10 Routing PDF

Fragmentation Related Fields
Length
Length of IP fragment
15-441 Computer Networking
Identification
To match up with other fragments
Flags
Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing
Dont fragment flag

More fragments flag
Fragment offset
RIP (Routing Information Protocol) &

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
Where this fragment lies in entire IP datagram

Measured in 8 octet units (13 bit field)
9/29/2005
IP Fragmentation Example #2
Outline
MTU =
2000
router
Path MTU and ICMP
router
Length = 2000, M=1, Offset = 0, ID=1234
Length = 3820, M=0, ID=1234
IP
Header
IP
Data
IP
Header
IP
Data
Distance Vector
1980 bytes
Link State
3800 bytes
Length = 1840, M=0, Offset = 1980, ID=1234
IP
Header
IP
Data
1820 bytes
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9/29/2005
Where We Left Off:

Fragmentation Concepts
Fragmentation is Harmful
Demonstrates many Internet principles

Decentralized
Forwarding costs per packet

Best if we can send large chunks of data
Worst case: packet just bigger than MTU
Every network can choose MTU
Connectionless
Each (fragment of) packet contains full routing information

Fragments can proceed independently and along different routes
Path MTU discovery protocol determines minimum MTU along

route
Common theme in system design
Uses ICMP error messages
Complex endpoints and simple routers
Assure correctness by implementing complete protocol

Optimize common cases to avoid full complexity
Reassembly at endpoints
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Internet Control Message Protocol

(ICMP)
Poor end-to-end performance

Loss of a fragment
Best effort
Fail by dropping packet
Destination can give up on reassembly
No need to signal sender that failure occurred
Uses resources poorly
IP MTU Discovery with ICMP
Short messages used to send error & other control information

Examples
MTU =
2000
host
router
Ping request / response

Can use to check whether remote host reachable
Destination unreachable
Indicates how packet got & why couldnt go further
Flow control
Slow down packet delivery rate
Redirect
Suggest alternate routing path for future messages
Router solicitation / advertisement
Helps newly connected host discover local router
Timeout
Packet exceeded maximum hop limit
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router
host
MTU = 1500
MTU = 4000
Typically send series of packets from one host to another

Typically, all will follow same route
Makes sense to determine path MTU before sending real packets

Operation
Routes remain stable for minutes at a time
Send max-sized packet with do not fragment flag set

If encounters problem, ICMP message will be returned
Destination unreachable: Fragmentation needed
Usually indicates MTU encountered
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ICMP
Frag. Needed
MTU = 2000
ICMP
Frag. Needed
MTU = 1500
MTU =
2000
router
host
MTU = 1500
MTU = 4000
Length = 2000, Dont Fragment
IP
Packet
IP
Packet

MTU =
2000
9/29/2005
10
Important Concepts
IP forwarding global addressing, alternatives, lookup
tables
IP addressing hierarchical, CIDR,
IP service best effort, simplicity of routers
IP packets header fields, fragmentation, ICMP
host
router
router
host
host
router
MTU = 1500
MTU = 4000
9/29/2005
MTU =
2000
host
router
router
host
MTU = 1500
MTU = 4000
IP
Packet
Base-level protocol (IP) provides minimal service level
When successful, no reply at IP level

No news is good news
Higher level protocol might have some form of acknowledgement
Allows highly decentralized implementation

Each step involves determining next hop
Most of the work at the endpoints
ICMP provides low-level error reporting

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11
9/29/2005
12
Outline
IP Forwarding
The Story So Far
IP addresses are structure to reflect
Internet structure
IP packet headers carry these addresses
When Packet Arrives at Router
Examine header to determine intended
destination
Look up in table to determine next hop
in path
Send packet out appropriate port
Path MTU and ICMP

