ESSENTIALS OF FOOD SANITATION _ NorRMAN G. MARRIOTT kaJOIN US ON THE INTERNET WWW: hutp:/vww.thomson.com EMAIL: findit@kiosk.thomson.com thomson.comis the on-line porta for the products, services and resources available from International Thomson Publishing (ITP). This Internet kiosk gives users immediate access to more than 34 ITP publishers and over 20,000 products, Through thomson.com Internet users can search catalogs, examine subject-specific resource centers and subscribe to electronic discussion lists. You can purchase ITP products from your local bookseller, or directly through thomson.com. Visit Chapman & Hall’ Internet Resource Center for information on our new publications, links to useful sites on the World Wide Web and an opportunity to join our ‘e-mail mailing list. Point your browser to: http://www.thomson.com or http://www.thomson.com/chaphall/foodsci. html for Food Science. Cover design: Andrea Meyer, emDASH ine. 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No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, oF information storage and retrieval systems without the written permission of the publisher. 23456789 10 XXX 01 0099.98 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Marriott, Norman G. Essentials of food sanitation / Norman G. Marriott; consulting editor, Gill Robertson. Pp. cm—(Food science texts series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-412.08011-7 (all. paper) 1. Food industry and trice—Sanitation. 1. Robertson, Gill, U, Tile, IIL Series, 1P373.6.M36 1997 97-4088 664—de21 cP British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available To order this or any other Chapman & Hall book, please contact International Thomson Publishing, 7625 Empire Drive, Florence, KY #1042. Phone: (006) 325-6600 or 1-800-842-3030. Fax: (606) 525-7778, e-mail: order@chaphall.com. For « complete listing of Chapman & Hall titles, send your requests to (Chapman & Hall, Dept. BC, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003.CHAPTER 1 CHaPTeR 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgement Sanitation: definitions and regulations Importance of sanitation Definition and application to food industry and foodservice Current regulations Voluntary sanitation programs Establishing sanitary practice Microorganisms Common microorganisms Growth phases of microorganisms What causes microbes to grow? How food is spoiled Foodborne illness Destroying microbes Inhibiting growth of microbes ‘Tests to detect and count microbes Sources of food contamination ‘The chain of infection How foods become contaminated Other sources of contamination How to prevent and control contamination of foods Personal hygiene and food handling Personal hygiene Hygienic food handling xi xiaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 Dairy processing and product sanitation Major pathogens Plant construction Types of soil Sanitation management Cleaning equipment Meat and poultry sanitation Common pathogens Sanitation management Cleaning practices for meat and poultry plants Cleaning compounds for meat and poultry plants Sanitizers for meat and poultry plants Personal hygiene and work habits of employees Sanitation procedures Troubleshooting tips Seafood sanitation Sources of seafood contamination Sanitation management Plant construction Recovering by-products Voluntary inspection programs Fruit and vegetable processing and product sanitation Reducing contamination Sanitation management Plant construction Cleaning processing plants Cleaners and sanitizers Cleaning procedures Evaluation Beverage plant sanitation Focus on yeasts Sanitation management Nonalcoholic beverage plant sanitation Brewery sanitation Winery sanitation Distillery sanitation Low-moisture-food sanitation Facility design ard construction Receiving and storing raw materials Cleaning processing plants 174 175 175 177 177 181 188 189 190 194 197 197 198 201 208 211 212 212 214 217 217 221 221 223 224 226 227 228 230 234 234 235 236 238 242 246 251 252 256 260aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CHAPTER 1 Sanitation: Definitions and Regulations ABOUT THIS CHAPTER In this chapter you will learn: 1. Why modern food production makes it even more important than before to use sanitary methods Why a well-designed plant is not enough to ensure that food is safe . What sanitation means _ How sanitation is regulated by government agencies . Why a planned sanitation program is essential Von INTRODUCTION Over the last decade, the food industry has grown tremendously. Sanitary practices have also changed and are now more complex. Food processing and preparation de- pend on more mechanized and large-volume processes. The foods produced by these processors and retailers are eaten by millions of people each day. Therefore, it is more and more important for workers to understand sanitary food-handling, principles and food hygiene. Workers who understand why food sanitation is so important are more likely to use safe practices IMPORTANCE OF SANITATION Plant Design and Sanitary Practices Most food-processing plants are designed to be hygienic. But if proper sanitary meth- ods are not used, food can still be contaminated by microorganisms. These microor- ganisms may cause the food to spoil, or the people who eat the food may become ill 1aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SANITATION: DEFINITIONS AND REGULATIONS 5. be signed by the chief executive. After the law is passed, the agency that will enforce it prepares detailed regulations that spell out what the law or act will require Regulations for food provide standards for building design, equipment design, levels of food additives, sanitary practices, food labels, and training for positions that re- quire certification, Development of regulations. Several steps have to be taken when regulations are de- veloped from laws. For federal laws, the agency publishes proposed regulations in the Federal Register. Comments, suggestions, or recommendations can be sent to the agency within 60 days after the proposal is published. The comments are reviewed, and then final regulations are published. Dates by which the regulations must be car- ried out are included. Types of regulations. There are wo types of regulations: substantive and advisory. Substantive regulations are more important because they have the power of law and must be carried out. Advisory regulations are guidelines. Sanitation regulations are substantive because food must be made safe for the public. The use of shall in the wording of the regulations means a requirement; the word should means a recom- mendation. Food and Drug Administration regulations. The FDA is part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and is responsible for enforcing the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act as well as other laws. The FDA has had a dramatic influence on the food industry, especially in controlling adulterated foods. Any food that has been prepared or packed in an unsanitary way, that contains dirt, or that could be harmful to health for other reasons is adulterated. The act gives the FDA inspector the au- thority to enter and inspect any establishment where food is processed, packaged, or held; vehicles used to transport or hold food; and equipment, finished products, containers, and labels. Adulterated or wrongly labeled products may be seized, or legal action may be taken against the food operation through an injunction or restraining order. The or- der is effective until the FDA is sure that the violations have been corrected. The FDA approves cleaning compounds and sanitizers for food plants by their chemical names, but not by their trade names. The following table gives examples of chemi- cals that are approved for cleaning and sanitizing Type of Sanitizer Chemical Name Bleach-type sanitizer Sodium hypochlorite Organic chlorine sanitizer Sodium or potassium salts of isocyanuric acid Quaternary ammonium products n-Alkyldimethylbenzyl-ammonium chloride Acid anionic sanitizer component Sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate Iodophor sanitizers Oxypolyethoxyethancl-iodine complexaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SANITATION: DEFINITIONS AND REGULATIONS 9 1977. Federal Water Pollution Control Act as Amended. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1978, Amendments to Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act. US. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C Food and Drug Administration. Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act as Amended (revised as amendments are added). U.S. Governmental Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Guthrie, R. K. 1988. Food Sanitation, 3d ed., Chapman & Hall, New York. Katsuyama, A. M. 1980. Principles of Food Processing Sanitation. The Food Processors Institute, Washington, D.C Marriott, N. G. 1994. Principles of Food Sanitation, 3d ed. Chapman & Hall, New York. National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation. 1992. Applied Foodservice Sanitation. 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, in cooperation with the Education Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, Chicago. