Running head: FACTORS THAT AFFECT MALE PERCEPTIONS OF RAPE

Outline Literature Review on Factors that Affect Male Perceptions of Rape

Cintly Guzman, Ashlyn Pack, Queenie Webb
The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

I.

What factors affect male perceptions of rape?

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a. Language
i. The word choice in regards to rape used by law enforcement, researchers,
and programs often leads to a change in responses by males.
1. A study conducted by Edwards, Bradshaw, and Hinsz (2014)
determined that male respondents were more likely to admit to the
use of force to obtain sex than admit to rape.
2. This change in response due to the language associated with the
action demonstrates that a males perception of what is and is not
rape can be colored by the use different phrasing.
a. This suggests that it is possible that the cognitive
dissonance, distancing ones actions if they conflict with
ones beliefs, men experience in regards to rape may be
allowing for more men to excuse rape and claim to not
have committed a sexually coercive or forced act.
i. The mental images associated with the word rape
and rapist can be very strong and negative, so many
may assume all rapists fit one category and cannot
be associated to them if they do not fill that role.
The train of thought may be something like:
Rapists are violent strangers who attack women for
sex. I do not do that; therefore, I am not a rapist.
b. Though, it is also possible that the lack of education on
these topics early on may have, in fact, lead to men not

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knowing all of the actions deemed rape, and most men may
simply not realize that the actions of themselves or their
peers are classified as rape.
ii. If permissive instructions, normalizing something through the use of
language, are used, male respondents are more likely to develop difficulty
discriminating between rape and consent.
1. Barbaree and Murphey (1991) conducted a study where two
groups were exposed to scenarios describing rape and consensual
situations. One group was told that feeling aroused by force,
violence, and nonconsent was normal and did not indicate any
intent to act in such a way. Participants who were given these
instructions were significantly more likely to show arousal to both
consent and rape cues; this demonstrates that they showed an
increase in issues discriminating between rape and consent.
(Barbaree & Murphey, 1991)
2. Though permissive instructions are rarely as direct as in Barbaree
and Murpheys study, there are situations where the use of force is
undermined or deemed excusable; these situations where rape is
demeaned can imply to men that rape is not something to be
ashamed of or is something natural or normal for men.
a. For example, a highly controversial claim made in the work
Why Men Rape by Thornhill and Palmer (1999) stated
that rape was a natural, biological phenomenon in men

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brought on by evolution. Though these authors may have
had no intention of causing negative repercussions, such a
claim can cause an uproar of negative effects on men due to
the change in language. By viewing rape as natural one of
two major things can happen: 1) some men may justify
their actions by claiming that the urge itself is natural and
by being natural, it is not meant to be fought or prevented,
or 2) men, as a population, can be vilified and demeaned by
society due to the belief that rape is an urge all men
naturally feel and to the negative connotations associated
with rape. Rapists can use this change in the narrative to
their benefit, while men as a population suffer for actions
they likely have not committed and have never felt the urge
to.
b. Biological
i. The disinhibition, or removal of a factor preventing someone from acting
on a stimulus, to rape that happens while under the influence of alcohol, or
when one believes he is under the influence of alcohol, has a dangerous
effect on a males biological reaction to rape and consent cues.
1. Barbaree, Marshall, Yates, and Lightfoot (1983) replicated a study
done by Briddell, Rimm, Caddy, Krawitz, Sholis, and Wunderlin
(1978) that tested the effect of alcohol on a males physical arousal
to rape and consent cues. Barbaree et al. replicated the experiment

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with higher alcohol content than the participants in Bridell at al.s
study. The researchers found that intoxicated male nono
2. ffenders showed significant issues with distinguishing between
rape and consent; Barbaree and Marshall later went on to state in a
review of the literature, In this respect, the intoxicated
nonoffenders were behaving like rapists we have tested (1991).
3. The frightening fact is that alcohol has a significant biological
effect on a males ability to determine what is and is not rape.
c. Situational
i. Excusability of the Rapists Behavior
1. A particularly dangerous factor that affects mens perceptions of
rape is the conditions that a number of men consider able to make
a rapists actions more excusable.
a. Barbaree & Seto (1991) found that if a rapist was heavily
drinking or in a long standing relationship with the victim
participants were considered less to blame for their actions.
A follow up test indicated that when a rapist was described
as being drunk and in a sexual relationship with the victim,
arousal towards the rape was disinhibited (Barbaree &
Seto, 1991)
b. Another study by White and Yamawaki (2009) also
identified that male participants are more likely to consider
the victim to be partially to blame if the perpetrator was an