Distance Vector
Link State
Router
Rest of this/next lecture

How to generate the forwarding table
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13
Graph Model
Represent each router as node
Direct link between routers represented by edge
Edge cost c(x,y) denotes measure of difficulty of using link
Forwarding Table for A
Symmetric links undirected graph

delay, $ cost, or congestion level
Task
Determine least cost path from every node to every other node
Path cost d(x,y) = sum of link costs
E
1
3
B
Dest
Cost
Next
Hop
2
6
Some set of shortest paths forms tree

Shortest path spanning tree
Solution not unique
E.g., A-E-F-C-D also has cost 7
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14
Properties
Routes from Node A
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15
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16
Ways to Compute Shortest Paths
Distance-Vector Method
Initial Table for A
Centralized
Dest
Collect graph structure in one place

Use standard graph algorithm
Disseminate routing tables
Link-state
Every node collects complete graph structure
Each computes shortest paths from it
Each generates own routing table
Cost
Next
Hop
2
6
Idea
Distance-vector
At any time, have cost/next hop of best known path to destination

Use cost when no path known
No one has copy of graph

Nodes construct their own tables iteratively
Each sends information about its table to neighbors
Initially
Only have entries for directly connected nodes
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17
Distance-Vector Update
18
Bellman-Ford algorithm
Repeat
d(z,y)
c(x,z)
For every node x

For every neighbor z
For every destination y
d(x,y) Update(x,y,z)
y
d(x,y)
Update(x,y,z)
d c(x,z) + d(z,y)
# Cost of path from x to y with first hop z
if d < d(x,y)
# Found better path
return d,z
Algorithm
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Until converge
# Updated cost / next hop
else
return d(x,y), nexthop(x,y)

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# Existing cost / next hop
19
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20
Start
Iteration #1
Optimum 1-hop paths

Table for A
Optimum 2-hop paths
Table for B
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
E
F
Table for C
Table for A
6
1
Table for D
Table for E
Table for B
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Table for C
Table for F
2
6
Table for D
Table for E
Table for F
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Optimum 3-hop paths
Link cost changes:
Table for B
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Table for C
F
6
1
22
Table for D
Table for E
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Y
50
algorithm
terminates
good
news
travels
fast
Table for F
Cst
Node detects local link cost change

Updates distance table
If cost change in least cost path, notify
neighbors
Dst
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Distance Vector: Link Cost

Changes
Iteration #2
Table for A
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21
Dst
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23
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24
Distance Vector: Link Cost

Changes
Link cost changes:
Good news travels fast

Bad news travels slow count to infinity problem!
Distance Vector: Split Horizon

60
Z does not advertise its route to X back to Y
50
If Z routes through Y to get to X :
Z tells Y its (Zs) distance to X is infinite (so Y wont

route to X via Z)
Eliminates some possible timeouts with split horizon
Will this completely solve count to infinity problem?
60
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25
Distance Vector: Poison Reverse
50
Y
50
Table for A
Table for B
Table for D
26
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Table for A
Dst
Cst
Hop
Dst
Cst
Hop
Cst
Hop
13
Better
Route
Cst
Hop
19
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D
Table for B
Dst
Cst
Hop
14
Table for A
Dst
Table for A
Dst
Table for F
Forced
Update
Forced
Update
Forced
Update
27
Table for F
Dst
Forced
Update
Poison Reverse Failures
algorithm
terminates
9/29/2005
algorithm
terminates
algorithm
continues
on!
9/29/2005
60
If Z routes through Y to get to X :

Y
Forced
Update
Table for D
Dst
Cst
Hop
15
Iterations dont converge

Count to infinity
Solution
Make infinity smaller
What is upper bound on
maximum path length?
28
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
RIP Updates
Earliest IP routing protocol (1982 BSD)
Initial
When router first starts, asks for copy of table for every neighbor
Uses it to iteratively generate own table
Current standard is version 2 (RFC 1723)
Features
Every link has cost 1
Infinity = 16
Limits to networks where everything reachable within
15 hops
Every router listens for updates on UDP port 520
RIP message can contain entries for up to 25 table
entries
Every 30 seconds, router sends copy of its table to each neighbor

