{ 459 ] uenx Maxweut, FBS. att A Dynomioal Theory of the Blectromapnetic Bull, By. ‘Read Desomber 8, 1504. Ostober 27 PART I—INTRODUCTORY. (1) Tas most obvious mechanical phenomenca in clectrical and magnetical experiments Mie mutaal action by which bodies in certain slates set each other in motion while wei qra seusble distance from each other. : The first sep, therefore, in reducing there vcumena into seientific form, is to ascertain the magnitude sud. direction of the forse ring between the bodies, and.when itis ound thet this forse depends ia a certain way upon the relative postion of the bodies and on their electri or magnetic condition, jrosons a fst sight natural to explain the facts by assuming the existence of some- thing either atrost orin motion in each body, constituting its electric or magnetic sate, td capable of acting at a distance according to mathematical lows, Th this way mathematical theories of statical electricity, of magnetism, of the mecha- nied action between eonductors carzying eurrents,and of the induction of currents hove Yerformed, Tn these theoris'the force acting between the two bodiesis treated with rnfvace only to the eondition.of. the bodies and their relative position, and without ‘55 express consideration of the surrounding medium, Thove theories assume, more ot less explicitly, the existoneo of substances the parti- desfof which have the property of acting, on one another at distance by attraction tr rpulsion, ‘Tho most ecmplete development of « theory of this ind is that of SLW. Wesnn®, who bas mede the same theory include electrostatic and electromagnetic phenomena. Indoing so, however, he has found it necesmry to assume that the force between two electric particles depends on their relative velosty, as well as on their distance, This thoory, as developed by MM. W. Ween and C. Nreaavyt,,is exceedingly ingenious, end wonderfully comprehensive in its application to .the phenomena of stetical eleatrisity, electromagnetic attractions, induction of currents and diamagnetic Phoxomena; and it comes to us with the more authority, as it has served to guide the specalations of one who has made so great an avanee in the practical part of electric creo, both by introducing & consistent system of units in electrical measurement, oud by actually determining electrical quantities with an eecuraey hitherto unknown. minangen. Lelpeis Trans. voli, 1848, and Tarcan’s Scien Memoir, volr. * Blsirodyugmilache Mass 1 Bapliaue tentetur quomode fiat at Tues planum polaefztioais pe vies clestrcas vel megneticns deck- ‘anal Saxon, 1538, Moewoixy, an400 PROFHSSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, (2) The mechanical dificalties, however, wich are iavelved in the assumption of partides acting ai a distance with forees whieh depend on their velocities are such ex” to prevent me fiom considering this theory as an ultimate one, though it may have been, and may yet be useful in leading t the coordimation of phenomena. ‘ T have therefore preferred to seck an oxplanation of the fact in another diection, by supposing them to be produced by actions which go on in the surrounding medium as well as in the excited bodies, and endeavouring to explain the action between distant bodies without assuming the existence of forces capable of acting directly at sensible“ distances, (8) The theory T propose may therefore be called a theory of the Electromagnetic Field becanse it has to do with the space in the neighbourhood of the electric or magnetic bodies "= and it may be called a Dynarvical Theory, because it assumes that in that space theré is mniter in motion, by which the observed electromagnetic phenomena are produced: i; (4) The electromagnetic field is that part of space which contains and surrounds dodies in electric or magnetic conditions. Tt may be filled with any kind of mattor, or we may endeavour to render it empty of all gross matter, as in the case of Gutssuzn’s tubes and other so-~elled vacua, ‘There isalways, however, encugh of matier left to receive and transmit the undulations of light and heat, and it is bectuse the transmission of these mdiations is not greatly’ alicred when transparent Dodies of messnrable density are substituted ‘for the so-called” Yacuum, that we are obliged to admit that the undulations are those of an etheréal substance, and not of the gross matter, the presence of which merely modifies in som way the motion of the wther, 2 ‘We have therefore some reason to believe, from the phenomena of light and-heat, that there is an vethereel medium filling space and permeating bodies, eapable of being set in motion and of transmitting that motion from one part to another, and of com? municating that motion to gross matter so as to heat it and aifect it in various ways. -, (8) Now the energy communicated to the body ia heating it must have formerly, existed in the moving medium, for the undulations had left the source of lieat some time before they reached the body, and during that time the energy must have been half ii the form of motion of the medium and half in-the form of elastic rosilionce. From ‘these considerations Professor W. ‘[Homsow has argued*, that the medium must havea density capable of comparison with that of