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    Decline-Curve Analysis For Gas Wells PDF

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    Martin A. Ceervera

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    Chapter 9 Decline-Curve Analysis for Gas Wells 9.1 Introduction This chapter discusses decline-curve methods for estimating ulti- mate gas recoveries and predicting performance from the analysis ‘of long-term gas-production data ether from individual wells or from entire fields. We begin with conventional analysis techniques Fist presented by Arps.' These coaventional techniques include {equations for exponential, harmonic, and hyperbolic decline. Next, We introduce production decline type curves and illustrate their a plication to the analysis of gas-production data and the estimation ‘of formation properties. We also show how decline type curves can baelp predict well or field performance. All analysis techniques are illustrated with examples. 9.2 Introduction to Decline-Curve Analysis ‘The basis of decline-curve analysis is to match past production per- formance histories or trends (.., actual production ratetime data) witha “model.” Assuming that future production continue to fol Tow the past trend, we can use these models to estimate original 2 in place and to predict ultimate gas reserves at some future reser- Voir abandonment pressure or economic production rate. Of, We can determine the remaining productive life ofa well or the entire ‘eld. In addition, we can estimate the individual wel flowing char acteristics, such a formation permeability and skin factor, with decline-type-curve analysis techniques. Decline-curve methods, however, are applicable to individual wells or an entre field Decline-curve analysis techniques offer an alternative to volu- ‘metric and materil-balance methods (Chap. 10) and history match- {ng with reservoir simulation (Chap. 13) for estimating original gas in place and gas reserves. Application of declin-curve analysis tec niques to gas reservoirs is most appropriate whea more conves- tional volumetric or materal-balance methods are nt accurate or ‘when sufficient data are not available to justify complex reservoir simulation. For example, materil-balance methods require es ‘mates of stabilized shut-in botiomhole pressures (BHP's); however, in low-permeability reservoirs where long times are needed for stabilization, accurate shut-in BHP's often are not available. Unlike volumetric methods that can be used early inthe produe- tive life of a reservoir, decline-curve analysis cannot be applied until some development has occurred and a production trend is es {ablished. An advantage of decline-curve analysis and material balance calculations is that these methods estimate only the gas volumes that ar in pressure communication wth and may ultimately bbe recovered by the producing wels. Volumetric estimates of gas in place and reserves, however, are based on the total gas volume inplace, part of which may be unrecoverable wth the existing wells because of unidentified reservoir discontinuities or heterogeneities. ‘Again, we emphasize thatthe basis of decline-curve analysis for estimating gas in place and reserves at some future abandonment condition is the assumption that future production performance can bbe modeled with past history. Any changes in field development strategies or production operation practices could change the fu ture performance ofa wel and significantly affect reserve estimates from decline-curve techniques. For example, infield development wells could reduce the current drainage atea and subsequent ulti= mate gas reserves of existing wells, or proration schedules set by _g5 regulatory agencies may require some wells to be shut in peri odicaly. 9.3 Conventional Analysis Techniques Early attempts at decline-curve analysis sought to find ploting tech- rnigues or functions that would linearize the production history. Be- ‘cause linear functions are simple to manipulate mathematically oF ‘raphically, the future performance could then be estimated if we ‘assumed thatthe production trend remained linear forthe remain ing life ofthe well or reservoie. The most common conventional decline-curve analysis technique is a linear semilog decline curve, sometimes called exponential or constant-percentage decline. Sub- sequent work,| however, showed thatthe production performance ‘ofall wells cannot be modeled with exponential decline, Arps! ‘ognized tht the decline characteristics also could be harmonic oF hyperbolic ‘Most conventional decline-curve analysis? is based on Arps empirical rate/time decline equation, a Uren" ‘where Dj —dgth/dilq() initial decline rate, days! Noe that, the units of gas flow rate time, and initial decline rate in Eq, 9.1 ‘must be consistent Depending on the value ofthe decline exponent, b, Eq. 9.1 has three different forms. These three forms of decline—exponential, hharmonic, and hyperbolic—have a diferent shape on Cartesian and semilog graphs of gas production rate vs. time and gas production tate vs. cumulative gas production. Consequently, these curve shapes can help identity the type of decline for a well and, if the DECLINE-CURVE ANALYSIS FOR GAS WELLS a6 [ Hypstote amerie Hypeotie Exponential a | “a ‘Exponential | Rae,q Harmonie Tae Fig. 9.1—Decline-curve shapes for time, ‘Cartesian pt of rate vs. trend is linear, extrapolate the trend graphically or mathematically to some future pot Eq, 9.1 is based on four important and widely violated as- sumptions. 1. The equation assumes that the well analyzed is produced at constant BHP. If the BHP changes, the character of the well’s Secline changes. 2. Te assumes thatthe well analyzed is producing from an un changing drainage area (Le. fixed size) with no-flow boundaries the size ofthe drainage area changes (c g, fom relative changes in reservoir rates), the character ofthe wells decline changes. If, for example, water is entering the wel’s drainage area, the char- acter ofthe wel's decline may change suddenly, abruptly, and nega- tively, 3. The equation assumes thatthe well analyzed has constant per- smeabilty and skin factor. If permeability decreases as pore pres- sure decreases, or if skin factor changes because of changing damage ‘or deliberate simulation, the charactor ofthe well’ decline changes. 