Neighbors use to iteratively update their tables
Triggered
When every entry changes, send copy of entry to neighbors
Except for one causing update (split horizon rule)
Neighbors use to update their tables
Sending Updates
9/29/2005
Periodic
29
RIP Staleness / Oscillation Control
9/29/2005
30
Outline
Small Infinity
Count to infinity doesnt take very long
Path MTU and ICMP
Route Timer
Every route has timeout limit of 180 seconds
Reached when havent received update from next
hop for 6 periods
If not updated, set to infinity
Soft-state refresh important concept!!!
Distance Vector
Link State
Behavior
When router or link fails, can take minutes to stabilize
9/29/2005
31
9/29/2005
32
Link State Protocol Concept
Sending Link States by Flooding
Every node gets complete copy of graph
X Wants to Send
Information
Every node floods network with data about its

outgoing links
Every node computes routes to every other node

Using single-source, shortest-path algorithm
When connections die / reappear
9/29/2005
Dijkstras Algorithm
9/29/2005
(b)
(a)
X
D
Send on all links other

than Z
33
Sends on all outgoing

links
When Node Y Receives

Information from Z
Process performed whenever needed
(c)
(d)
34
Dijkstras Algorithm: Concept
Given
Graph with source node s and edge costs c(u,v)

Determine least cost path from s to every node v
Current Path Costs
Source
Node
Shortest Path First Algorithm

Traverse graph in order of least cost from source
0
A
Done
Unseen
Horizon
Node Sets
Done
Already have least cost path to it
Horizon:
Reachable in 1 hop from node in
Done
Unseen:
Cannot reach directly from node in
Done
9/29/2005
35
9/29/2005
Label
d(v) = path cost
From s to v
Path
Keep track of last link in path
36
Dijkstras Algorithm: Initially
Source
Node
Horizon
Done
B
Unseen
37
9/29/2005
38
Dijkstras Algorithm
C
5 6
Current Path Costs
F
6
Source
Node
0
A
Done
Horizon
5
2
1
Current Path Costs
2
2
Done
Unseen
Horizon
Select node v in horizon with minimum d(v)

Add link used to add node to shortest path tree
Update d(v) information
9/29/2005
Only consider links from done nodes
d(v) to node A shown in red
Dijkstras Algorithm
Source
Node
Horizon
No nodes done
Source in horizon
Current Path Costs
Done
Unseen
6
1
9/29/2005
Source
Node
Current Path Costs
Dijkstras Algorithm: Initially
B
Unseen
Repeat
39
9/29/2005
40
10
Dijkstras Algorithm
E
Dijkstras Algorithm
E
1
3
Source
Node
0
A
Horizon
Done
0
A
Source
Node
Current Path Costs
Unseen
Update d(v) values
Final tree shown in green
Can cause addition of new nodes to horizon
9/29/2005
41
9/29/2005
Link State Characteristics
OSPF Routing Protocol
With consistent
LSDBs*, all nodes
compute consistent
loop-free paths
Can still have
transient loops
Open
*Link State Data Base
9/29/2005
Open standard created by IETF
B
1
Shortest-path first
X
3
A
5
42
Another name for Dijkstras algorithm
More prevalent than RIP
2
D
Packet from CA
may loop around BDC
if B knows about failure
and C & D do not
43
9/29/2005
44
11
OSPF Reliable Flooding
OSPF Flooding Operation
Transmit link state advertisements
Node X Receives LSA from Node Y
Originating router
Typically, minimum IP address for router
Link ID
ID of router at other end of link
Metric
Cost of link
Link-state age
Incremented each second
Packet expires when reaches 3600
Sequence number
Incremented each time sending new link information
9/29/2005
With Sequence Number q