gross matter, and has even assigned an infe rior limit to that density. (8) We may therefore receive, as @ datum derived from a branch of stiance inde- pendent of that with which we have to deal, the existence of a pervading medium, of small but real density, capable of being set in motion, and of transmitting motion from one part to another with great, but not infinite, velocity. ; Hence the parts of this medium must be so connected that the motion of one part * “On the Possible Density of the Lominiforous Medium, eni on tho Mediuuieal Value of w Cubto Mt Sanbigit,” Sransactions of the Royal Society of Réinburgh (1854), p. 57, oofPROFESSOR OLEEK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD: 461 depends'in some way on the miotion of the rest; and at the same tinie these conexions must be capable of a certain kind of elastic yielding, since the communication of motion {is not instentaneous, but oceupies time. ‘The medium is therefore capable of receiving and storing up two kinds of enomgy. namely, the “actual” energy depondiag on the motions of its parts, end “potential energy, consisting of the work which the medium will do in recovering from displace ment in virtue of its elasticity, The propagation of undulations consists in the continual transformation of one of these forms of energy into the other altemately, and at any instant the amount of energy in the whole medium is equally divided, so that helf is energy of motion, and half is elastic resilience, (7) Amedium having such a constitution may be capable of other kinds of motion and. displacement than those which produce the phenomena of light and heat, and some of these may be of sich a kind that they may be evidenced to our senses by the pheno- mena they produce, (8) Now we know that the Iuminiferous medinm is in certain eases acted on by magnetism ; for Farapax* discovered thet when 2 plane polarized ray traverses a trans- patent diamagnetic medium in the direction of the lines of magnetic force produced by ‘magnets or currents in the neighbourhood, the plane of polarization is caused to rotate. ‘This rotation is always in the direction in which positive oleotrioity must be carried round the diamagnetic body in order to produce the actual magnetization of the field. M. Viper} has since discovered that if a paramagnetic body, such 2s solutien of perchloride of iron in ether, be substituted for the diamagnetic body, the rotation is in the opposite direction. Now Professor W. Tuousox'f hes pointed out that no distribution of forose acting between the ports of a medium whose only motion isthat of the luminous vibrations, is sufficient to account for the phenomena, but that we must admit the existence of a motion in ‘the medium depénding on the magnetization, in addition to the vibratory motion which constitutes light It is true that the rotation by magnotism of tho plane of polarization has been observed only in media of considerable density; but the properties of the magnetic ficld are noi so much altered by the substitution of one medium for another, or for a vaewum, 4s to allow us to suppose that the dense medium does anything more than merely modify the motion of the ether. We have therefore warrantable grounds for inquiring whether there may not be a motion of the ethereal medium going oa wherever magnetic effects are observed, and we have some reason to suppose that this motion is one of rotation, having the direction of the magnetic force as its axis (9) We may now consider another ‘phenomenon served in the electromagnetic © Experimental Rosoenchos, Serie 1. + Comptes Rendus-(1356, socond half yen, p + Eruovolings of the Royal Society, June 1S Bri 9, and 1857, frst lf y2nr, p. 1900) snd Jane462 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, fidd. When a body is moved anvoss the lines of magnetic force it experiences what-ia called an electromotive fore; the two extromities of the body tend to become oppo: Silely electrified, and an electric current tends to flow through the body.’ When the clectromotive force is sufficieatly powerful, and is made to act on éertain’ compound odies, it decomposes them, and causes one of their components to pass towarde one extremity of the body, and the other in the opposite direction. # Bit Here we hate evidence of a force causing on electric current in-spite of resist. e; electrifying the extiemitios of a body in opposite ways, a condition whitch ig sustained only by the action of the electromotive force, and which, a8 soon as that force is removed, tends, with an equal and opposite fores, to produce a counter current through = the body and to restore the original electrical state of the body; and Snelly, if strong enough, tearing to pieces chemical compounds and carrying their components in opps site divections, while their natural tendency is to combine, and to combine -with a foros which ean generate an clectromotive force in the reverse direotion. . This, then, is a force acting on a body caused by its motion through Wie electro: maguetic field, or by changes occurring in that field itself; and the effect of the force ty ther to produce a current and heat the body, or to decompose the body, o:, when it can do neither, to put the body in a state of electric