4. It must be applied only to boundary-dominated (Stabilized) flow data if we want to predict fuure performance of even limited du- ration, IF the data “it” with a decline curve are transient, there Figs. 9.1 dhrough 9.4 show typical responses for exponential, hyperbolic, and harmonic declines. Because of thei characteristic shapes, these plots can be used as a diagnostic tool to determine the typeof decline before any calculations are made, We elaborate on the different curve shapes in the following sections. In adai- tion, we illustrate the analysis of gas-well production data using ‘conventional techniques, 9.3.1 Exponential Decline. Exponential decline, sometimes called constant-percentage decline, is characterized by a decrease in pro- {duction rate per unit of time that is proportional to the production rate. The exponential decline equation can be derived from Eq, 9.1 ‘When 6=0. Eq. 9.1 takes the special form (which must be derived th limi 0) 2 ‘Taking the natural logarithm (In) of both sides of Eq. 9.2 gives Isaimply no bans for predicting longterm petormances Una! tlg)/=n(q) +(e"), 3) the bounanie of he igs tre retro) have need Ihe walls deine chara: prelictons of te Tongs ic, ae eran, gives ect rata ot nique an, eka by sheet cede, ei comet Init} =Ina)~Dat oo xen Maweie Ueto rae penta ee | ‘Harmoaic yp Canine Fond Came onion Fig. 8 3~Dectne curve shapes ora Goes pot ofvteve, | | Fig 84—Dedine curve shapes fore semiog pot fae va | Edhuiniveproscton, Cdhuisve provton 216 [Because the natural logarithm is related to the logarithm tothe base 10 (log) by Ince) =2,303 log(r), we can rewrite Eq. 9.4 in terms of the log function as logtato 5) "The form of Bg, 9.5 suggests that a plot of log gas flow rate, (0), vs. ¢ willbe a straight line with a slope ~D,/2.308 and an Intercept log(,). Fig. 9.2 shows the linear relationship on semi- Jog coordinates. Ifthe production data exhibit linear behavior on this serilg plot, we can use Eq, 9.5 10 calculate D, from the slope ‘and q, from the intercept. After calculating the initial decline rate and the initial gas low rate, we can use Eq. 9.2 to extrapolate the production trend into the future to some economic limit. From this extrapolation, we can estimate gas reserves and the time at which the economic limit will be reached. The curve of rate vs. cumulative production for exponential decline wil be linear on a Cartesian graph, as the following deri- vation indicates. If we integrate Eq. 9.2 from intial time to time 1, we obvain aun [aoe 08 cl ‘The cumulative es production i oy=(—e-ve) on dD; o lds 4 ey o® 2 : dD ‘Combining Eqs. 9.2 and 9.8, we ean write the cumulative pro- duction relation in terms of rate, G, ort 09) pin a+ 09) ‘Rearranging and solving for production rat, qt), gives a= -D,G,0 +4. 0.10) Eg. 9.10 suggests that a plot of g(t) vs. Gp) wil yield a straight line of slope ~D, and intercept q. Fig. 9.3 illustrates this ype of plot. 9.3.2 Harmonie Decne. When b=, the decine ssid tobe har- ‘monic, and the general doctine equation given by’ Eq. 9.1 edces atm gitt +0, 6.1) Taking logarithms to the base 10 of both sides of Eg 9.11 yields log a(t) =loa(@,)log(t +0, (0.12) ‘The form of Eq. 9.12 suggests that at) isa linear function of (14040) 0nlogog graph paper and will exhibit a straight line with slope ~1 and an interept of log (,). To predict fue perform ance of wells exhibiting harmonic decline behavior. We must as- Sume values of D unt a plot of log {q()] vs. log(1+Dy) 38 a This calcation procedure requires ofthe well ora tile and-ertor procedure to choose the correct inital decline vate, D “To use a ratelcumlative production pot for harmonic decline, we must integrate Eg. 9.11 with respect to time to obtain a rela- tionship foe cumulative production, 4% 9 LSD dt on) Gytey=| ‘oar=|" 3 ey 4 203 og +03 D 7 GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING Substituting the rate from Eq. 9.12 into Eq. 9.14, we obtain the ‘ate/cumulaive production relationship for harmonic deeline, 62.305 tg 4-1 a0 0.15) , ines of production rt, to a =¥8 0)-(-— et, 0.16 eaeton a-( oe) » ‘The form of Eq. 9.16 suggests that a plot of log g(t) vs. Gp) will be lear with a slope of ~(D, /2.303¢,) and an intercept of Jog(q) This i @ much simpler method of caleulating the decline rate for harmonic decline than the rate/time plot because we can make a direct plot without prior knowledge of D;. 9.3.3 Hyperbolic Decline. When 0 a vec) ef) | fae acre and al proce if fe al ng Arp : 2. onvennal stl ekg, 90 36.3221 375.9 ‘Solution. 2 Sas nS 1 Btn we do aot ao wich tin extn be nl je forme rs tne past prosion performance, we sonra erties ie 7 tacanulve production plain Figs 93 through 98 oe 210 go.egss ae amine the production characteristics. 240 so.5e4 3400 2. Examination of the curves in Figs 9.5 through 9.8 does not wees lon a i a ey ssw contenety fw the ene & apenas bamoni a wee hr = eee as rSCF EA tame Sate Font ei bat he serio afl poston 2 im ia Fis ines (ete of harmon done), Conse, we ‘is tessos na Et tig i eae ting bub enna a baron % Veen Set ae B10 183.737 22.8 Exponential Decline Analysis. ae ieee St ponent Decne Ai Ed gee tiers & Hei Ses sures 0 te dt) & ious se : ‘720 248.155, 208.7 aeepeae i iiss Bars The ntl destin ate a ierir 08 0 Bese Fe », s areata 0.001317, 120 Bie des 2308, ue ome Be hee, =0000903 dy “10.1107 yar 1,320 416.501 240.4 1¢ intercept of the semilog rate/time srmined Wi una tem et ST ‘ato wm Bet a esau fo th a) ie fone Bot to 40)=2.58, io ste taco at ish sequent othe lg of he inl ae where to Sse Tosa Mec. zor Seete 3, Wea aow suis, an, fo Bg. 9.210 st pari 2,190 (601.082 ular decline equation for this well: Beso Soles Fed sires 038026010005, io Sooee 300 wees Dl io ‘esse ee 2,880 722.808 at : a0 oe ~—CS—téi‘_C™O_OSOSO fees ite ee ier ise Cad ie rate procs Table 9.2 called ith ast 7 et ‘the decline equation from Step 3. te wie * teat wel eco ito 