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What does sanitation mean? 2. Are food sanitation regulations substantive or advisory? What does this mean? Which agency is responsible for the safe production of most foods? Which foods are not monitored by this agency? What are two benefits of voluntary inspection programs? Give two reasons why firms need to have a separate department responsible for sanitation aw List three reasons why a planned sanitation program is essential TO FIND OUT MORE ABOUT SANITATION DEFINITIONS AND REGULATIONS 1, Call your local public health department (look in the Blue Pages of the telephone book), and ask them if they have information on local food sanitation regulations for food processors and foodservice operators. 2. Call the USDA Meat and Poultry Hotline, (800) 535-4555, 10:00 a.m, to 4:00 p.m. Eastern Time. Professional home economists will answer your questions about proper handling of meat and poultry, how to tell if they are safe to eat, and how to better under- stand meat and poultry labels, Ask for a list of their pamphlets and brochures. 3. Visit your brary and look through recent issues of FDA Consumer magazine to find a cles on food sanitation 4. Calla local food production company (look in the Yellow Pages of the telephone book. Ask the sanitarian about its food sanitation program. 5. Contact the Foodborne Illness Education Information Center, (301) 504-5719 or e-mail: croberts@nalusda.goy, for information about the Foodborne Illness Educational Materials Database, A copy of the database is available on diskette in ASCII format. The database can also be accessed via the Internetaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.MICROORGANISMS 13 Bacteria Bacteria are about 1 pm in diameter (0.00004 in). Their shape may be short rods (bacilli), round (cocci), or oval. Different types of bacteria group together in different ways. Some round bacteria form clusters like a bunch of grapes, e., staphylococci. Some rods or spheres link up to form chains, e.g., streptococci. Some round bacteria join together in pairs (diploid formation), e.g., pneumococci. Some form a group of four (tetrad formation), e.g, sarcinia, Bacteria make vatious pigments that may be yellow, red, pink, orange, blue, green, purple, brown, or black. Bacteria may discolor foods, especially thase that have unstable color pigments, such as meat. Some bacte- ria discolor food by forming slime. Some bacteria produce spores that can survive heat, chemicals, and other harsh treatments. Some of these bacteria produce toxins that can cause foodborne illness. Viruses Viruses are infectious and are one-tenth to one-hundredth the size of bacteria, Most viruses can be seen only by using an electron microscope. Viruses can only grow in- side the cells of another organism and live inside bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. One virus that has caused several outbreaks of disease in restaurants in the past 10 years is hepatitis. Infectious hepatitis A can be carried by food that has been poorly handled. The symptoms are nausea, cramps, and, sometimes, jaundice, and can last from several weeks to several months. Raw shellfish from polluted waters are a com- mon source of hepatitis. Foods that are handled a lot and those that are not heated after they are handled—such as sandwiches, salads, desserts, and ice—are most likely to transmit viruses. Hepatitis A is very contagious, so food handlers must wash their hands thoroughly aficr using the toilet, before handling food and eating uten- sils, after touching animals, and alter diapering, nursing, or feeding infants. GROWTH PHASES OF MICROORGANISMS Microbial cells have a growth cycle with five phases: lag phase, logarithmic growth phases, stationary growth phase, accelerated death phase, and reduced death phase. Figure 2.1 shows a typical microbial growth curve Lag Phase The lag phase is an adjustment or adaptation period. After the food has been conta- minated, microbes take a while to get used to the environment. At first, the stress of the new location may cause a small decrease in the number of microbes. But then they begin to grow slowly. Low temperature extends the lag phase. Cold tempera- tures reduce growth of microorganisms so that each generation takes longer to multi- ply. Decreasing the number of microbes that contaminate food, equipment, or buildings also slows their growth. Good sanitation and hygiene lower the initialaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.MICROORGANISMS 17 is the amount of water that is available to microorganisms. Many microorganisms prefer an Ay of .99, and most need an Ay higher than .91 to grow, Relative humidity (RH) and Ay are related (RH = Ay X 100). Therefore, an Ay of .95 is about the same as an RH of 95%. Water activity refers to the availability of water in a food or bever- age. Relative humidity refers to the availability of water in the atmosphere around the food or beverage, Most food products have an Ay of about .99. Bacteria need a high Ay, molds need a lower A,,, and most yeasts are between the two. Most spoilage bac- teria cannot grow if Ay, is below .91, but molds and yeasts can grow when A, is .80 or lower. Therefore, molds and yeasts are more likely to grow on dried-out foods or surfaces than are bacteria. In some climates, a high relative humidity may hydrate (dampen) the top layer of foods and allow microorganisms to grow, even if the rest of the food has a low water activity. Good packaging stops the humid air from reaching the food so that microor- ganisms cannot start to grow. pH The pH value shows how acid or alkaline something is; pH ranges from 0.0 to 14.0 (the number is logo of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration). pH 7.0 is neutral, pH values below 7.0 are acid, and pH values above 7.0 are alkaline. Most microorganisms prefer a neutral pH. Yeasts can grow in acid and do best when pH is 4.0 to 4.5. Molds can tolerate a wider range of pH (2.0-8.0), although they usually grow best in an acid pH. Molds can grow when conditions are too acidic for bacteria and yeasts. Bacteria grow best when the pH is close to neutral. But some acid-loving (acidophilic) bacteria can grow on food or debris at a pH as low as 5.2. Below pH 5.2, microbial growth is very slow. Nutrients Microbes need more than water and oxygen. They also need sources of energy (carbo- hydrates, fats, or proteins), nitrogen, minerals, and vitamins to grow. Most microbes get nitrogen from amino acids (broken-down proteins) or other chemicals that con- tain nitrogen (e.g., urea). Molds can use whole proteins, carbohydrates, and [ats be- cause they have enzymes that can digest them. Many bacteria can also break down nutrients, but most yeasts need nutrients in simple, broken-down forms. All microor- ganisms need minerals, but different microbes need different amounts and kinds of vitamins, Molds and some bacteria can make enough B vitamins for themselves, but other microorganisms need a supply of B vitamins. Inhibitors Inhibitors slow the growth of microbes. Substances or things that slow the growth of bacteria are called hacteriostats. Those that kill bacteria are called bactericides Sometimes food processors add bacteriostatic substances, such as nitrites, to foods toaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.MICROORGANISMS 21 food poisoning, If the temperature is ideal and the food is heavily contaminated, staphylococci can multiply enough to cause food poisoning before the color, flavor, or aroma of the food changes. Heating at 66°C (150°F) for 12 minutes destroys Staphylococcus aureus organisms, but the toxin they produce is not destroyed by normal cooking or processing. Salmonella Food Poisoning Salmonellosis (foodborne illness from Salmonella) usually causes nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, because the toxins irritate the walls of the intestines. About | million of these microorganisms have to be eaten by healthy people to cause an infection. It takes fewer organisms to cause salmonellosis in people who are already ill. The time between eating the food and developing symptoms is generally longer than for staphylococcal food poisoning. Salmonellosis rarely causes death, but deaths may occur if the patient is an infant, elderly, or already sick from other illnesses. Patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) are susceptible to this foodborne illness, Although salmonellae can be found in animal products, most meat is contami- nated by handlers during processing, Heat processes that kill Staphylococcus aureus will destroy most species of Salmonella. Salmonellosis can usually be blamed on poor sanitation and temperature abuse, because most strains of salmonellae cannot grow at refrigerator temperatures Clostridium perfringens Food Poisoning Clostridium perfringens multiplies rapidly in meat items that have been cooked, al- lowed to cool slowly, and then held for a long time before serving. Large numbers of active bacteria have to be eaten for this foodborne illness to occur. Proper sanitation and refrigeration of foods at all times, especially of leftovers, can usually prevent an outbreak of C. perfringens foodborne illness. Living microor- ganisms are destroyed when leftover foods are reheated to 60°C (140°F) Botulism Botulism is a true food poisoning caused by eating a toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum when it grows in food. The toxin is extremely potent (the second most powerful biological poison for humans) and affects the victim’ peripheral nervous system. About 60% of those infected die from respiratory failure. Those who recover may need