polatization,—a state of eonstraiuk= id from which the body tends to relieve itself as svon_as the disturbing force is removed. = (10) According to the theory which I propose to explain, this “cleotrémotive force? is the force called into play during the- communication of motion from one part of the’ medium to another, and it is by means of this force that the motion of one part causes motion in another part, When electromotive forse aets on a conducting cicuit, it pro: Guces e current, which, as it meets with resistance, occasions a continual transformation =» of electtical energy into heat, which is ineapable of being restored agein to the form-of. clecizical encigy by any reversal of the process. i. (21) But when electromotive force asts on a dielectric it produces a stato of polari zation of its parts similar in distribution to the polarity of the parts of a mass of iron under the influence of a magnet, and like the magnetic polariaatior, capable of being described as a state in which every partiele has its opposite poles in. opposite code! ditions *, : In a dielectric under, the action of electromotive force, we may conceive that the electricity in each molecule is so displaced that one sie is rendered positively and the other negatively electrical, but that the electricity remains entirely connected -with thie molecule, and does not pass from one molecule to enother. The effect of this action’on: the whole dielectric mass is to produce a genoral. displacement of electricity ina cert tain direction. ‘This displacement does not amount to a current, because when it'has attained to certain valuc it remains constant, but it is the commencement of a current, and its variations constitate currents in the positive or the negative direction according * Fanamas, Esp. Res Sri XI; Aeecors, Mon. delle Soc. Tiliana (Modena), vel. ain. yait 2p. 40, in which opposite extremities are oppositely electrified, zPROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. 463 as the displacement is increasing or decreasing, In the interior of the dielectric there, jeno indication of electrification, because the electrification of the surface of any molecule jencutralized by the opposite electrification of the surface of the melecules in contact ‘with it; bat at {h8 bounding surface of the dielectric, where the electrification is not neutralized, we find the phenomena which indicate positive or negative electrification, ‘The relation between the electromotive forve and the mount of electric displacement it prodinees depends on the nature of the diclectric, the same electromotive force pro- ducing generally a greater electric displacement in solid dielectrics, such a= glass or sulphur, than in air. (12) Here, then, we perceive another effect of electromotive force, namely, electric displacement, which ecoording to our theory is a kind of elastic yielding to the action of the force, similar to that which takes place in structures and machines owing to the want of perfect rigidity of the comexions, (13) The practical investigation of the inductive’ capacity of diclectrios is rendered dificult of account of two disturbing phenomena. The first is the conductivity of the dielectric, which, though in many cases exceedingly stiall, is not altogether insensible. ‘The second is the phenomenon celled electric absorption®, in virtue of which, when the dielectric is exposed to electromotive force, the electric displacement gradually increases, and when the electromotive force is removed, the dielectric does wot instantly return to its primitive state, but only discharges « portion of its electriflation, and when left to itself gradually acquires electrification on its surface, as the interior gradually becomes depolarized, Almost all solid dielectrics exhibit this phenomenon, which gives rise to the residual charge in the Leyden jar, and to several phenomena of electric cables deseribed by Mx. ¥. Jenny f. (14) We have here two other kinds of yielding besides the yielding of the: pexfect didlecttic, lastic body. The yielding due to conductivity may be compared to that of a viscous fluid (that is to sey, « finid having great internel friction), or a soft solid on which the smallest force produces permanent alteretion of figure ineteasing with the time during which the force acts. ‘The yielding due to electric absorption may be compared to that of a cellular elastic body.containing a thick uid in its cavities. Such a body, when subjected to pressure, is compressed By degrees on account of the gmiluel yielding of the thiok fluid; and when the pressure is removed it does not at once recover its figure, because the elasticity of the substance of the body kas gradually to overcome the tenacity of the fiuid before it cam regain com- plete equilibrium. Several solid bodies in which no such structure as we have supposed can be found, teem to possess a mechanical property of this Kind}; and it seems probable that the to a perfectly hhich we have compar ® Fanumiy, Esp, Res. 1230-1 + Reports of British Asseciation, 1859, p. Cobles, pp. 130 & 404 Ae, for Instance, the composition of glue, tresele, e,, of which small plastic figures are mae, whish after Yeing distorted gradually recover their shape and Report