30M fr $200 gua 188 chisel ove cst tit tsi para eine som we ea relator forthe wel (Step 9) 0 Bde pote Is 5,480 1,046.01 ot of the well. = t « le e 5 ¥ 2 2 s S wn ; _ Ses ‘umutive Pradsion (Mt Tin ha fig, 86 Canela plot ot ate ve cumulative proaton, Fig 08Canesin lt of tev. tiv, Example 8] | Exam wt 218 GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING = ° «me mt ‘Time (, days Fig, 9.7—Semilog plot of rate vs. time, Example 9.1. Rate (@), Mict™D (Cumulative Production (Q), MMscf Fig. 9.8--Semilog plot of rate vs. cum ample 8.1. ive production, Ex: (0) =380.2e(-0 0050330, 30=380.2e(-0.005038), cor, solving for time, 128,373 dayse22.9 years ‘5. We can use the equation derived forthe ratefcumulative pro- {duction behavior for exponential decline (Eq. 9.10) to calculate the ultimate recovery when the economic Iimit is reached. = DG, We know that q,=380.2 MseffD and D,=0,000303 day~!; therefore, g(t) = ~0.00030336,(0) +380.2. With the assumption that the remaining production history ofthis well can be modeled with exponential decline, the ultimate recov- ‘ery ftom this well at an economic limit of 30 Mscf'D is 3802-30 6, =——— Met 10.0003033 1,155,000 Msc Harmonic Decline Analysis, 1. First, we caleulate q; from the intercept of the semilog ratelcumulatve production plot. From a least-squares fit, we esti mate log (q;)=2.61, ot g,=407.4 MscfD, 155 MMsef, 2. The lope (determined witha least-squares fit ofthe data) of the semilog rate{cumulatve production plot is ~0.0008478. For ‘cumolatve production in MMs), the slope of the line on a semi- log ratefeumulative production pot equals Substituting for 4, gives 1,000, =0,0008478. 2.303(407.4) ‘Dj=0.000814 day! =0.1876 year-! 3. We can now substitute q, and D; into Eqs. 9.11 and 9.12 t0 ‘oblain specific ratetime and rate/cumulative production decline equations, respectively, for this well. The rate/time relationship is 407.4 o-———, 1" Fo.000514 with time in days, or 407.4 10.1876 at with time in years. For time measured in days, gas low rate (in Mscf/D), and cumulative production (in Msef, the ratefeumula- tive production relationship is ‘TABLE 9.2—FUTURE RATE PERFORMANCE TABLE 9.5—FUTURE RATE PERFORMANCE USING EXPONENTIAL DECLINE, EXAMPLE 0.1 USING HARMONIC DECLINE, EXAMPLE 9.1 Future Time Time a Future Time Time a years) (years) (set) (years) (yoars) (eet) 7 16 oa 1 16 1018 2 7 79 2 7 73 3 18 518 3 8 931 4 9 464 4 1% 293, 5 20 415 5 2» 387 6 21 a2 6 2 25 7 2 333 7 2 75, 8 2 298 | 8 a 787 9 24 267 3 2 740 10 25 239 10 2 78 cr 8 214 1 2 3 2 a 191 2 27 o2 13 2 73 13 8 52 4 2 153, “4 2 3 5 30 137 5 30 os, DECLINE-CURVE ANALYSIS FOR GAS WELLS a 7 pe ie ifs ae 2 a ge ar a a i | : | oS 0 07 oF — 107 To eee 0.0005140 ae 2.303 x407.4. au 0 Gy (1) =4,764,264—(1,825,374}og 4). 44, We can extrapolate future performance (corresponding rates ‘and times) for 15 more years using the ratetime equation in Step 3, Note that tine is counted from 1=0. Therefore, to extrapolate for the next 15 years, we must tart at = 16 years. Table 9.3 sum- ‘marizes the prodicted future performance. '5, Recall that we assured an economic limit for this wel of 30 “Mscf/D. We can substitute tat rat into the specifi ratetime rla- tionship developed in Step 3 for this well to Find te total produc- tive life of the wel 407.4 1+0,000514 219 (407.4130) 1=24,475 days=67 years 6. Atan economic limit of 30 Mscf/D and with the assumption that future production can be modeled with harmonic decline, the ultimate recovery from this well is Gy ()=4,764,264-(1,825,374)I08 4) 764, 264~(1,825,374)10g(30) 2,067,965 Mset=2,068 MMSct 9.4 Decline Type Curves “Type curves (ee Chap. 6) are plots of theoretical solutions to flow equations and can be generated for vieually any kind of reservoir ‘model for which 2 general solution describing the flow behavior is availabe, For type curv to be applied correctly, the engineer rust completely understand the assumptions underlying the solu- tion, Furthermore, those assumptions must accurately model the well or eservoir conditions being analyzed. Decline type curves have been developed so that actual production data can be matched without special graph paper or the trial-and-error procedures re- ‘quired forthe conventional dectine-curve methods in Sec. 9.3. Type- ‘curve methods use log-log graph paper to match preploted theo- retical solutions with actual production data. Further, type-curve analyses allow us to estimate not only original gas in place and gas reserves at some abandonment conditions, but also the flowing char- acteristics of individual wells. ‘This setion present the theoretical basis (including assumptions) ‘and practical applications of two type curves—the Fetkovich* and the Carter type curves—that are particularly useful in gas-well troduced by Al-Hussainy et a..? Ona= 02H pera? Pap Hye Pre, fora well centred in a cirular drainage ae, rin e320 tough 9.24 define by re=NAle 0.26) ean For noncircular reservoir boundaries and development patterns different from wells centered in circular reservoirs, the shape fac~ tor, Cy. can be accounted for in the skin facto term by use of Fet- kovici and Vienot's® equation, Poa =Fw ORCS 028) where sc, isthe preudosteady-state skin factor based on shape factors, see lNCprlCae 0.29) ‘Shape factors for various well locations and reservoir drainage area shapes are given in Appendix C. In Eqs. 9.22 through 9.24, and Fg Pye! GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING qt) g0s flow rate, Msef/D; ¢=time, days; k=permeabilty to 205, thd; hethickness of productive zone, ty pp(p,)=real-gas pseu" Aopressure function evaluated at initial” reservoir pressure, st2/ep; po Py) ™=Feal-gas pseudopressure function evaluated at Bottomhole’ Rowing pressure (BHFP), psia?/ep; pye=pressure at Sndard conditions, pia; Tj =lemperatureat standard conditions, "R. Teformation temperature, "R: = porosity fraction; y=805, viscosity, ep; and ¢,=tota system compressibility, psia~! Like the type-curve analysis procedures in Chap. 6, application of the Fetkovich type curves roquires that we match the shape of the field data with atype curve. From this match, we can estimate {1s reserves and formation properties. The following procedure is Fecommended for decline-curve analysis with the Fetkovich type Procedure for Gas-Well Decline-Curve Analysis With the Fet- hovich Type Curve. 