respiratory treatment for the rest of their lives. Table 2.1 shows the symp- toms, incubation time, foods involved, and prevention of botulism and other com- mon food poisonings Because C. botulinum can be found in soil, it is also found in water. Therefore, seafoods are more common sources of botulism than are animal foods. But the most common sources of botulism are home-canned vegetables and fruits with a low-to-aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.MICROORGANISMS 25 medium acid content. Recent outbreaks have involved improperly held baked pota- toes and grilled onions and some flavored oils. Because C. botulinum is anaerobic, it can also contaminate canned and vacuum-packaged foods that are sealed off from oxygen. It is important not to eat foods in swollen cans because the gas produced by the organism causes the swelling. However, some strains of C. botulinum do not pro- duce gas. Heating to at least 83°C (180°F) for 30 minutes during processing is enough to protect smoked fish. Proper sanitation, proper refrigeration, and thorough cooking are essential to prevent botulism. The toxin is destroyed by heat, but the bacterial spores are only destroyed by severe heat treatment, Heating at 85°C (185°F) for 15 minutes destroys the toxin, Table 2.2 shows the combinations of temperatures and times needed to destroy the spores completely TapLe 2.2. Temperatures and Times Required to Destroy Completely Clostridium botulinum Spores Temperature. °C °F Time, min 100 212 360 105 220 120 110 230 36 115 240 12 120 248 4 Campylobacter The intestines of wild and domestic animals often contain this microbe. Campylobacter is now the greatest cause of foodbome illness in the United States. It is one of the most frequent causes of bacterial diarrhea and other illnesses, and it may also cause ulcers. Campylobacter causes veterinary diseases in poultry, catile, and sheep, and is quite common on raw poultry. Campylobacter lives in the intestines of cattle, sheep, swine, chickens, ducks, and turkeys. Animal feces contain the microor- ganism, so muscle foods (meat and poultry) can be contaminated during slaughter- ing if sanitary methods are not used. Milk, eggs, and water that have been in contact with animal feces may also contain C. jejuni. Red meat is less likely to contain C. jejunt than is poultry. It is not likely that Campylobacter spp. can be eliminated from domes- tic animals because it is so widespread Campylobacteriosis (foodborne illness from Campylobacter) is at least twice as common as salmonellosis. Each year the 4 million cases in the United States cost over $2 billion. The symptoms of foodborne illness from Campylobacter vary. People26 ESSENTIALS OF Foo SANITATION with a mild case may not have any signs of illness but excrete the microorganism in their feces. People with a severe case may have muscle pain, dizziness, headache, vomiting, cramping, abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, prostzation, and delirium Patients may find blood in their stool after 1 to 3 days of diarrhea. The illness usually lasts from 2 to 7 days, Death is rare, but it can happen Campylobacter outbreaks are most common in children over 10 years old and in young adults, although all age groups are affected. Symptoms and signs of C. jejuni infection are similar to those caused by other illnesses of the stomach and intestines. Symptoms may begin between 1 and 11 days after eating contaminated food, but ill- ness usually develops 3 10 5 days after eating this microbe Sanitary handling and cooking animal foods properly are the best ways to control Campylobacter. Heating contaminated foods to an internal temperature of 60°C (140°F) and holding them at this temperature for several minutes for beef and about 10 minutes for poultry easily destroys C. jejuni Listeria The Centers for Disease Control have estimated that 2,000 cases of listeriosis (food- bore illness caused by Listeria spp.) occur in the United States each year. A survey during 1992 found that this illness causes about 425 deaths per year. L. monocytogenes lives in the intestines of over 50 domestic and wild species of an- imals and birds, including sheep, cattle, chickens, and swine, as well as in soil and de- caying vegetation. This microorganism is also found in the air, stream water, sewage, mud, trout, crustaceans (e.g., crabs), houseflies, ticks, and the intestines of human carriers who have symptoms. This pathogen has been a problem in most foods, from chocolate and garlic bread to dairy products, meat, and poultry. Processed milk, soft unpasteurized cheeses, and other dairy products are the most common food sources of L. monocytogenes, but vegetables can also be contaminated if they have been fertil- ized with manure from infected animals. Elimination of Listeria is not practical and may be impossible, but food producers and consumers can control its survival This microbe grows best at 37°C (98°F), but it can grow at temperatures between 0°C (32°F) and 45°C (113°F). Therefore, it can grow in the refrigerator. It grows twice as fast at 10°C (50°F) as at 4°C (40°F) and will survive freezing, but is usually destroyed at temperatures above 61.5°C (142°F) Listeriosis is most common in pregnant women, infants, adults over 50 years old, people who are sick from another disease, and other people with reduced resistance or immunity. In adults, the most common symptoms are meningitis or meningoen- cephalitis. Symptoms may be mild and influenza-like. If a pregnant woman is in- fected with listeriosis, the fetus may also be infected. This may cause a miscarriage or a stillborn child. If the infant survives, it may be born with septicemia or may de- velop meningitis. About 30% of newborn infants who get listeriosis die, and about 50% die if they get the infection in the first 4 days after birth. Listeriosis is very dangerous to persons with acquired immunodeficiency syn- drome (AIDS). AIDS severely damages the immune system, so patients are more likely to get a foodborne illness such as listeriosis.MICROORGANISMS 27 Listeria monocytogenes can stick to food contact surfaces and form a biofilm that is hard to remove during cleaning, These microbes can contaminate food ingredients used in food processing, so the pathogen is constantly brought into the processing plant. A Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) and other quality assurance practices are the best ways to control this pathogen. This microorganism is usually passed on by eating contaminated food, but it can also be passed by person-to-person contact. People who have been in contact with infected animals, soil, or feces may develop sores on their hands and arms About two-thirds of home refrigerators may contain Listeria spp. The best way to prevent listeriosis is to avoid ingesting raw (unpasteurized) milk, raw meat, and foods made ftom contaminated ingredients. Pregnant women should be especially careful to avoid contact with infected animals. Food processors must use a strict san- itation program and HACCP program to control Listeria Yersinia enterocolitica Yersinia enterocolitica lives in the intestines and feces of wild and domestic animals. It can also live in raw foods of animal origin and nonchlorinated water from wells, streams, lakes, and rivers. This microorganism also seems to be transmitted from person to person, ¥. enterocolitica can multiply in the refrigerator, but more slowly than at room temperature. This microorganism is destroyed at temperatures over 60°C (140°F) When it is found in processed foods, it is usually occurs because they have been con- taminated after cooking, ¥. enterocolitica has been found in raw or rare red meats and poultry; dairy products such as milk, ice cream, cream, eggnog, and cheese curds; most seafcods; and fresh vegetables. Notall types of ¥. enterocolitica cause illness. Yersiniosis (foodborne illness caused by Yersinia enterocolitica) is most common in children and teenagers, although adults can get it too. The symptoms (fever, abdominal pain, and diarthea) normally begin 2 to 7 days after eating the contaminated food. Patients may also vomit and have skin rashes. The abdominal pain caused by yersiniosis is similar to appendicitis In the past, some children have had their appendix removed because of an incorrect diagnosis. The illness normally lasts 2 to 3 days, although patients may have mild diarrhea and abdominal pain for 1 to 2 weeks, Death is rare, but can happen if the patient has complications. Proper sanitation in food processing, handling, storage, and prepara- tion is the best way to prevent yersiniosis. Escherichia coli 0157:H7 Recently, this pathogen has caused serious outbreaks of hemorthagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome. This pathogen is found in dairy products, water, apple cider, mayonnaise, and raw beef, but the most common cause of outbreaks is under- cooked ground bel. Dairy cows can carry E. coli 0157:H7. Feces of cattle may contain28 ESSENTIALS OF FooD SANITATION this microorganism and can contaminate meat during processing. It is important to monitor and control slaughtering procedures and meat-processing, operations to pre- vent this pathogen from growing. Beef should be cooked to an internal temperature of 70°C (158°F) to destroy this pathogen. A rigid sanitation program is essential to reduce foodborne iliness outbreaks from this microorganism. Other Bacterial Infections Other bacterial