is going to be produced (i.e. fix the output level), generating Q0
units of pollutants without abatement. What is the efficient amount of pollution
emissions versus pollution control.
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Marginal
Damage
Cost
Marginal
Cost of
Control
MC
Q0
a.
There are two marginal cost curves, both of which are increasing.
i.
ii.
b.
Quantity of
Pollution
Emitted
i.
ii.
14-7
Marginal
Damage
Cost
Marginal
Cost of
Control
MC
TCd
Q*
c.
IV.
Quantity of
Pollution
Emitted
B.
V.
TCc
Question: Does the market naturally lead to the optimal allocation of pollution
emissions?
1.
2.
Pollution is an externality.
B.
2.
Taxing pollutants
3.
14-8
C.
1.
2.
b.
In this case the focus can be on minimizing the total pollution level and ignoring
distributional impacts.
2.
What is the cost effective allocation of control responsibility for uniformly mixed
fund pollutants?
a.
MC2
MC2
30
30
MC1
20
20
10
10
b.
q1
10
15
q2
15
10
3q1 = 30
q1 = 10
q2 = 5.
Graphically, we have:
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MC1
MC2
30
30
20
20
10
10
3.
q1
10
15
q2
15
10
General Points
i.
ii.
etc.
b.
ii.
iii.
MC1
MC2
30
30
20
20
10
10
TC1
TC2
0
0
q1
10
15
q2
15
10
iv.
c.
20
MC1
10
T
0
q1
ii.
10
15
How would the firm choose to control its pollution level faced
with an emissions charge of T?
The firm should move to where the MC of control equals the
emissions fee.
iii.
MC1
MC2
30
30
20
20
10
10
q1
10
15
q2
15
10
iv.
v.
d.
ii.
(b)
Under this system the control authority issues exactly the number
of permits needed to produce the desired emissions level.
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iii.
iv.
Example:
MC1
MC2
30
30
20
20
P2
10
P1
10
q1
7.5
10
15
q2
15
10
7.5
D.
v.
vi.
2.
Total emissions is no longer the sole source of concern. We must also consider the
emissions site and its impact on concentration levels at other sites.
3.
It is easy to see why in many cases location does matter, especially when the
absorptive capacity of alternative locations differ.
4.
5.
6.
The target concentration levels are measured at what are called receptor sites.
14-14
7.
b.
River example:
1
c.
d.
The cost effective allocation will be achieved when the marginal cost of
concentration reduction (not emissions reduction) are equalized.
e.
Example
i.
ii.
Emissions Reductions
1
2
MC of Emissions
Reduction
1
2
Concentration
Reductions
1
2
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Marginal Cost of
Concentration Reduction
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3
4
5
6
7
3
4
5
6
7
3
4
5
6
7
Emissions Reductions
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
MC of Emissions
Reduction
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
iii.
Concentration
Reductions
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Marginal Cost of
Concentration Reduction
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
a1q1 + a2q2 = 5
q1 + 0.5q2 = 5
q1 = 5 - 0.5q2
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MCc1 = MC2 c ,
where MCc =
MCe
a
MC1 MC2
=
a1
a2
q1 q 2
=
1 0.5
q1 = 2q 2
5 = 2.5q2
q2 = 2
q1 = 2q2 = 4
iv.
Graphically, we have:
MCc1
f.
MCc2
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
a1q1 0
a2q2
Policies
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3
2
4
1
5
0
8.
i.
Ambient standard
ii.
Ambient Charges
iii.
iv.
b.
c.
aF
ij
j =1
d.
VI.
Question: What are the distinctions among standards, permits, and charge systems?
A.
Standards are not only information intensive or likely no cost effective, but they also are
less likely to encourage innovation in pollution control
B.
Permit systems adjust automatically, while the charge system must iterate to a solution.
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C.
2.
D.
Adding sources will not change the permit result, just the value of the
permits being traded.
b.
Charges will not react to inflation unless they are modified. Permits will
automatically adjust.
Permits will not enable technological change in pollution control to alter the overall level of
pollution, but a charge system will.
MC1
30
MC1
20
MC1
10
T
0
q1
E.
10
15
A.
Permit systems lead to certainty in the total level of pollution emissions. This is
important when the marginal damage function is steeply sloped.
Charges lead to certainty in the marginal control costs. This is important when the
marginal control cost function is steeply sloped.
14-19