1. Plot 4¢) and Gp(®) vs. £ on log-log paper (in, log cycles) or tracing paper withthe same size logarithmic eycls asthe Fet- Kovieh type curve °. Match the cupplative production data tothe bestfiting type ‘curve. Note that the cumulative production data plot often is much Smoother than the rte plot and therefore is easier to match to de~ termine the Arps decline constant. Because decline type-curve analysis is based on boundary- dominated low consitions, there is no basis for choosing the proper bb values for future boundary-dominated production if only tran- sient data are available, In addition, because of the similarity of curve shapes, unique type-curve matches are dificult o obtain with transient data ony. If iis apparent that boundary-dominated data fre present and can be matched on a curve for a particular value fof b, we can extrapolate into the future accurately. '3. Record values of the corcelating parameters for transient and boundary-dominated ow (.e., relPuq and B, respectively) from the match of the cumulative production data Next, force a fit of the ratetime dat with @ type curve having the same values of oir and. b, Note that the cumulative production/time and ‘telime curves are not matched simultaneously but individually: ire, we move anid rematch the field data plot overlying the type 14, Selecta rte match point [4(), dnulup on the ratetime curve and caleulate formation permeability using the definition of dimen- sionless flow rate given by Eq. 9.22: of a0 ] 50,3009 TU rea) ~ 18) lye Tech Pp Pi) Pp Pug 5. Calculate the intl surtace gas flow rat, gy, at ¢=0 from the sais match point a=(at0 and: : 3 6. While the data are in the matched postion, select atime match point (utp aad calclate the inital decline rate, Dy Ditto! 5 032) 7. The reservoir pore volume (PY) inthe drainage area of the ‘wel atthe beginning of boundary-dominated flow, Vp, can be de Tived from the time and rate match pont: 2,007.7 Satna) sl (HgeTLPp PI -Pp( Pg] toa’ yep) 406 Jee +930) 01 033) ‘Assuming a circular drainage area gives ree, lhe (9.34) and A=a7? (0.35) 8, Calculate the skin factor from the r/rag matching pareme- ter and values of A oF re from Step 7: Tele! wa) | te (Te ae EC) eee ee AST eas nares --9.3) DECLINE-CURVE ANALYSIS FOR GAS WELLS ‘TABLE 9.¢—RESERVOIR PROPERTIES, EXAMPLE 9.2 Net pay, tt 320 Wellbore racus, ft 0.365 3.800 Initial pressure, psia Peoudopressure evaluated at intial pressure, psiatlcp BHFP, psia Poeodopessure evista BHP piaticp 2106x107 Reservar temperature, °F ‘Wet gas gravity (air= 1.0) ages ‘Water saturation, traction 04 Water compressibility, psia~* 36%10-5 Formation compressbilty, psia~* 410-8 Poros, tract 02 Gas viscosity evaluated at intial pressure, cp 0.02095 Gas FVF at iil pressure, ReiMisct 08174 ‘Total compressibility at initial Pressure, psia 19741 «10-4 ‘echraially by substituting the chosen b value and calculated D; and q; values into the Arps general decline equation, 4 a . o.) ue (+bDN ‘The production data should not be extrapolated past the economic limit for the well in question. The productive life of the well can 'be estimated from the rate/time extrapolation at this point or can ‘pe calculated withthe general decline equation developed with Eq 9.1 Example 9.2—Decline-Curve Analysis With the Fetkovich Type Curves. Use the Fetkovich type curve, the gas flow rate and cu ‘mulative gas production data from Example 9.1, and the well and reservoir properties in Tables 9.4 and 9.1 to estimate & and s. It possible, predict the gas-flow-rate behavior 15 yeats into the fu- ture and, assuming that the economic limit for this well is 30 ‘MsciD, estimate the productive life ofthe well and theultimate as recovery. Solution. I. Plot gas flow rate, g(t), and cumulative production, Gt) vs. on log-log paper oF tracing paper with the same size logarith- mmc cycles as the Fetkovich ype curve Gin. log eyeles). This plot, showin in Fig. 9.11, is not to scale 2, Match the cumilative production data to the best-fittng type curve. Iti apparent that boundary-dominated data are present be- ‘cause some data fall othe right of the inflection point on the type ‘cures and can be matched on a curve corresponding toa particu- lar b value. 3. Record the transient and boundary-dominated correlating pa- rameters from the match ofthe cumulative production data. For transient flow, reirgg=800, while for pseudosteady-state flow, 4. Force a fit forthe ratetime data with the same values of Felt and b, "4. While the data ae inthe matched position, select arate match point, (4€).doulyr, on the ratcltime curve. For this example, we chose g(t)=1,000 MsctD and gn,=2.8 Permeability is estimated to be [ 2) $0,300p Ula fPga)— "41 0s lyp ToM Pp P:)~Ppl Pag) (: om) 50, 300(14.65)(640)fin800)~0.5] 2.8 / (520)32)8.322%108 -2.106%107) =0.08 md, 5. Calculate the initial surface gas flow rate at ‘match point. from the rate 0), Mtb or, MMe Fig. 8.11 —Gas production rate and cumulative production vs. time, Example 9.2. amt lapalue = 1,002.8 =357.1 MscftD. Note tha this rate is lower than the rate at 30 days, q) repre sents a hypothetical inital rate that would have oveurred had the well been in boundary-dominated flow at r0, However, as the type-curve match shows, the early data are in transient low, and boundary effects have not yet been felt. Consequently, the ealeu- lated rate at time ¢=0 is lower than the actual measured rate 6. While the data are in the same matched position, select atime match point, (fpa)up- For this example, we chose 1= 100 days and fp 0.038, From the time match point, the int 3 dectine rate is estimated 00034 day! =0.1241 year! 7. The reservoir PV, V, (f°), in the drainage area of the well atthe onset of boundary -bminate flow canbe estimated fom the time and rate match points: 2,000p <7 (4 ' Tatintaeai a) glee Ge dToc Ppl PPpl Pop) toa! ypl Ao 2,000)(14.65)(640) (0.02095)(1.5741 x 10~*)(520).322 x 108 2.106% 107) (oan) (ae) Bast) yl 2s ee reeN iyi 14,245,000 1(32.0)(0.12) 087 f ae 222 ‘The drainage area is Aust? = (1,087)? 