infections cause foodbome iliness. The most common of these infec- tions is caused by Streptococcus faecalis. Another common cause of infections is Escherichia coli. This can cause “traveler’ diarrhea,” which can be a problem for peo- ple from developed countries when they visit developing countries with poor hy- giene. Evisccration (removing the intestines) and cold storage of chickens at 3°C may allow Aeromonas hydrophila to grow. Water used to chill the birds and the process of removing the intestines may spread bacteria during broiler processing, which may be why A. hydrophila is so common on retail cuts of poultry. Bacillus cereus is another common bacteria that can cause foodborne illness. B. cercus foodborne illness causes diarrhea and abdominal pain beginning 8 to 12 hours after the contaminated food is eaten and lasting for about 12 hours. It may also cause vomiting within 1 to 5 hours after eating contaminated food. B. cereus produces the toxin in the food before it is eaten, Heat does not easily destroy the toxin. Rice or fried rice from restaurants or warmed-over mashed potatoes that have been cooled slowly before reheating have caused outbreaks. The best way to control this food- bome illness is to use proper sanitation. Because B. cereus spores are airborne, food should be covered during holding, when possible. Restaurants should hold cooked starchy foods above 50°C (122°F) or cool them to less than 4°C (40°F) within 2 hours of cooking to prevent the bacteria from growing and producing the toxin Mycotoxins Mycotoxins are produced by many fungi. The diseases caused by mycotoxins are called mycotoxicoses. Mycotoxicoses are not common in humans, but one mycotoxin (aflatoxin) scems to be linked to liver cancer in susceptible populations. Large doses of aflatoxins are very toxic, causing liver damage, intestinal and internal bleeding, and death. Mycotoxins get into food when mold grows on the food or when food producers use contaminated ingredients in processed foods. Molds that can produce mycotoxins often contaminate foods. Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Cladosporium, Altemaria, Trichothecium, Byssochlamys, and Sclerotinia are important in the food industry. Most foods can be infected by these or other fungt at some point during production, processing, disiribution, storage, or display. If mold grows, it may produce mycotoxins. However, not all moldy foods contain mycotoxins. Foods that are not moldy are not necessarily free of mycotoxins, because the toxin can still be there after the mold has disappeared Aflatoxin is the most hazardous mycotoxin for humans. It is produced by Aspergillus flavus and A, parasiticus. These molds are found almost everywhere, andMICROORGANISMS 29 their spores are easily carried by air currents. They are often found in cereal grains, almonds, pecans, walnuts, peanuts, cottonseed, and sorghum, The microorganisms do not grow unless the food is damaged by insects, not dried quickly, or stored somewhere damp. Aflatoxicosis causes loss of appetite, lethargy, weight loss, neurological problems, convulsions, and sometimes death. It can also cause liver damage, fluid buildup (edema) in the body cavity, and bleeding in the kidneys and intestines. The best way to eliminate mycotoxins from foods is to prevent mold growth, in- sect damage, and mechanical damage during production, harvesting, transporting, processing, storage, and marketing. Mycotoxins are not produced when Ay, is below 83 (about 8 to 12% moisture in grain). Therefore, grains should be dried quickly and completely and stored somewhere dry, Photoelectric eyes can examine grain and automatically remove discolored kemels that may contain aflatoxins. This equip- ment is used in the peanut industry to avoid difficult, boring, and expensive hand sorting, Are There More Pathogens in Food Than There Used to Be? Pathogens are found in food more often than in the past, but it may be because sci- entists have developed better methods to detect pathogens, rather than because foods are more contaminated. Other reasons why pathogens are found more often include the following; 1, Changes in eating habits, “Organic” products may seem healthy but can be unsafe An outbreak of listeriosis in Canada was linked to coleslaw that was made from cabbage fertilized with sheep manure 2. More awareness of hazards, risks, and hygiene. Better collection of data and use of computers have helped public health officials recognize foodborne listeriosis 3. Changes in the population. Il people are kept alive much longer. These people are more likely to be infected. Tourists and immigrants may spread certain diseases worldwide. 4. Changes in food production. Raw materials are often produced in large amounts, Large batches can easily create places for microorganisms to grow (e.g., because the center takes longer to cool to refrigerator temperature after cooking). A large batch of food can spread contamination even further when it is used as ingredi- ents in other foods. 5. Changes in food processing. Vacuum packages and cold storage allow facultative microorganisms and psychrotrophs to survive 6. Changes in food storage. Food processors and consumers can store foods such as vegetables, salads, soft cheeses, and meats for longer in the refrigerator, but this can allow growth of psychrotrophic pathogens such as Listeria monocyiogenes 7. Changes in microorganisms. Over time, the genetic makeup of microorganisms can change. New strains may develop that have characteristics from different bacteria. For example, a pathogen may become able to grow in cold tempera- tures, survive cooking, or grow in more acid or alkaline foods.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.32 ESSENTIALS OF Food SANITATION Total Plate Count This counts the total population of aerobic microorganisms on equipment or food products. The total plate count method assesses contamination from the air, water, equipment surfaces, facilities, and food products. The microbiologist swabs the equipment, walls, or food products. He or she washes the material off the swab into ‘a culture medium (such as standard-methods agar or plate count agar) that supports the growth of all microorganisms. The microbiologist dilutes the sample several times, depending on how many microbes are expected, and places it on a growth medium in a sterile covered plate (petri dish). The incubation temperature may be the same as the storage temperature of the food or the same temperature as the loca- tion of equipment or utensils (e.g., 4°C [40°F]) for refrigerator shelves, room tem- perature for a knife). The result is the number of colonies that grow. This does not show the type of microorganisms, although some colonies look different. Sometimes the bacteria are incubated on special growth media that allow only certain microor- ganisms to grow and be counted. Press Plate Technique This is also called the contact plate technique. Itis similar to the plate count technique without the swabbing. The microbiologist opens a covered RODAC plate (similar to a petri dish) and presses the growth medium (agar) against the area to be sampled. The incubation process is the same as for the total plate count method. This method is easy and has less chance of error and contamination. The biggest problem is that it can only be used for flat surfaces that are lightly contaminated because the sample is not diluted. Sanitarians use press plates to check whether the sanitation program is effective. The number of colonies that grow show the amount of contamination. Indicator and Dye Reduction Tests Many microorganisms produce enzymes during their normal growth. These enzymes can react with indicators, such as dyes. The enzymes react with the dye and cause a color change. The speed of the reaction shows the number of microorganisms in the sample. Sometimes a dye-soaked filter paper is placed right onto a food sample or piece of equipment. The time it takes for the filter paper to change color shows the number of microbes. The biggest problem with this technique is that it does not show the exact amount of contamination. But it is quicker and easier than plate counts and can be a good tool to check the effectiveness of a sanitation program. There are many different test kits for specific organisms. Direct Microscopic Count The microbiologist dries and fixes a measured sample of food on a microscope slide He or she stains it and counts the number of bacteria. Most stains do not distinguish between bacteria that are alive or dead, so this method shows the total number ofMICROORGANISMS 33. microorganisms in a sample. This method gives some information about the type of bacteria in the sample, and the slides can be kept for future reference, but it is not used much because it is easy for analysts to make counting errors, and the method can examine only a small quantity. Most Probable Number (MPN) This common method estimates bacterial populations by lining up several tubes of liquid growth medium and adding a sample that has been diluted by different amounts to each tube. If bacteria grow, the medium looks cloudy. The number of mi- croorganisms is shown by how much the sample had to be diluted to prevent growth. This method measures only live bacteria, and the microbiologist can do more tests on the bacteria that grow to identify them, Impedance Measurements Impedance can measure microbial metabolism, which is an