Looks for entry with same origin/link ID
Cases
No entry present
Add entry, propagate to all neighbors other than Y
Entry present with sequence number p < q
Update entry, propagate to all neighbors other than Y
Entry present with sequence number p > q
Send entry back to Y
To tell Y that it has out-of-date information
Entry present with sequence number p = q
Ignore it
45
9/29/2005
Flooding Issues
Adoption of OSPF
When should it be performed
RIP viewed as outmoded
Periodically
When status of link changes
Detected by connected node
46
Good when networks small and routers had limited

memory & computational power
What happens when router goes down & back up
OSPF Advantages
Fast convergence when configuration changes
Sequence number reset to 0

Other routers may have entries with higher sequence
numbers
Router will send out LSAs with number 0
Will get back LSAs with last valid sequence number p
Router sets sequence number to p+1 & resends
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47
9/29/2005
48
12
Comparison of LS and DV
Algorithms
Comparison of LS and DV
Algorithms
Message complexity
Robustness: what happens if router malfunctions?

LS:
LS: with n nodes, E links,

O(nE) messages
DV: exchange between
neighbors only
Space requirements:
LS maintains entire topology
DV maintains only neighbor
state
node can advertise incorrect link cost

each node computes only its own table
DV:
Speed of Convergence
LS: Complex computation

Butcan forward before
computation
may have oscillations

DV: convergence time varies
may be routing loops
count-to-infinity problem
(faster with triggered
updates)
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49
DV node can advertise incorrect path cost

each nodes table used by others
errors propagate thru network
Other tradeoffs
Making LSP flood reliable
9/29/2005
50
Next Lecture: BGP
How to make routing scale to large networks
EXTRA SLIDES
How to connect together different ISPs

The rest of the slides are FYI
9/29/2005
51
13
RIP Table Processing
Dijsktras Algorithm
RIP routing tables managed by application-level process

called route-d (daemon)
advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically repeated
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53
1 Initialization:
2 N = {A}
3 for all nodes v
4
if v adjacent to A
5
then D(v) = c(A,v)
6
else D(v) = infinity
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N:
12
D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N
9/29/2005
54
Dijkstras algorithm: example

Step
0
1
2
3
4
5
start N
A
AD
ADE
ADEB
ADEBC
ADEBCF
D(B),p(B) D(C),p(C) D(D),p(D) D(E),p(E) D(F),p(F)

2,A
1,A
5,A
infinity
infinity
2,A
4,D
2,D
infinity
2,A
3,E
4,E
3,E
4,E
4,E
5
2
2
1
9/29/2005
C
3
55
14

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Fragmentation Related Fields

15-441 Computer Networking

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Dont fragment flag

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) &

Where this fragment lies in entire IP datagram

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Path MTU and ICMP

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Where We Left Off:

Demonstrates many Internet principles

Forwarding costs per packet

Every network can choose MTU

Each (fragment of) packet contains full routing information

Path MTU discovery protocol determines minimum MTU along

Common theme in system design

Uses ICMP error messages

Complex endpoints and simple routers

Assure correctness by implementing complete protocol

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Internet Control Message Protocol

Poor end-to-end performance

Uses resources poorly

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

IP MTU Discovery with ICMP

Short messages used to send error & other control information

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Ping request / response

Typically send series of packets from one host to another

Makes sense to determine path MTU before sending real packets

Routes remain stable for minutes at a time

Send max-sized packet with do not fragment flag set

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

IP MTU Discovery with ICMP

Length = 4000, Dont Fragment

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

IP MTU Discovery with ICMP

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

IP MTU Discovery with ICMP

Base-level protocol (IP) provides minimal service level

When successful, no reply at IP level

Allows highly decentralized implementation

ICMP provides low-level error reporting

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Path MTU and ICMP

Rest of this/next lecture

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Edge cost c(x,y) denotes measure of difficulty of using link

Forwarding Table for A

Symmetric links undirected graph

Some set of shortest paths forms tree

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Routes from Node A

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

Ways to Compute Shortest Paths

Collect graph structure in one place

At any time, have cost/next hop of best known path to destination

No one has copy of graph

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing

For every node x

Lecture 10: Intra-Domain Routing