1=3,712,000 f2 = 85 acres 8, We know the drainage area, so we can estimate s using the transient matching parameter, relryo- if: ay Vain { 0.365)(800) ] 3,712, 00078 =H13. 9, We can now extrapolate the rate curve into the future. Sub- stituting the chosen b value and calculated D, and q; values into ‘Arps’ general decline equation, we have 4% cop," 157.14(1 +(0.000136)1]-*SMscf/D. Note that time isin days and is counted from time ¢=0, so if ‘we wish to extrapolate for the next 15 years, we must stata = 16 years (5,840 days), For time in years, the general decline equation is (0) =357.14(1-+(0.0496)7]-25MsctD. ‘Table 9.5 summarizes the future performance estimated with the ‘general decline equation developed for time in years. Recall that we assumed an economic limit for this well of 30, ‘MsefiD. We can substitute that rate into the ratitime dectine rela- tionship for this well to find the total productive life of the wel, fe) =357.14(1-+(0.08936)r]-25, Solving for time ¢ yields fl { aa ” J o.04936 (0357.14 i ( 5 yo | 0.08936 [357.14 234.3 years 10, Weecan integrate the general decline equation to obtain a rela tionship between cumulative production and time measured in years qn= Gyon{" eiee[s7.141-+0.088601-256 =o a aera -| =" 1 + 0.04936 1-15 (0.04936)(~1.5) 357.14 } (0.08936,(-1.5) 121,761 103{1-=[1 + (0.08936)4]~/5) Mee. ‘The well will reach the economic limit of 30 Mscf/D at atime cof 34.3 years, so the ultimate recovery from this well is G(0)=1,761 108 (1 ~[1-+(0.04936)¢]-!5}Msct 1,761 10° {1 ~[1-+10.04936)34.3)]~!5)Mset [362,530 Msef=1,363 MMsef. ‘Comparison of the results from the Fetkovich type-curve analy- si with those obtained from conventional analyses in Example 9.1 suggests thatthe decline is neither exponential nor harmonic, but hyperbolic. The value of the boundary-dominated correlating pa rameter obtained from the Fetkovih type-curve match (i.e, =0.4) GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING ‘TABLE 9.5—FUTURE RATE PERFORMANCE FROM THE FETKOVICH TYPE CURVE, EXAMPLE 9.2 Future Time Time 4 years) (years) (usetb) 1 76 28 4 v7 774 3 8 ms 4 13 679 5 20 638 6 2 600 7 2 585 8 2 533 9 2 50.3 10 25 478 " 28 450 2 ar 427 3 es 405 4 2 385 15 30 386 seems to veify this observation. The results we obttined from con- ‘ventional analysis in Example 9.1, essuming an exponential decline, proved to be pessimistic predictions; however, when we assumed {harmonic decline, we obtained very optimistic results 9.4.2 Carter Decline Type Curve. The Fekovich ype curve was developed © moe the How ofa slighty compressible liguid and consequently assumes thatthe liquid vscosity-compressBilty pros tctis constant over the entire productive life of a well. Although ‘aid for modeling liquid flow during both transient and boundary= dominated flow regimes, for gas flow this assumption is correct, only during transient flow (ad possibly afer boundary eects have been fel the pressure drawdown is small). The accuracy ofthe Fethovich type eurves for analyzing gas wells with large pressure drawdowns can be improved, however, if we define the dimen- Sones rate an cumulative production variables in terms of the real-gas pseudopressre function ‘Carter offered improved accuracy by plotting function that in- clude the changes in gs properties with pressure, The Cater type curve was developed specifically for gas-welldecine-curve analy Sis and improves the accuracy by considering the variation of the Product sy(p)eq( p) with average reservoir pressure. Cater cor- elated rulsts€ behavior during boundary-Jominstd flow with a parameter, defined a the ratio of vg Peg) gy eva ted atthe average reservoir pressure, , amd calculated as pn MPL Leg PH)=Pp Pup 2 Upla-wel Liquid flow, characterized by a relatively constant value of the viscosiy-compressbly produc, is represented by N= 1. The mini rum value of is 0.5, representing maximum gas-reservoir ‘rawdown, “Tho Carer type curve is based on fint-ilference solutions to the radial gas flow equations for production a constant BHP. In developing the solutions, Cater assured a well centered in a sym tmotial reservoir with constant thickness, porosity, and permes bility. Note tha, ike the Fekovich type curve, the Carter type curve does not consider non-Darey flow effets. The Carter type curve (ig. 9.12) i log-log plot of dimensionless rate, gp, vs. dimen- Sioness time, tp 1.424 TWB)) sn) oo 038) iL Ppl 72)~PoPap and, for ime in days, 0.006338 a tp ee a? oul Pie PE ‘The parameter o in Bq 9.38 is the fraction of 2 radians defining the approximate equivalent ring shape of the reservoir (Fig. 9.13). DECLINE-CURVE ANALYSIS FOR GAS WELLS R= >1 Tw «30 type curve. Fig. 8.13—Flowsystem shape approximation for the Carter® ‘The correlating parameter during boundary dominated Now is 1, which is calculated by Eq. 9.37. Similarly, the correlating pa- rameter during transient or infinite-acting fw is, where 7 18a funetion of the parameter R. The relationship betwcen 9 and R is given in Fig. 9.14 or can be calculated from =) od (7): 0.40) where Rela 41) 1e=NAle, 9.26) and yg Fue vee (O.27) For radial flow in the reservoir, R should exceed =30, and Ba. 9.42 can be used to estimate a (2iR2=D) 1n(R) 0.75" We can substitute Eq. 9.42 into Eg. 9.40 t obtain an expression for min terms of B, and R only “aaila,) Because 7 is known, we can obtain an expression for 1/B, dur- ing radial floe 1B =nlla(R)~0.75), 0.44) ‘As R~ 1, the flow inthe reservoir has an approximate linear flow geometry that occurs in hydraulically fractured wells before the onset Of pseudoradial flow. Under these conditions, we can estimate using Eq, 9.45 and the quantity oB, using Eq. 9.46: yar ei a (9.42) 9.43) 0.45) and 0B = 0.46) 224 GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING Rare Fig. 9.14— Variation ofthe parameter 9 with R for the Carter* type curve, ‘We recommend the following procedure for using the Carter type Procedure for Gas-Well Deelin-Curve Analysis Using the Car- ter Type Curve. 