indirect way to count the number of microbes in a sample. Impedance is the total resistance to the flow of an al- ternating electric currents it passes through something, Microbiologists measure mi- crobial growth by looking at the changes in impedance measurements over 5 hours. In the future, sanitarians may use impedance as a rapid method of counting microbial load, although it can be used only when the food contains more than 100,000 mi- crobes per gram. At the moment, the equipment costs about $70,000, and each sam- ple costs about $2. The equipment can handle 128 to 512 samples at one time. Direct Epifluorescence Filter Technique (DEFT) This is a rapid, direct method of counting microorganisms in a sample. Cells are stained with a fluorescent dye that stains live and inactive bacteria different colors. English researchers developed this method to monitor milk samples, but food scien- tists also use it for other foods. Sanitarians use DEFT to check dairy foods and meat, beverages, water, and wastewater. Each test takes about 25 minutes, and each sample costs about $1, although costs vary and are based on the quantity purchased. Salmonella 1-2 Test ‘This is a rapid screening test for Salmonella. If a dark band (immobilization band) forms in the medium, motile Salmonella have reacted with flagellar antibodies, and the test is positive This test uses a clear plastic device with two chambers. The chambers contain wwo different media. One contains flagellar antibodies to Salmonella, and the sample is added to the other, After about + hours of incubation, motile Salmonellae move from one chamber to the other and come in contact with the flagellar antibodies, The immobilization band forms after 8 to 14 hours.34 ESSENTIALS OF Foon SANITATION CAMP Test This isa test for L. monocytogenes, The sanitarian streaks the sample next to or across a streak of a known bacterium on a blood agar plate, Where the two streaks meet, the metabolic by-products of the two bacteria blend and react to break down the blood (hemolysis) in the plate medium. Fraser Enrichment Broth/Modified Oxford Agar Fraser broth encourages growth of Listeria and prevents growth of other microorgan- isms. A specially prepared U-shaped tube contains Fraser broth on both sides and modified Oxford agar in the middle. The sample is placed into one side of the tube Listeria are the only microorganisms that grow and migrate through the modified Oxford agar into the other side of the tube. The pure culture causes black deposits in the Oxford agar and cloudiness in the second branch of Fraser broth. SUMMARY + Microbiology is the study of microscopic forms of life. + Sanitarians need to understand how microorganisms cause food spoilage and foodborne illness so that they can handle foods in a sanitary way. + Microorganisms cause food spotlage by changing how food looks, tastes, and smells. Foodborne illness happens when people eat food containing pathogenic microorganisms or their toxins + A sanitation program controls the number of microorganisms on equipment, processing plants, and food. + Microorganisms have a growth pattern that looks like a bell curve. They grow and die at a logarithmic rate, The factors that affect growth of microbes include temperature, oxygen availability, water availability, pH, nutrients, and inhibitors. * Microorganisms produce enzymes that break down proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and other molecules in food into simpler compounds. This breakdown causes food spoilage. Microorganisms that cause foodborne illness include Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botu- linum, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, and molds that produce mycotoxins. + The best ways to destroy microbes are heat, chemical sanitizers, and irradiation, The best ways to inhibit growth of microbes are refrigeration, dehydration, and fermentation. + Sanitarians use several tests to measure the number and type of microbes in food samples and on equipment or other surfaces. These tests show whether the sani- tation program is working.MICROORGANISMS 35 BIBLIOGRAPHY Felix, C. W. 1992. CDC sidesteps listeria hysteria from JAMA articles. Food Protection Report. 8(5):1 Gillespie, R. W. 1981. Current status of foodborne disease problems. Dairy, Food, and Environ. Sanit. 1:508. Gravani, R. B. 1987. Bacterial foodborne diseases. Dairy, Food, and Environ. Sanit. 7:137. Longree, K., and Armbuster, G. 1996. Quantity Food Sanitation, 5th ed. John Wiley, New York, Marriott, N. G. 1994. Principles of Food Sanitation, 3d ed. Chapman & Hall, New York Mascola, L., Lieb, L., Chiu, J., Fannin, S. L., and Linnan, M. J. 1988. Listeriosis: an uncommon opportunistic infection in patients with acquired immunodeliciency syndrome. Am. J. Med, 84:162. National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation. 1992. Applied Foodservice Sanitation, 4th ed. John Wiley, New York. In cooperation with the Education Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, Chicago. Niven, C. F, Jr. 1987. Microbiology and parasitology of meat. In The Science of Meat and Meat Products, p. 217. Food and Nutrition Press, Westport, Conn. Seideman, S. C., Vanderzant, C., Smith, G. C., Hanna, M. ©., and Carpenter, Z. L. 1976, Effect of degree of vacuum and length of storage on the microflora of vac- uum packaged beef wholesale cuts. J. Food Scl. 41:738. Zottola, E. A. 1972. Introduction to Meat Microbiology. American Meat Institute, Chicago. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Name the most common types of microorganisms in food, and give one example of each What do yeasts and molds look like on food? Describe the five phases of microbial growth, Which microorganisms grow best when water activity is low? Name five factors that affect the growth of microorganisms Why are biofilms a problem in the food industry? What is the difference between physical and chemical food spoilage? Name four bacteria that commonly cause foodborne illness. Which foods are likely to be contaminated with aflatoxin? How should foods be stored so that molds do not produce aflatoxin? 10. What is the difference between destroying and inhibiting microbes? CO EwraUuewn To FIND OUT MORE ABOUT MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD 1. Call USDAS Meat & Poultry Hotline, (202) 472-4485, and ask for information about harmful microorganisms that grow in food36 2. ESSENTIALS OF FooD SANITATION Conduct an informal survey among your friends and family. Has anyone had a foodborne illness? Do they know what food caused the illness? What were the symptoms? How long did the illness last? Do they know what microorganism caused the illness? Was the illness reported to CDC? Call a local fast-food chain, and ask what it does to protect its customers from foodborne illness such as Escherichia colt in undercooked ground beef. Check your kitchen at home. Are all foods stored at the right temperature? Are foods cov- ered to protect them from insects, moisture, and microorganisms in the air? Use the kitchen quiz “Can your kitchen pass the food safety test?” by Paula Kurtzweil in FDA Consumer, October 1995.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SOURCES OF FOOD CONTAMINATION 39 + The source is where the pathogen comes from. + The mode of transmission is how the pathogen is carried from the source to the food + The host is the food that supports growth of the pathogen. To survive and grow, the pathogen also needs nutrients, moisture, the right level of acidity or alkalinity (pH) and oxidation-reduction potential, and lack of competi- live microorganisms and inhibitors. The food also needs to be held in the best tem- perature range for that organism long enough to allow it to grow enough to cause infection or intoxication. The chain of infection model shows that foodborne diseases have many causes. A disease agent (pathogen) has to be present, but each of the other steps is also essen- tial in causing foodborne disease. How Foops BECOME CONTAMINATED The food itself is the most common source of contamination. Equipment and waste products are other common sources. Dairy Products The udders of cows and milking equipment can contaminate milk products, al- though equipment with well-designed sanitary features and control of disease in dairy cows have made daity products more wholesome. Pasteurization of milk prod- ucts in processing plants has also reduced pathogens in milk. However, dairy prod- ucts can be cross-contaminated by items that have not been pasteurized. Cross-contamination occurs when utensils or equipment used for unpasteurized milk ate used for pasteurized milk, or when staff working with unpasteurized milk products move to an area containing pasteurized milk products, Not all dairy prod- ucts are pasteurized, so some pathogens (especially Listeria monocytogenes) have be- come more common in the dairy industry. (See Chap. 11 for more information.) Red-Meat Products The muscles of healthy animals are nearly free of microorganisms while alive. Meat is contaminated by microorganisms on the animal’s surfaces that have external contact hair, skin, intestines, and lungs). While the animal is alive, its white blood cells and antibodies control infection. But these defense mechanisms are lost during slaughter. Microorganisms first reach the meat if contaminated knives are used to bleed an- imals. The blood is still circulating and quickly carries these