of Camamittso of Board ef Trade on Submarine464 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELROTROMAGNEIIC FIELD. same substances, if dielectrics, may possess the analogous electrical Property, and if qeaktetic, may have corresponding properties relating 10 the acquisition, retention, an loss of magnetic polarity. wal (15) It appoars therefore that certain phenomena in electricity and magnetism Jead ~ to the same conclusion as those of optics, namely, that there is an Pervading all bodies, and modified only in degree by their presence; this medium are eapable of being set in motion by electric eurrents an this motion is communicated from one part of the medium to another from the connexioné of those parts; that under the action of theee certain yiolding depending on the elasticity of these connesions; and that therefore cnergy in two different forms may exist in the medium, the one form being the actual energy of motion of its parts, and the other being the potential enorgy stored up in th connexions, in virtue of their elasticity. (16) ‘Thus, then, wo are led to the conception of a compliceted me of & vast variety of motion, but at the same time so connected that part depends, according to definite relations, on the motion of other P being communicated by forces ari 3) ‘Whea € is constant, the solution is of the form 3+(a—6) where a is the value of the current at the commencement, and 6 is its final alae, The total quantity of electricity which passes in time # where ¢ is great, is mi L fatmary(e—y ay The value of the integral of 2° with respect to‘the time is foe 4 L (3b+@ 5) Sirdaves (ana f (2344). : «¢ 9.90 actual current changes gradually from the the values of the integrals of e and a? 4(a@-+2) were to flow for a time 2X, and were then succeeded by the steady current 3. - initial value a to the fixal yalue 6, but re the sune as if, ‘8 steady current of intensity » ‘The tite iz is generally so minute a fraction of a second, that the effects on the galvano- meter and dyna meter may be calculated as if the impulse were instantaneous, If the eizouit consists of « battery and a coil, thon, when the eiveuit is fist con pleted, ‘he effects are the same as if the tarrent had only belf its final strength during the time 9h 2ig _ This diminution of the current, due to induction, is somotimes called the eouates- current. (85) If an additional resistance 7 is sudierly thrown into the eirenit, as by breaking contact, £0 a8 to force the current to pass through a thin wire of resistance r, then the original current is a—§, and the final ewrrent is 3=_£_ igint fi; and the fnal tis bay ‘The current of induction is then Hogi» and continues for a time 2gh. This cument is greater than that which the battery con mal and may be sufficient to ignite the thin wire When contact is broken by separ given by the interposed air, and sin is vo intain in the two wires R and r, rating the wires in air, this addi ce the electromotive a spark will be forced across, itional resistance is force across the new resistancePROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL OY ‘HE ELECTROMAGNEDIC FIELD. 473 If the electromotive force ia of the form Esin pt, as in the case of a coil revolving in a magnetic feld, then B cin ( pt), and tan a where ¢ +L" Case of two Circuits. (37) Let R be the primary circuit and-$ the secondary cirouit, then we have a cxse dmilar to that of the induction cil. ‘The equations of cuments are those marked A and B, and we may here assume L,M, N ay constant because there is mo motion of the condactors. ‘The equations then become Raph 4M gat ; (s+) sto ina he total quantity ofelocseity which pastes, we Tuve oly to integrate these equations with respect to #; then ify, y, be the strengths of the currents at time 0, tion ov and X,Y be the quanti of slectsty posed Hnowgh eae ted ea ane ; Se} Mes) +My —y) k JEM. : | as) ray J ‘When the circuit R is completed, then the t 1 Yap Maa, currents up to time ¢, when t is great, are found by making then X=a(t— (18) ‘Tho value of the total countercurrent in is therefore independent of the secondary cirouit, and the induction eurrent in the secondary depends only on M, the coefficient of induction between the coils, § the resistance of the secondary eoil, and nal strength of the current in R. When the clectromotive force & ceases to act, a, the fi ve is an extra current in the pri- mary cireuit, and a pesitive induced cure! equal and opposite to those produced on making contact. ($8) All questions relating by the impilse given to die maguet of the gnlvanometer, inay be solved in this way in the secondary cizeuit, whose values are the total quantity of transient owrent srithout the necessity of a complete solution of the equations. ‘Ihe henting effect of474 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELT, ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIED. the current, end the impulse it gives to the suspended coil of Wimss's aynamometes, depend on the square of the current at every instant during the short time it laste, Hence we must obtain the solution of the equations, and from the solution we may fina the effects both on the galvanometer and dynamometer; and we may then make use of the method of Wenn for estimating the intensity and duration of ¢ current uniform “= while it lasts which would produce the same offects, (39) Let m,, 2, bo the roots of the equation . (LN—M)n?