1. Compute the pseudosteady state flow correlating parameter, 2s pe MePade PA) L7G P2)~Pp Pah 2 Wp = (dag 2, Plot the gas flow rate in Mscf/D vs. in days on tracing paper with 3in. log cycles (ie. the same size log-log paper as the Car- ter pe curves). 3. Match the production data onthe Carter type curve with the appropriate value of calculate in Step 1. Maintaining the data in the matched positon, select rate, [q@)golyp. and time, Gtp)ups match points. In addition, choose a value for 9 from the carly.time match, 4, With the value of» from Step 3, read the corresponding value of R from Fig. 9.14. For radial flow, calculate B from Eq, 9.44 YB, =nfln(R)~0.75} ot) 031, For linear flow that occurs in hydraulically fractured wells be- fore the onset of pseudoradial flow, determine a and aB from gs. 9.45 and 9.46: (9.45) (9.46) ‘TABLE 9.6—RESERVOIR AND WELL PROPERTIES DATA, EXAMPLE 9.3 ‘Not pay. ft 320 Welboro radius, tt 0.365 Initial pressure, psia 3,500 Pseudgpressure evaluated at inal pressure, pslatfep 2.922% 10° BHEP, pia 500 Peoudopressure evaluated at BHP, psialep 2.108% 107 Reservoir tomperaturo, °F 180 0.689 O34 ‘Water compressibility, psia~* 36x10-¢ Formation compressibility, psia-? ‘axc10-€ Porosity, traction 0.12 Gas viscosity evaluated at inal pressure, op 0.02095 Gas FVF at intial pressure, FEIMsc 08174 ‘Total compressibilty a intial pressure, psia~" 15741 10-* Drainage area, acros 85 5. Calculate permeability ftom the rate match point using the defi- nition of dimensionless low rate. For radial flow, estimate @ from Fig. 9.13 and calculate permeability using Eq. 9.47 ()] 1s2aratanc) 0.75 [0] sete, a 40 ep OH PP: ~Pel Pup For linear flow, 0B, =2 and 5 mar [2] — 0.48) 40 yp Hl Pg id ~Ppl Pup) 6. Ifthe drainage area or drainage area radius is known, we ean calculate the skin factor. Combining Eqs. 9.26 and 9.41, we obtain (9.49) 7. Estimate the recoverable gos, G, (in Msef), when the aver- age reservoir pressure has reached the constant BHP. Use the rate ‘and time match points selected in Step 3 lt] ) dap Jup\to/ ue 8, Extrapolate the future performance tothe economic limit of the well using the type curve chosen for the match, G. (9.50) Example 9.3—Decline-Curve Analysis With the Carter Type (Curves, Use the Carter type curve to estimate k ands and to predict Fig, 9.15—Gas production rate vs. time, Example 9.3. ‘TABLE 9.7—FUTURE PERFORMANCE ESTIMATED FROM ‘CARTER DECLINE TYPE CURVES, EXAMPLE 9.3 Time Time 4 (years) (ays) sev) 16 340 7 780 8 705 9 8935, 685 2» 7300, 620 21 71885, 575 2 8.030 518 2 31395, ago 26 8760 480 2 9.125 435 28 9,490 428 ar 91855 410 28 10,220, 370 2 10,585, 345 30 10,950, 320 DECLINE-CUAVE ANALYSIS FOR GAS WELLS ‘ate behavior 15 years int the future forthe well given in Exam ples 9.1 and 9.2. Assuming again thatthe economic limit for the ‘well is 30 MsefD, estimate the productive life ofthe wel. In ad- dition, compare the results from the Carter type curve with those ‘obtained from Examples 9.1 and 9.2. Table 9.6 gives the well pro duction data, Note thatthe drainage area, A, is BS acres, ‘Solution, 1. First, compute A with Eq. 9.37. re BPE CPL Pp Pi) ~PplPrf) PI, (PIDg) 0.02095(2.3089° 10~4)(8.322 108 ~2,106%10) '21(8500/0.89152)—(S00/0.95248)], 0.58. [As an approximation, use the curve for 2=0.55. 2, Plot g(t) in Mscf/D vs. rin days on tracing paper with 3-in. tog eycles, Note that the plot in Fig. 9.15 is not to scale. 3. Match the Carter type curve with )=0.55 calculated from Step 1, Maintaining the data in the matched positon, we select the fol- lowing rate and time match points and s value for rom the early snatch: {2)=1,000 Msef/D and gp=2.6, 0,000 days and tp=42, 08, 4, Read the corresponding value ofR from Fig, 9.14 athe value of 9 from Step 3. R=100 at y= 1.004, “This isan acceptable value of R because we Know that we have radial low and R should be >30. Therefore, UB, =nla(R) 0.75] = 1,004[n(100) ~0.75} 3.87 5, Calculate k from the rate match point, From Fig. 9.13 for a cylindrical reservoir, o=1. Therefore, , [22] 1.4247 y{In(R) -0.75] 0 yp aH P pL 7.) Pp Pup) 26 0.08 ma (6, We have an estimate of drainage area (A=85 acres), 30 we can caleulate 5 sein(r, RNA) 0,365,100), ] 751 (22) (4,424(640)(.008)(10(100 (1)G2N8.322«108=2.106x107) VXI. 3.4 7. Estimate recoverable gas when the average reservoir pressure has reached the constant BHFP; 12).@,] oO! we: 108 (800) (2) 058126 Jyp 42 /yp $85,196 Mscf=1,585 MMsef. 25 8. Graphically, continue along the curve for 4=0.55 and 11.004 and extrapolate foure performance (Le., corresponding ‘ates and times). Table 9.7 summarizes the estimated future per- formance. “The productive life ofthe well is estimated from the type curve ‘match to be 31.5 years (11,500 days) at an economic limit of 30 MsctID. ‘Table 9.8 summarizes the results of the analyses from Exam- ples 9.1 through 9.3. Note thatthe results from the Fetkovich and Carter decline type-curve analyses agree; however, in theory the ‘salts from the Carter type-curve analysis should be more accurate ‘because this method incorporates the effect of changing gas prop- erties, Note also that neither the exponential nor harmonic analy- ses agree with the decline type-curve results, which suggests that the decline behavior of this well is hyperbolic. 9.4.3 Limitations of Decline Type Curves. Decline-curve methods provide a method for estimating original pas in place and wltimate Tecoveries at some abandonment condition from a well or an em tire field. In addition, decline curves can be used t estimate future prodition and produetive life, However, decline-curve analysis techniques have several Recall that the Fetkovich type curves were generated with the assumption thatthe well is produced at @ constant BHP. Further, the type curves assume that k and s remain constant with time. Any ‘changes in field development strategies or production operation prac- tices, however, could change the production trends of a well and significantly affect reserve estimates from decline-cutve techniques For example, protation schedules may require that some wells be shut in periodically or that production be curtailed, thus changing the BHEP. In addition, ifthe well is stimulated ether from acidiz- ing or hydraulic fracturing then s changes. Consequently, Fetkovich’ and Fetkovich er a.