microorganisms throughout the animal’ body. Microorganisms reach the surface of the meat when it is cut, processed, stored, and distributed. Meat can also be contaminated if it comes in contact with the hide, feet, manure, dirt, and visceral (intestinal) contents if the digestive organs are punctured. (See Chap. 12 for more information.)40 ESSENTIALS OF Foon SANITATION Poultry Products Poultry may be contaminated by Salmonella and Campylobacter during processing These mictoorganisms are easily spread from one carcass to another during defeath- ering and removal of the intestines (evisceration). Salmonellae can also be transferred from contaminated hands, gloves, and processing twols. (See Chap. 12 for more information.) Seafood Products Seafoods may be contaminated with microbes during harvesting, processing, dlistrib- ution, and marketing, Seafoods are excellent sources of proteins, B vitamins, and a number of minerals that bacteria need to grow: Therefore, microbes grow well on or in seafoods. Seafoods are handled a lot from the time they are harvested until they are eaten, which provides many opportunities for contamination. They may be also sometimes be stored without being refrigerated, which allows microorganisms to grow. (See Chap. 13 for more information.) Ingredients Ingredients (especially spices) can carry harmfal or potentially harmful microorgan- isms and toxins. The amounts and types of these microbes and toxins depends on where and how the ingredient was harvested and how the ingredient was processed and handied. The food plant management team needs to know the type of hazards that can oceur with each ingredient. Food processors should only obtain materials from suppliers that use good practices. OTHER SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION Equipment Equipment can be contaminated during production and while it is not being used. Most equipment is designed to be hygienic, but it can still collect microorganisms and other debris from the air, employees, and food ingredients. Food is less likely to be contaminated if equipment is designed to be hygienic and is cleaned regularly and thoroughly, Employees The most common source of microorganisms in foods is employees. The hands, hair, nose, and mouth carry microorganisms that can be transferred to food during pro- cessing, packaging, preparation, and service by touching, breathing, coughing, or sneezing, Because the human body is warm, microorganisms grow and multiply rapidly. Therefore, sanitary practices, such as good handwashing and use of haimets and disposable plastic gloves, are essential. (See Chap. 4 for more information.)SOURCES OF FooD CONTAMINATION 41 Air and Water Water is used for cleaning and as an ingredient in many processed foods. However, if the water is not pure, it can contaminate foods. If the water source is contaminated, another source should be used, or the water should be treated by chemicals, ultravi- olet units, or other methods. Microorganisms in the air can contaminate foods during processing, packaging, storage, and preparation. The best ways to reduce air contamination are to use filters for air entering food-processing and preparation areas and to package or cover food products to reduce contact with air Sewage Raw, untreated sewage can carry microorganisms, causing typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, dysentery, and infectious hepatitis. Raw sewage may contaminate food and equipment through faulty plumbing, If raw sewage drains or flows into drinking- water lines, wells, rivers, lakes, and ocean bays, the water and seafood will be contaminated. To prevent this kind of contamination, toilet facilities and septic tanks should be separated from wells, streams, and other water sources. Raw sewage should not be used to fertilize fields where fruits and vegetables are grown. (See Chap. 8 for more information.) Insects and Rodents Food and food waste attract flies and cockroaches to kitchens, foodservice opera- tions, food-processing facilities, toilets, and garbage. These insects transfer dirt from contaminated areas to food through their waste products; mouth, feet, and other body parts; and saliva. Any pests should be eradicated and prevented from entering food-processing, preparation, and serving areas Rats and mice carry dirt and disease with their feet, fur, and feces. They transfer dirt from garbage dumps and sewers to food or food-processing and foodservice ar- eas. (See Chap. 9 for more information.) How To PREVENT AND CONTROL CONTAMINATION OF Foops The Environment Foods should not be touched by human hands if they will be eaten raw or after they have been cooked. If contact is necessary, workers should thoroughly wash their hands before handling the food and wash regularly during handling or use dispos- able plastic gloves. During storage, holding, and service, processed and prepared foods should be covered with a clean cover that fits well and will not collect loose dust, lint, or other debris. If the food cannot be covered, it should be held in an en- closed dust-free cabinet. Foods in single-service wrappers or containers, such as milk and juice, should be served directly from these containers. Foods on a buffet42 ESSENTIALS OF Foop SANITATION should be served on a steam table or ice tray and protected by a transparent shield from sneezes, coughs, and other contact with air, employees, and customers. Food that touches an unclean surface should be thoroughly washed or thrown away Equipment and utensils used in food processing, packaging, preparation, and service should be cleaned and sanitized between use. Foodservice managers should train employees to handle dishes and eating utensils so that their hands do not touch any surface that will come into contact with food or the consumer's mouth, During Storage Storage facilities should have plenty of space and an organized storage layout, and stock should be rotated. These measures help to reduce contamination from dust, in- sects, rodents, and dirt, and allow for easy cleaning, Storage area floors should be swept or scrubbed, and shelves or racks should be cleaned and sanitized. (See Chaps. 5, 6, and 7 for more information.) Trash and garbage should not be allowed to accumulate in food storage areas Litter and Garbage The food industry generates large amounts of waste from used packaging, containers, and waste products. Refuse should be kept in appropriate containers and removed from the food area regularly. The best method (required by some regulatory agencies) is to use separate containers for food waste from those used for litter and rubbish. Clean, disinfected, seamless trash containers should be kept in all work areas. All con- tainers should be washed and disinfected daily; plastic liners may also be used as a cheap way to keep trash, Close-fitting lids should be kept on the containers, except when they ate being filled and emptied. Containers in food-processing and food preparation areas should not be used for litter and rubbish from other areas. Toxic Substances Poisons and toxic chemicals should not be stored near food products. Only chemi- cals required for cleaning should be stored in the building, and these should be clearly labeled. Only cleaning compounds, supplies, utensils, and equipment ap- proved by regulatory or other agencies should be used in food handling, processing, and preparation. SUMMARY + Food products are attractive breeding sites for microorganisms because they are rich in nutrients. + Most microorganisms come from water, air, dust, equipment, sewage, insects, rodents, and employees * The chain of infection is a model that shows how foodborne diseases are carried.SOURCES OF FOOD CONTAMINATION 43 * Raw materials can also be contaminated from the soil, sewage, live animals, external surfaces (skin, shells, etc.), and internal organs of meat animals, With modem health care, diseased animals rarely cause illness. + Chemicals can contaminate foods by accidental mixing, * Good housekeeping, sanitation, storage, and garbage-disposal practices prevent and control contamination of food. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bryan, F L. 1979. Epidemiology of foodborne diseases. In Food-Borne Infections and Intoxications, 2d ed., p. 4-69, H. Riemann and F L. Bryan, eds. Academic Press, New York. Fields, M. L, 1979. Fundamenials of Food Microbiology. AVI Publishing Co., Westport, Conn. Guthrie, R. K. 1988. Food Sanitation, 3d ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Hobbs, B. C., and Gilbert, R. J. 1978. Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene, 4th ed. Food & Nutrition Press, Westport, Conn. Judge, M. D., Aberle, E. D., Forrest, J. C., Hedrick, H. B., and Merkel, R. A. 1989. Principles of Meat Science. 2d ed. Kendall Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, lowa. Lechowich, R- V. 1980. Controlling microbial contamination of animal products Unpublished data. Marriott, N. G. 1994. Principles of Food Sanitation, 3d ed. Chapman & Hall, New York. Todd, E. C. D. 1980. Poultry-associated foodborne disease—Its occurrence, cost, sources, and prevention. J. Food Prot. 43:129. STUDY QUESTIONS ‘What is the difference between foodborne infection and foodborne intoxication? Give three reasons why seafood is easily contaminated. ‘What is the most common source of contamination of food? List two ways that foods can be protected from microbes on hands. How can food be protected against microbes in air? Auewne Describe three features of buffet serving aress that protect the food from microbial conta- mination, 7. Where and how should garbage or trash be stored? To Finp Our MORE ABOUT FooD CONTAMINATION 1. Call the USDA Meat and Poultry Houline, (1-800) 535-4555. Ask for information about keeping meat and poultry free from contamination. 