+(RN-+LS)n-+RS=0, sos + (18) 3 and let the primary coil be acted on by a constant electromotive force Re, so that ¢ is the constant current it could maintain; then the complete solution of the equations for making contact is +N )er psc ai eonSuy dee. as). (9): Penge, 5 Ivttmebags vee Ca ‘The effects of the curzent in the secondary coil on the galvanometer and dynamometer aze the same as those of a uniform eareut fora time (40) The equation between work and energy may be casily verified. ‘The work done by the electromotive farce is fea Work done in overcoming resistance and produ: Riwde+ Sfyrde=ee—31), 3c. (RAL), ng heat, Energy remaining in the eystem, (41) Ifthe circuit R is sudéouly and completely interrupted while earring a current @ then the equation of the current in the secondary coll would be ‘This current begins with a value eM, and gradually disappearsPROPESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC HELD. ‘Theetotal quantity of electricity is ef, and the value of [yar is ‘The offects on the galvanometer and dynamometer are equal-to those of a uniform M 3N. rent 40% for a time 2 ‘The heating effect is therefore greater then that of the current on making contact. (42) Han electromotive foree of the form the cirouit § is removed, the value of x will be E cos pt acts on the circait R, then if en es M=R+Lp', am ‘The effect of the presence of the circuit in the neighbourhood is to alter the value of A ond a, to that which they would be if R become and + MS Rr yan and L became MN wage ‘rence the effect of the presence of the cireuit Sis to increase the apparent resistance and diminish the epparent se 1 induction of the cixcuit R. On the Determination of Coefficients of Induction by the Electric Balance. (48) ‘The cleciric balance consists of six con- auctors joining four points, AC DE, two and two. One pair, AO, of these points is connected through the battery B. The opposite pair, DE, is through the galvanometer G. ‘Then if the resistances of the four remaining conductors are represented by P,Q, R, 8, and the currents in them by a, @—7, % and y-+s, the current through G will bez. Tet the potentials at the dour poinisbe A, C,D, EB Then the be found from the equations Pr=aA—-D = Q(a-=D-C, -E 8(y+2)=E- GimD-E Bety=—A+O+F.} Solving these equ fpr gtats+3(bra) (ts) +6(F 4) (&+%) +a supcecnny 8a nnected 1s for 2, we find478 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THB ELECTROMAGNETIO FrRtA In this expression F is the electromotive foree of the battory, ¢ the current through the galvenometer when it has become steady. P,Q, R, 8 the resistances in the four arms. B that of the battery and electrodes, and G that of the galanometer. (44) If PS=QR, then z=0, and there will be no steady current, but 0 trabsiant current through the galvanometer may be produced on making or breaking cizcuit on account of induction, and the indications of the galvanometer may be used to determine ‘tae coefficients of induction, provided we understand the actions which take place, We shall suppose PS=QR, so that the current 2 vanishes when sufficicnt time is allowed, and {P. es sae F(P+Q)(R+8) HP4O)=YR+8)= ergs + HEF OTH Let the induction coefficients between P, Q, RS, be ——— given by the following Table, the coeficient of induction | of P on itself being p, between P and Q, h, and so on. Let g be the coefficient of induction of the galvanometer on itself, and let it be out of the reach of the inductive influence of P,Q, R, S (as it must be in order to avoid 8? direct action of P,Q, R, S on the needle). Let X,Y, Z be the integrals of ay Yd with respect to ¢. At making contact a, y, # are zero. After a time z disappears, and and y xeach eonstant valuos. ‘The equations far each conductor will therefore be Px A(p+h jat(k +1)y—fadi—SDét, | QRZ) +(h+g )a+(m-+n)y=[Dat—fcae, | RY $(k-+mrt(r +o)y=faae—fear, | - (24) S(Y+Z) +(-+n w+(o +s y=fledt—fooee, Gz=fprd—feee. | Solving these equations for Z, we find Uptatatst3 ptR) (ats) +6(b+a) (ats) +pang(P+0+R-+8)} 1 —¥ps{b-8 + i4()-a) +483) +H) —m (42) | en aN) | s-E)} J (45) Now let the dedection of the galvanoineter by the instantancous current whose intensity ip Z bo a Let the pernanent deflection produeed by making the ratio-of PS to QR, ¢ instosd of unity, be 4 Also let the time of vibration of the galyanometer needle from rest to rest be T.PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. ‘Then calling the quantity 6-3) Hera) mG) Cd In determining + by experiment, it is best to make the alteration of resistance in one of the arms by means of the arrangement described by Mr. Jexxiw in the Report of the British Association for 1803, by which any value of ¢ from 1 to 1-01 can be accurately We observe (a) the greatest deflection duc to the impuleo of induction when the galvanometer is in ciroait, when the connexions are made, and when the resistances ere s0 adjusted as to give no permanent current. We then observe (8) the greatest deflection produced by the permanent current when the resistance of one of the arms is increased in the ratio of 1 to ¢, the galvanometer