® recommend incremental analy” sis ofthe changed production data relative to the established pro- duction trend ‘As mentioned, the basis of decline type-curve analysis s the as- ‘sumption that boundaries affect the rat response—i.., boundary- ‘dominated flowing conditions have been reached. The boundaries ‘may be no-low reservoir boundaries, sealing faults, or interfer ence effects from adjacent producing wells. If ue boundary- dominated flow isnot established, then there is no theoretical ba- sis for decline-curve methods and predictions of future production ‘may be inaccurate, Much of the late-time production daa from wells Tocated off-center of the drainage areas or in low-permeabilty reser ‘oirs, which take long times to stabilize, may not represent true ‘boundary-dominated flow. Finally, decline-curve analysis assumes a volumetric reservoit— ie. a closed reservoir that receives no energy from external sources, such as pressure maintenance from an encroaching aquifer. When applied to individual wells, decline-curve analysis assumes a volu- metric, and unchanging, drainage volume forthe wel. This assump- tion means tat the producing behavior of neighboring wells also ‘must be stabilized. Any changes in well development patterns or production operations can change the drainage volume of a well fad affect the decline behavior. For example, infield development wells drilled in a relatively homogeneous reservoir could reduce the drainage volumes of existing producers. 9.5 Summary ‘This chapter should prepare you to do the following task. 1. Define the methodology and objectives. of decline-curve analysis. 2, State the basis of conventional decline-curve analysis Arps’ empirical equation) and its assumptions, '3. Sketch the shape of exponential, harmonic, and hyperbolic declines on Cartesian and somilog rate-vs-time plots. 4. Sketch the shape of exponential, harmonic, and hyperbolic declines on Cartesian and semilog rate-vs,-cumulative-prodi plas. GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 226 ‘TABLE 9.6 COMPARISON OF RESULTS FROM TABLE 9.10—WELL AND RESERVOIR PROPERTIES EXAMPLES 9.1 THROUGH 9.3 [AND PRODUCTION DATA FOR EXERCISE 8.2 AND 9.3 Szponentia! Harmonie Fetkovich Carter Type | | Net pay. 760 ere ae arenes Welbore radius, ft 0.385 —Bectine_ Destine, _Cur Inia pressure, psia 6.825 Productive Pocudopressure evaluated at inital pressure, tint, years © 2290 670 MGS aiaeiop 2064x107 | timate BFP, sla 300 Recovery | | Posudopressure evaluated at BHP, psia*/op 6.9052 10° Mitect 418s 20681962 < 1.585 Cae er egoure, a Wet gas gravity (ar= 1.0) is Flow Rate Mi _.| | Water sattration, traction Foire Tine ‘Water eompressibiy, psia~* ny Formation sompressbity,psia~* 1 a7 se ge £ eae al el pressure 2 m9 93 SO 2 factor at SHEP 3 slg L729 OS Gas vacosty evaluated at initial pressure, op ‘ a4 3 AS Gas EVE at intial prosoure, REMsct o.st96e 5 4s 7 2 GO Gas compress at intial $ ee a prossuro, pela 9.023% 10-5 7 B30 BS 569 SES Drainage sea, acres“ 20 8 BS 167 6490 anomie lim, McD 50 9 37805086 fa 7 Me OS bs Producing -«Qumulatve Gas Flow n aa 83 3S Production Bate 2 wl 230 a0 (set, B Ti 682408370 77149 “ B32 BBS oa8 5 Bo 6s 920 5635.4 = | 3.2085 TTABLE 8.8—PRODUCTION DATA FOR EXERCISE 9.1 Gas Flow Time Rate (eays) aan 7625 77148 3650, 62866 | Bars 5,635.4 730.0 5,208.5 125 5,088.5 1,098.0 4563) s2775 4.059 1.4600 16425 118250 20075 2,190.0 '5, Derive the exponential decline relationship and ploting fune- tions from Arps" general equation. “6, Derive the harmonic decline relationship and plotting fune- tions ftom Arps’ general equation 7. Derive the hyperbolic decline relationship and plotting func tions from Arps" general equation 8. Estimate future performance of gas well with conventional decline-curve analysis. s5,006.2 161412 163758 16,6008 168178 17.0168 19, State the theoretical basis and assumptions for the Fetkovich decline type curve and identify the information that canbe obttined from analysis with the Fetkovich decline type curve, 10, State a procedure for gas-vell decline-curve analysis with the Fetkovich decline type curve I. Analyze gas-well production data withthe Fetkovich decine type curve 2. State the theoretical basis and assumptions for the Carter decline type curve and identify the information that canbe obtained from analysis with the Carter decline type curve. 13, State a procedure for gas-well decline-curve analysis with the Caner decline type curve "4. Analyze gas-well production data withthe Carter decline ype 15. State the limitations of decline type curves, Questions for Discussion 1. What are the advantages of analyzing production data com pared with alternative methods of forecasting future performance DECLINE-CUAVE ANALYSIS FOR GAS WELLS TABLE 9.11—PRODUCTION DATA FOR EXERCISE 9.4 zur TABLE 9.12—PRODUGTION DATA FOR EXERCISE 9.5 | Trcremontal increta incremental incremental time ‘Progucton Time Production ine ‘Production Time Production (months) _(MMsef) (months) _@Mscf) (months) _{MMsef)_—(months)_—_ (MMs) 1 137.792 2 38.195 , 1 is e200 2 156.079 26 ‘37.856 | 2 8.400 20 5.855 3 132.681 27 90.186 = 10.698 a 4.933 4 196.731 28 31.671 4 11.559 a 4.569 5 120.615 29 28.547 5 10.659 3 4.227 6 115.589 30 24.549 8 12.159 = 3.639 7 103.547 at 24.018 7 we 2 3.510 4 mea} eee 3 13569 8 3138 . ee cd 3 13389 a ates 4 ee ieee 10 12748 28 Bea i me eet i 12398 2 2est 12 68.654 36 20.655 2 12.125 0 2.440 ned rat 8 12430 x 2388 ned ee * iaiae 2 Bie ee 6 6S ed 8 tin 5 Sov ce 6 6S hee is jo254 a ne om en " 2188 % tors seis i782 i 7988 EJ 1582 S001 8 yae40 $$ a 5: Estate he ft proton fr te well with th pode se 3 | sion data n Table 9.12,> Use conventional Jecine-curve analysis rs ieee tin bah Fetkovch and Carer Geen type curves. Assume eco- 38.009 13882 omic limut rate is 1 of peak rae 3 and estimating formation properties? What are the drawbacks? °. What assumptions are made inthe development and applica- tion of the Fetkovich type curve? °S Deserbe