2. Call the US. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Drinking Water SAFE DRINK- ING WATER HOTLINE, (1-800) 426-4791. Ask for information about keeping water supplies free from contaminationaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CHAPTER 4 Personal Hygiene and Food Handling ABOUT THIS CHAPTER In this chapter you will learn: What personal hygiene is and why it is important About patts of the body that need to be kept clean or covered When and how to wash hands to keep food safe How diseases are spread VRwWNe How employees and employers can take responsibility for personal hygiene INTRODUCTION Food handlers can carry bacteria that can cause illness in people who eat the food handlers prepare. In fact, people are the most common source of food contamina- tion. Hands, breath, hair, sweat, coughs, and sneezes all carry microorganisms. Even ifa food handler does not feel sick, he or she could still be carrying microorganisms that can cause illness if they get into food, The food industry spends a lot of time educating and uaining employees, Supervisors and workers need to understand the importance of protecting food. Foodborne disease outbreaks are very bad for business. A foodbome illness outbreak can cost about $75,000 per foodservice establishment. Investigation, cleanup, restaffing and restocking, wasted food products, settlements, and regulatory sanc- tions are all expensive. In multiunit restaurant chains, negative public opinion can affect sales even at units that were not involved in the outbreak. 46PERSONAL HYGIENE AND FOOD HANDLING 47 PERSONAL HYGIENE The word hygiene means using sanitary principles to maintain health. Personal hy- giene refers to the cleanliness of a person’ body and clothes. Food workers need to be healthy and clean to prepare safe food. Employee Hygiene Employees who are ill should not come to work. They should not touch food or equipment and utensils used to process, prepare, and serve food. Food can carry sev- eral illnesses, including: + Respiratory diseases, ¢.g., colds, sore throats, pneumonia, scarlet fever, and tuberculosis + Gastrointestinal diseases, e g., vomiting, diarrhea, dysentery + Typhoid fever * Infectious hepatitis After people recover from the disease, they often become carriers. This means that they still carry the disease-causing microorganisms in or on their body. When employees are ill, they carry many more microorganisms, so they are much more likely to contaminate food. Symptoms of illnesses show that the number of microorganisms in the body is increasing, although sometimes they increase be- fore symptoms appear. Anyone with a sinus infection, sore throat, nagging cough, or other cold symptom is probably carrying a heavy load of a virus. People who have diarrhea or an upset stomach are also probably carrying large numbers of microbes Even after the symptoms have gone away, some of the microorganisms that caused the illness may stay in the person's body and could contaminate food. For example, an employee may carry Salmonellae for several months alter recovering from salmo- nellosis. The virus that causes hepatitis may still be in the intestinal tract over 5 years after the symptoms are over. To understand why employees need good personal hy- giene, it helps to look at different parts of the body that can be sources of microbial contamination. Figure 4.1 shows that bacteria live on diflerent parts of the body and how handwashing affects the number of bacteria. Skin The skin constantly deposits sweat, oil, and dead cells on its outer surface. When these materials mix with dust, dirt, and grease, they form an ideal place for bacieria to grow, Therefore, bacteria from skin can contaminate food. If secretions build up and bacteria continue to grow, the skin can become itchy or irritated. Food handlers may rub or scratch the area and then transfer bacteria to food when they touch it Contaminated food has a shorter shelf life or may cause foodborne illness. Washing‘wasaud a1am eu2.eq Jo suomi wtp pute we2|> 19a ‘ou asa eurnoeg 2tp s20npat SPU tou sem puey si ven sazeaput saquojoD anya j0 yunois 325 1 s2tpour 10} prea pur deos yun spuey UGS Ase2y 2 ‘Sinoy $7 40} 49°96 1 paregnou st ae|d ay, pur 23 « npsaid euapeg jo 12quinU op siaye BusERpUEY MOY 225 5,17], SaNVH see agp uss 29 ue 198m 40 peayud vp 228 24) Apmunnidde susimg yo edie 40 suojo9 ews “914 SI¥o4 gf 0) $7 “C4L9'86) 2M “esoduo} ita 9 1434 uae Apides asd PHI 2 ‘qua © a8acteria, and © when the lips and nose ate This plate presed ent in fingernail scrapings Bacteria on your body and the effects of handwashing (from Cornell Cooperative Extension Publication: Safe Food Preparation: It’s In Your Hands, Ithaca, NY., 1995.) Ficure 4.1. hands and bathing often reduces the number of microorganisms and dead cells that can be shed into the food. Some types of bacteria do not grow on the skin, because the skin acts as a physi- cal barrier and makes and releases chemicals that can destroy some microorganisms. This self-disinfecting system works best when the skin is clean. The outer layer of skin (epidermis) contains cracks, crevices, and hollows where microorganisms like to live. Bacteria also grow in hair follicles and sweat glands. Because people use their hands a lot, they are often cut or callused or come in con- asSO ESSENTIALS OF FooD SANITATION tact with a wide variety of microorganisms. Bacteria that live on the skin are not eas- ily removed. They live in the pores of the skin and are protected by oily secretions from the glands. Poor skin care and skin disorders do more than affect appearance. They also cause bacterial infections like boils and impetigo. Boils are severe local infections caused by infections in hair follicles or skin glands after the outer layer of skin (epidermis) is damaged, for example by irritating cloth- ing. Staphylococci or other microorganisms multiply in the hair follicle or skin gland and produce a toxin that kills the cells around it and causes swelling and soreness. The body collects lymph, blood cells, and tissue cells in the infected area to counter- act the toxin. The body forms a barrier around the boil to prevent the infection from spreading. A boil should never be squeezed. If it is squeezed, the infection may spread and cause a cluster of boils called a carbuncle. If staphylococci get into the bloodstream, they may be carried to other parts of the body, causing meningitis (in- fection of the membranes around the brain), bone infections, or other problems. Employees with boils should be very careful if they have to handle food, because the boil is a major source of pathogenic staphylococci. Employees should use a hand dip for disinfection after touching a boil or pimple. Boils can be prevented by keeping skin clean and wearing clean clothing, Impetigo is a very infectious skin disease caused by Staphylococci bacteria. The infec~ tion spreads from one part of the body to another by touching. It is common in young people who do not wash ofien. Keeping the skin clean helps to prevent impetigo Fingers Bacteria may be picked up by the hands when they touch dirty equipment, contami- nated food, clothing, or parts of the body. Employees should wash hands frequently and use a hand-dip sanitizer after touching these things so that they do not contami- nate food. Plastic gloves can be used, although food can be quickly contaminated if good handwashing and other hygienic practices are not used. Plastic gloves help pre- vent pathogenic bacteria on the fingers and hands from reaching the food. They also help those who watch the food being prepared to feel safe while eating it Fingernails One of the easiest ways to spread bacteria is through dirt under the fingernails Employees should never handle food if their fingernails are dirty, Food handlers should not have long fingernails or artificial fingernails. Washing the hands with soap and water removes transient bacteria (bacteria that have been picked up but are not growing and multiplying), and using a hand soap that contains an antiseptic or sanitizer controls resident bacteria (bacteria that live and grow there). A humectant (moisturizer) that contains alcohol can help to control and remove both uansient and resident bacteria without irritating the hands.