ter the connexion is made with the battery. not being in cireuit till a little whi In order to climinate the effecis of resistance of the air, it is best to vary ¢ till B=2a realy; then ta chines , sotiogiiie . - - 28) If all the arms of the balance except P consist of resistance coils of very fine wire of no great length and doubled before being coiled, the induction cocificients belonging to thece coils will be insensible, and r will be reduced to 8. “Lhe electric balance there- fore affords the means of measuring the selfinduction of any circuit whose resistanct known. (46) Tt may also be used to determine the cocfficient of induction between two circuits, as for instance, that between P and S which we have called m; butit would be more convenient (o measure this by dixeotly measuring tho current, as in (87), without using the balance. We may alco ascertain the equality of B and by there being no current of induction, and thus, when we know the value of p, we may determine that of q by amore perfect method than the comparison of defiestions. Exploration of the Electromagnetic Piel. (47) Let us now suppose the primary circuit A to be of invariable form, and let us explore the electromagnetic field by means of the secondary circuit B, which we shall suppose to be variable in form and position “We may bagin by supposing B to consist of a short straight conductor, with its extre- mitics aiding on.two parallel conducting rails, which are pat in connexion at some distance from the Hiding-piece. Bra478 PROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON THE FEECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, Then, if sliding the moveable conductor in given direction increases the value of My = a negative electromotive force will act in the circuit B, tending to produce a negative ‘current in B daring the motion of the sliding-pieve. If a current be kept up in the cizcuit B, then the sliding-pioce will itsclf tend to move in thet direction, which causes'M to increase. At every point of the field there will always be a ceriain direction such thst a conductor moved in that direction does not experience any electromotive force in whatever direction its extremities are turned, A conductor carrying a current will experience no mechanical force urging it in that direction or the opposite. ‘This direction is called the direction of the line of magnetic force through that point. Motion of a conductor acess such a Tine produces electromotive force in a direction perpendicular to the line and to the di current is urged in a direction perpendicular to the line and to the directi current. (48) We may next suppose B to consist of a very small plane circuit capable of being placed in any position and of having its plane turued in any direction. The value of M will be groatost when the plane of the circuit is perpendicular to the line of magnetic force. Hence if a current is maintained in Bit will tend to set iteelf in this position, and will of itsclf indicate, like a magnet, the direction of the magnetic force. on of motion, and s conductor carrying n of fhe On Lines of Magnetic Force. (48) Let any surface be drawn, cutting the lines of magnetic force, and on this sure face Jet any system of lines be drawn at small intervals, so as to lie side by side without cutting each other. Next, let my line be drawn on the surface cutting all these Hines, ‘and Jet a second line be drawn near it, its distance from the first being such that the value of M for each of the small spaces enclosed between these two lines and the Lines of the first system ia equal to unity. ; In this way let mare lines be drawa so as to forma secend system, so that the value of N for every reticulation formed by the intersection of the two systems of lines is unity. Finally, from every point of intersection of these reticulations let a line be drawn through the ficld, alwoys coinciding in direction with the direction of magnetic forca, (80) Tn this way the whole field will be flled with lines of magnetic force at regular intervals, and the properties of the clectromagnctic field will be completely expressed by them. For, Ist, If any closed curve be drawn ix the field, the value of M for that carve will be expressed by the number of lines of force which pass through that closed curve. 2nély. If this curve be @ conducting circuit and be moved through the ficld, an electromotive force will act in it, represented by the rate of decrease of the number of lines passing through the carve. Sudly. If'a current be maintained in the circuit, the conductor will be acted on by forces tending to move it so as to increase the number of lines passing through it, andPROFESSOR CLERK MAXWELL ON. THE ELECTROMAGNENC FIELD. 479 the amount of work done by these forces is equal to the current in the cireuit multi. plied by the number of additional lines. 