the analysis of gas-well production data with dcline- curve techniques. What are the limitations of analyzing 295- performance data with liguid relations (e.g., exponential decline Semilog plot, Fetkovich type curve)? i How ean we solve the gas flow problem using solutions based con liquid flow? What steps are involved in this process? '5, Suppose thatthe rate and pressure fora well vary coatinaous- ty and significantly during production. Suggest a method of analy2- ing and interpreting these data with conventional decine-curve ‘analysis and type-curve methods. You are asked to provide a production forecast for anew well ‘You are given reservoir properties, an estimate of reservoir size and shape, and gas properties, andthe BHP is specified and con- ‘tant with time. Deseribe the tools (equation, plots, ee.) that you ‘ould use to make tis prediction. What are the limitations ofthis approach? TF Suppose you ate given a transientpressure drawdown and bulldup sequence to analyze. Describe your analysis procedure for these data Using these data and your analysis results, you are to forecast long-term production. Describe your forecasting proce- ‘Gures. What are the specific objectives of your forecast? Exercises 1. Use conventional (Arps) decline curve techniques to predict rate behavior 15 years into the futare for the historical rate data in Table 9.9. 2, Use the data in Table 9.10 to estimate permeability and skin factor to predict rates 15 years into the future. Use the Fetkovich type curve for this analysis, and compare your results with the con- ventional method of Exercise 1 3 Use the data in Table 9.10 to estimate permeability and skin factor and to predict rate bebavior 15 years into the fuure, Use the Carter type curve for this analysis. Compare your results with the conventional method of Exercise | and the Fethovich type-curve method of Exercise 2 St Estimate the future of production for the well with the pro- tution data in Table 9.11.9 Use conventional decline-curve ansl- ysis and both Fetkovich and Carter decline type curves. ASsume fconomic limit rate is 1% of peak rate “6. Use conventional decline-curve analysis to predict rates 15 ‘yeas into the future fora well whose historical rate data is sum marized in Table 9.13. 7. Use the data in Table 9.14 to estimate permeability and skin factor and to predict rates 15 years into the future Use the Fet- ovich type curve for this analysis, and compare your results with ‘hove based onthe conventional decline curve analysis of Exeris 6. 8. Use the data in Table 9,14 estimate permeability and skin factor and to predict rates 15 years into the future, Use the Carter type curve for this analysis. Compare your results with thse based On the conventional decline-curve analysis of Exercise 6 and the Petkovieh type-curve method of Exercise 7. ‘), Baimate the future gas production for the well whose pro- ‘duction data are summarized in Table 9.15.10 Use conventional ‘eelne-curve analysis and both Fetkovich and Carter decline type jgurves, Assume economic limit rate is 1% of peak rate Nomenclature A = drainage ares, L2, acres ‘b = Arps decline-curve constant ‘TABLE 9.13—PRODUCTION DATA FOR EXERCISE 9.6 Cumulative Average Gas Time Production Flow Rate (days) (unset) (sci) 548 466 316 728 a2 ei 913 ena 97 1008 Bo. 578 146.0 107 552 1825 1203 531 385.0 2073 479 | 575 pepe 451 7200 372.4 428 9125, 487 408 4,095.0 521.8 320 1,490.0 73 a7 1125.0 7829 228 2190.0 887.6 302 215550 4.0040 279 | 3102.0 1484 249 3,850.0 12775 228 43975 1,988.5 201 4748.0 1898.0 Bt 54750 e222 159 28 GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING ‘TABLE 9.14—WELL AND RESERVOIR PROPERTIES. AND PRODUCTION DATA FOR EXERCISE 9.7 AND 9.8 Not pay, ft 530 Wellore radius, 3280 Initial pressure, psia 2,700 Pseudopressure evaluated at intial pressure, psiatlep 5.2078 108 BHFP, pela 600 Pseudopressure evaluated at BHP, psia*/ep 2.8887% 107 Reservoir temperature, °F 165 Wet gas gravity (alt= 1.0) o7e Water saturation, traction 037 Water compressibility, psia-* 36x10-° Formation compressibility, psia? 4x10-¢ Porosity, traction 0.081 2 factor at inal pressure 0.8399 2 factor at BHF ‘9360 Gas viscosity evaluated at intial pressure, cp 0.0186 Gas FVF at intial pressure, RBMMsct 0.8928 Gas compressibility at initial Pressure, psia 9.1604% 10-4 Drainage area, acres 40 Economie limit, MsclD 2 Cumulative Gas Flow Time Production Rate (aye) (ntsc ‘Msct/D) 466 216 5a2 621 604 597 80.1 578 1007 552 1203 531 2073 470 22.2 451 a724 428 4437 408 5218 390 657.9 357 729 328 2976 202 1,008.0 279 1148.4 249 12775 203 113935 201 1498.0 181 i622 159 TABLE 9.15—PRODUCTION DATA FOR EXERCISE 9.9 Gas ow Cumuatve Timo ate Production a 33600 Zaezext0? — 74150x 107 Steroxi0! 2 asoexto® assoc 10. Savgocio! —reesato? Tee 10s Saorocto! — taanatos | e001 Saooaxto? — Ysasextot aarti! tarsict? — taaosctos Sora 1o8 Kerapeto? — aseratos— Sgsvox 10° Bosorxtos — tbrescios — Sezrectoe Boocexto? 1 Sos0xt0? Seats. t0 Zooosxto® 1 Somaxto? terse toe Borsoxto® — eraxto® A gobt 10" Sisoreto® §— 2oraxto®— Stnaaeto® auouaxiot —iaaaator — Ssaz0x os azseaxio® — Naawento? Saga 08 Aoioortos — Lassexto®—Gatercto® ‘2eeextot — Losrexos asap tos ‘esesxto® tows ioe ase 10> Soomoxto: — fienexios—aaaac 10s SSuiexto® — Sissoxio®§— Fyraac tos Sapexto — Savo0x0e asada OF Saoraxto® —Pisroxtoe Beer 10 Goeir — fasronto?——1.Sp00n 108 Kasoont02—Syeaoxto®——1Srassct0e ¥Sso0rt02 — fosomto? agra toe Keessxto? — Sasiontoe—Taeee oe N7eeeet0?— Ssauoxto?—Tsrstc toe Yeosaxto? — dgseoc fot Tsco0x toe ahaoxio — Sasoonto? eau iot Btserctos — 2smoorjoe essa toe Zasientos — aovoxo®—earotoe Bacsintos 2 oeeonto — Faasctot Baseexto? aorta? Jos toe 2oseexto> — agotonioe 1 7e40 108 Zoseaxto? —tseimeio: 1 7r7ac oe Zoieaxto? — feronioe gots 10° 2odoixtos — Soaoetoz gage 108 Stomaxto® —feotonto® —_tasean ioe first-order coefficient derived from series ‘expansion of dimensionless flow rate in terms of first-order Bessel functions ‘gas compressibility, L22/m, psia~! = gas compressibility evaluated at original reservoir pressure, Li2/m, psi~!

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