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acquaintance, and many minimized the seriousness of the
case if the victim was homosexual, regardless of the
orientation of the perpetrator.
c. Melvin Lerners Belief in a Just World System (BJWS), a
phenomenon found in both men and women, has
particularly negative implications when applied to rape.
BJWS is a mindset ensuring that traumatic event do not
affect good people, or people get what they deserve.
Whatley and Riggio (1993) determined that males often
agreed that the rapist was the first at fault for the rape;
however, a significant portion also believe the victim can
be blamed to a secondary degree especially is the victim
has something like an arrest record or poor reputation.
(Whatley & Riggio 1993)
ii. Emotional State (s)
1. Many associate emotional suppression to men, with phrases like
Be a man and Men dont cry being forerunners of the
movement against men showing emotions.
a. Masculine role socialization, males being instilled with a
need to be independant, emotionally in control, and tough
through social pressure, and social norms, many claiming
men seeking help are not considered normal, often force
men to feel they cannot express or discuss their emotions

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leading to unhealthy suppression and behavioral issues
(Winerman, 2005).
b. Due to these stereotypes of men being out of the ordinary if
they express any emotion other than those associated with
masculinity, some men turn to substance abuse, take it out
on their intimate partners, and suffer from undiagnosed and
untreated mental health issues (Winerman, 2005).
2. Men are often attributed to having issues with temper and anger,
and the suppression or misdirection of this anger can have serious
negative effects on a males biological reactions to rape and
consent cues.
a. Yates et al. (1984) determined participants who were
slighted by a female confederate in regards to their
endurance would have more difficulty distinguishing
between cues of consent and cues of rape.

References
Edwards S.R., Bradshaw K.A., and Hinsz V.B. (2014) Denying rape but endorsing forceful
intercourse: exploring differences among responders. Violence and Gender, 1(4),188-193.
Barbaree, H. & Marshall, W. L. (1991) The role of male sexual arousal in rape: six models.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(5), 621-630.

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Barbaree, H. E., Marshall, W L, Yates, E., & Lightfoot, L. O. (1983). Alcohol intoxication and
deviant sexual arousal in male social drinkers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21, 365373.
Barbaree, H. E., & Murphy, R. A. J. (1991). The effect of permissive instructions on sexual
arousal to rape cues in university undergraduate men. Manuscript submitted for
publication.
Barbaree, H. E.,& Seto, M. (1991). Perceived responsibility of rapist and disinhibition of sexual
arousal to rapecues in university undergraduate men. Manuscript submitted for
publication.
Briddell, D. W, Rimm, D. C., Caddy, G. R., Krawitz, G, Sholis, D., & Wunderlin, R. J. (1978).
Effects of alcohol and cognitive set on sexual arousal to deviant stimuli. Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 7,418- 430.
Swartout, K.M. (2013) The company they keep: how peer networks influence male sexual
aggression. Psychology of Violence. 3(2), 157-171.
Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (1999). Why Men Rape. The New York Academy of Sciences.
Yates, E., Barbaree, H. E., & Marshall, W L. (1984). Anger and deviant sexual arousal. Behavior
Therapy, 15, 287-294.
Whatley, M.A., & Riggio, R. E. (1993) Gender differences in attributions of blame for male rape
victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 8(4), 502-511.
White, S. & Yamawaki, N. (2009) Moderating influence of homophobia and gender role
traditionality on perceptions of male rape victims. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 39(5),
1116-1136.
Winerman, L. (2005) Helping men help themselves. Monitor. 36(6), 57.

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Angelone, D.J., Mitchell, D., & Grossi, L. (2015) Mens perceptions of an acquaintance rape: the
role of relationship length, victim resistance, and gender role attitudes. The Journal of
Interpersonal Violence. 30(13), 2278-2303.