4thly, If a small plane cixeait be placed in the ficld, and be free to turn, it will place its plane perpendicular to the lines of force, A small maguet will place itself with ite axis in the direction of the lines of force Sthly. Ifa long uniformly magnetized bar is placed in the field, each pole will be acted on by @ foree in the ditection of the lines of force. ‘The number of lines of force passing through unit of area is equal 20 the force acting on a unit pole multiplied by @ coefficient depending oa the magnetic nature of the medium, and called the cooificient of magnetic induction. In fluids and isotropic solids the value of this coefficient w is the same in whatever direction the lines of force pass through the eubstance, but in erystallized, streined, and organized solids tho value of may depend on the direction of the lines of force with respect to the axes of crystallization, strain, or growth. Tn all bodies w is affected by temperature, and in iron it appears to diminish ae the y of the magnetization increases. On Magnetic Bywipotential Surfaces. (61) If we explore the field with a uniformly magnetized bar, so long that ono of its poles is in a very weak part of the magnetic field, then the magnetic forces will perform work on the other pole as it moves about the ‘eld Ife staré from a given point, and move this pole from it to any other point, the work performed will be independent of the path of the pole between the two points; provided that no electric current: passes between the different paths pursued by the pole. Fence, when there are no electrie currents but only magnets in the field, we may draw a series of surfaces such that the work done in passing from one to another shall he constant whatever be the path pursued between them. Such surfaces are called. Equipotentiel Surfaces, and in ordinary cases are perpendicular to the Lines of mag- netic force. Jf these surfaces are so drawn that, when a unit pole passes from any one to the next in order, unity of work is done, then the work done in any motion of a magnetic pole will be measured by the strength of the pole multiplied by the namber of surfaces which it has passed through in the positive direction. (62) If there are cireuits carrying electric currents in the ficld, then there will still ‘ve equipotential surfaces in the parts of the field external to the conductors carrying the ‘currents, but the work done on a unit pole in passing from one to another will depend on the number of times which the path of the pole circulates round any of these currents. Hence the potential in each suxface will have a series of value: in arith- ‘ing by the work done in passing completely round \d one of the motieal progression, di currents in the field. ‘The equipotential surfaces will not be continuous closed surfaces, but some of them480 PROFESSOR CUERX MAXWELL ON Tite ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. will be limited sheets, terminating in the electric circuit as their common edge or boundary, ‘The number of those will be equal to the amount of work done on a unit pole in going round the current, and thisby the ordinary measurement =4z7, where y ig the value of the current, 2 ‘These surfaces, therefore, are connected with the electric current as aoap-bubbles arp. connected with a ring in M. PLavzav's experiments, Every current y has dry surfaces attached to it, ‘These surfaces have the current for their common edge, and meet it at, equal angles. ‘The form of the surfaces im other parts depends on the presence of other currents and magnets, as well as on the shape of the oizeuit to which they belong. pane TIL—GENERAL HQUATIONS OF THE HLROTROMAGNETTC FIELD, (83.) Let us assume three rectangular directions in space as the axes of -r, and let all quantities having direction be expressed by their components in th dire ganda, 2 ese three Blectriced Ourrents (py qt). (64) An clectrical carront consists in the transmission of electricity from one part of a body to another. Let the quantity of electricity transmitted in unit of time acrosé unit of area perpendicular to the axis of @ be called p, then p is the component of the current at that place in the direction of x We shall use the letters p, 9, 7 to cenote the components of the cument per unit of aurea in the directions of ay ys < Electrical Displacements (f, g, h). (66) Electrical displacement consists in the opposite electri melecule or particle ation of the sides of a ofa body which may er may not be accompanied with transmission through the body. Let the quantity of electricity which would appear on the faces Ay-dz of an element dx, dy, d= ent from the body be fidy.dz, then f is the component of electric displacement parallel to z. We shall use fg, & to dehote the electris displacements parallel to 2, 9, 2 respectively, : ‘The vatiations of the electricel displacement mmust be added to the currents p, gr to. © get the total motion of electricity, which we may call 7, ¢', r, so that P=r+%,| =the oe, 2. w Harpe a) Electromotive Force (P, Q, R). (95) Let P, Q, R reprosont the components of the electromotive force at any point, Then P ropresents the ference of potential per unit of length in a conductorPROFESSOR ChERX MAXWEDL ON THE ELEOTROMAGNETIC FIEDD. — 481 placed in the direction of # at the given point. We may suppose an indefinitely short ‘wire placed perallel to x at a given point and touched, during the action of the force P. by two small conductors, which aro then insulated and removed from the influence of the electromotive force. The value of P might then be escertained by measuring the charge of the conductors, ‘Thus if J be ihe longth of the wire, the differencé of potential at its ends will be FZ, and if G be the capacity of cach of the small conductors the charge on each will be JCPL Since the capacities of moderately large conductor, measured on the electro~ naguetic system, are exceedingly small, orilinary electromotive forces oxising from electromognotic actions could hardly be measared in this way. In practice such measure: ments are always made with long oonductots, forming tlosed or nearly closed circuits. Electromagnetic Momentum (F, @, 1). (67) Lot F, G, H represent the components of clectromagnetic momentam at any point of the field, due to any system of magnets or currents ‘Then F is the total impulse of the electromotive foree in the dizection of that would be generated by the removal of these magnets or currents from the field, that is, if P be the electromotive force at any instant during the removal of the system Fefpdt. Hence the part of the electromotive force which depends on the motion of magnets or currents in the field, or their alteration of intensity, is ad a 26. P= o=—4, kt au. a - (39) a Electromagnetic Momentum of Circuit. (68) Let 4 be the longta of the cirenit, then if'we integrate ee er S(re+od mies gies wil - - (80) round the cirenit, we shall get the total electromagnetic momentum of the circuit, or the number of lines of magnetie force which pass through it, the variations of which measure the total electomotive force in the circuit. This electromagnetic momentum is the same thing to which Professor Faxapar has applied the name of the Blectrotonie State If the circuit be the boundary of the elementary ares dy ds, then its electromagnetic momentum is aH _ 2% G-a ‘and this is the number of lines of magnetic foree which pass through the area dy dz. Magnetic Force (eB. 7) (69) Let =, , ysepresent the force acting on a unit magnetic pole placed at the riven point resolved in the directions of a, #, aiid 2.482 PROFESSOR CLFRK MAXWELL ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. Coefficient of Maguetio Induction (y), t (80) Let j be the ratio of the magnetic induetion in a given medium to that in aig under an equal magnetizing force, then the number of lines of force in unit of eres perpendicular to « will be wa (y is 8 quantity depending on the nature of the medium, its temperature, the amount of magnetization already: produced, and in arystalline bodise varying with the direction), (61) Expressing the eleotric momentum of small circuits perpendicular to the three in this notation, we obtain the following Equations of Magnetic Force. _4dH mene Ze akan WO ce BY «a wee i Equations of Currents, (62) It is known from experiment that the motion of a magnetic pele in the electro! magnetic field in a closed cireuit camnot. generate work unless the cizcuit which the pal describes passes round an elecivie current. . Hence, execpt in the space oecupiea by the electric currents, F ade + Bdy+yde= de 4 complete differential of 9, the magnetic potential. ‘The quantity p may be sasceptible of an indefinite number of distinet valuos, according = to the number of times that the exploring point passos round electric currents in ite course, the difference between successive values of 9 corresponding to a passage, co pletely round a current of strength c being 4c. Hence if there is no electric ewxent, 5 aaa s $78) but if there is a current y/, Similarly, ‘We may call these the Equations of Currents.PROFESSOR CLERK. MAXWELL ON THE EL TROMAGNETIC FIELD. 483 Eleotromotive Force in a Circuit. (83) Let £ be the clectromotive force acting round the cireuit A, thea re (PE+eh+eG)a : a ee 8) where dy is the element of length, and the integration is performed round the cirenit, “Lot the forces in the field be those due to the cireuits A and B, then the electro- magnetic momentum of A is rte gt ne SiG roGwZ area, - see ot OH where w and v are the currents in A and 3B, and et e=— 4 uM). ha wets e GO Hence, if there is no motion of the cirenit A, ar ae a oe Bee 2 = = aa (35) quay a where ¥ is a function of 2, y, 2 and ¢, which is indeterminate as far as regards the olution of the above equations, because the terms depending on it will disappear on iegrating round the cireuit. ‘The quantity Y¥ can always, however, be determined in any particular ease when we know the actual conditions of the question, ‘The physical interpretation of ¥ is, that it represents the electric potential at each point of space Blectromotive Force on a Moving Onductor. (84) Let a short straight conduetor of length a, parallel to the axis of z, move with velocity whose components are 2%, %, #, and let its extremities slide along tw: 1 velocity whose components aro “2, %, 4, and let its extremitios slide along two parallel conductors with a velocity f. Let us find the alteration of the electro. magnetic momontam of the cirenit of which this arrangement forms a part unit of time the moving conduc! pavelled distances %, #4, © a In unit of time th 1g conductor hes travelled distances #, #, slong the directions of the three axes, and at the same time the lengths of the parallel conductors included inthe circuit have each beon inerased by 2 ‘iiase Qi'antiy (2. ds’ (@gragrng)a aUDeCoLNY, BU