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.PERSONAL HYGIENE AND FOOD HANDLING 53 +. Nutrients, Sweat contains water-soluble nutrients, and sebum contains oil-solu- ble nutrients, Microbiologists do not know how much these nutrients affect. growth of microorgnisms. People are the biggest source of food contamination. They act as disease carriers. A carrier is a person who harbors and releases pathogens but does not have symp- toms of the disease. Handwashing Improper handwashing causes about 25% of foodborne illnesses. Handwashing with soap and water removes bacteria. Rubbing the hands together or using a scrub brush removes more bacteria than quick handwashing. Antimicrobial agents remove more bacteria than ordinary hand soap, but em- ployees need to use an antimicrobial hand soap throughout the day for it to be fully effective. The antimicrobial agent needs to be in contact with the hands for more than 5 seconds to have an effect on the number of microbes. Figure 4.2 illustrates the recommended double handwashing procedure Fioure 4.2. Recommended handwashing procedure54 ESSENTIALS OF Food SANITATION Methods of Disease Transfer Direct. Many disease microorganisms are transferred directly from one person to another through close contact. Examples are diphtheria, scarlet fever, influenza, pneumonia, smallpox, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, dysentery, and venereal diseases. Respiratory diseases are transferred via tiny particles released from the nose and mouth when a person talks, sneezes, or coughs. The particles can be suspended in the air, attached to dust, for a long time. Other people can be infected when they inhale the particles Indirect. The host (infected person or animal) of an infectious disease may transfer or ganisms to water, food, objects, or soil. Doorknobs, telephones, pencils, books, wash- room fittings, clothing, money, and knives can all transfer infections from one user to another, Salmonellosis, dysentery, and diphtheria are examples of diseases that can be spread indirectly, To reduce indirect transfer of microorganisms, washbasins should have foot-operated controls instead of hand-operated faucets, and doors should be self-closing Requirements for Hygiene Management must have a protocol to make sure employees use hygienic practices. Supervisors and managers should set an example for employees by using excellent hygiene and health practices themselves. They should provide proper laundry, lock- erroom, and handwashing facilities to make it easy for employees to stay clean and hygienic All employees should have a physical examination before they are employed to check that they have good physical, mental, and emotional health. All employees who work with food should be checked regularly for signs of illness and infection, and other signs of poor health. Employees should maintain personal hygiene in the following ways. They should: 1. Maintain good physical health through good nutrition, enough rest, and physical cleanliness 2, Report illness to their employer before working with food so that assignments can be adjusted to protect food from being contaminated 3. Practice good hygiene so that they do not contaminate food 4. Wash their hands during their work shift after using the toilet; after handling garbage or other dirty items; after handling uncooked meats, egg products, or dairy producis; after handling money; after smoking, after coughing and sneez~ ing; and when leaving or returning to food production/service areas 5. Maintain personal cleanliness through daily bathing, washing hair at least twice a week, cleaning fingernails daily, use of a hat or hairnet while handling food, and wearing clean underclothing and uniforms 6. Not touch foodservice equipment and utensils with their hands, and use dispos- able gloves if they have to touch food (other than dough)PERSONAL HYGIENE AND FOOD HANDLING 55 7. Follow rules, such as “no smoking,” and do anything else needed to protect the food from being contaminated Employers should help employees use good hygiene in the following ways Employers should: 1. Train employees in food handling and personal hygiene 2. Watch and monitor employees and their work habits regularly. Employers should treat poor hygiene practices as disciplinary violations 3. Give incentives to encourage excellent hygiene and sanitary practices. Food handlers are responsible for their own health and personal cleanliness. Employers are responsible for making sure that the public is protected from unsani- tary practices that could cause illness. Personal hygiene is essential for production of wholesome food. HYGIENIC Foop HANDLING Food handlers should protect food by using barriers to separate the food from any- thing that could contaminate it at all stages of production. Barriers include dispos- able gloves, hairnets, mouth guards, sneeze guards, lids, and food wraps. Hiring Employees Careful hiring helps the company keep a good image and meet regulations. Over 50% of people carry Staphylococcus aureus in their mouths and nasal passages. The American Disease Act prohibits discrimination in hiring on the basis of disease, espe- cially human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status. Many carriers of disease do not have obvious symptoms. Many areas no longer require health cards because they are expensive to get, and workers can be infected after they get their card. Employees should be hired only if they meet the following conditions: 1. Applicants should not have obvious hazards, such as open sores or excessive skin infections, pimples, or acne 2. Applicants should not have respiratory problems if they will be handling food or working in food-processing or food-preparation areas, 3. Applicants and their clothing should be neat, clean, and fresh smelling 4. Applicants should pass a sanitation course and examination, ¢.g., one provided by the National Restaurant Association, Personal Hygiene Rules Food organizations should have clear and strict personal hygiene rules, The rules should be clearly posted on the wall or spelled out in booklets given to each em- ployee. The policies should cover personal cleanliness, clothing, good food-handling practices, and use of tobacco56 ESSENTIALS OF FooD SANITATION Facilities Employees need the right equipment and supplies to maintain good personal hy- giene. Locker rooms and rest rooms should be clean, neat, well lighted, and conve- niently located away from production areas. Rest rooms should have self-closing doors. Ideally, faucets at handwashing stations should be foot- or knee-operated and supply water at 43 to 50°C (109-122°F). Liquid soap dispensers are better than bars of soap, because bars can transfer microorganisms from one person to the next. Disposable towels are best for drying hands. Food and beverages should be con- sumed in a special area. This area should be clean and pest-free. Supervising employees, Employees who handle food should follow the same health standards used to screen new employees. Supervisors should watch employees daily for infected cuts, boils, respiratory diseases, or other infections. Many local health departments require foodservice and food-processing firms to report employees who may have or carry an infectious disease. Employee responsibilities. The employer is responsible for the way employees handle food, but employers should make employees responsible for the following activities when they start work. Employees should: 1. Not have respiratory, gastrointestinal, or other diseases 2. Report injuries—including cuts, burns, boils, and skin problems—to their employer 3. Report respiratory illnesses (e.g., colds, influenza, sinus infections, and bronchitis) and intestinal illnesses, such as diarrhea, to their employer 4. Bathe daily, wash their hair at least twice a week, change their underclothes daily, and keep their fingernails clean Tell their supervisor when soap. towels, or other washroom supplies run out . Break such habits as scratching their heads or touching other parts of their body Cover their mouths and noses when they cough or sneeze . Wash their hands after using the toilet, blowing their nese, smoking, handling anything dirty, and handling money 9. Keep their hands out of food. Food should not be tasted using a hand and should not be eaten in food production areas 10. Not use utensils that touch their mouths to handle food 11. Use disposable gloves to handle food 12. Not smoke or chew tobacco in food production and food preparation areas and should wash their hands after smoking SUMMARY + Microorganisms that cause illness and food spoilage often come from food handlers + Hygiene means using sanitary practices to maintain good health.PERSONAL HYGIENE AND FOOD HANDLING 57 + Personal hygiene means maintaining a clean body and clean clothing, * Parts of the body and clothing that can contaminate food include the skin, hands, fingernails, jewelry, hair, eyes, mouth, nose and lungs, and waste organs. Employees may carry a disease-causing microorganism even if they do not have symptoms of the illness. + Microorganisms can be transferred directly (from person to person) or indirectly (via food, water, equipment, and surfaces) + Management must hire employees who are healthy, clean, and neat. They must train employees to use good hygiene. Managers must hold employees responsi- ble for personal hygiene so that the food that they handle is safe to eat BIBLIOGRAPHY Anon. 1976. Plant Sanitation for the Meat Packing Industry. Office of Continuing Education, University of Guelph and Meat Packers Council of Canada. Hobbs, B. C., and Gilbert, R. J. 1978. Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene, 4th ed. Food & Nutrition Press, Westport, Conn. Longree, K., and Blaker, G. G. 1982. Sanitary Techniques in Food Service. John Wiley, New York. Marriott, N. G. 1994. Principles of Food Sanitation, 3d ed. Chapman & Hall, New York. National Restaurant Association Education Foundation. 1991. Applied Foodservice Sanitation, 4th ed. John Wiley, in cooperation with the Education Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, Chicago. Wise, H. S. 1979, The food handler and personal hygiene. In Sanitation Notebook for the Seafood Industry, p. II-1, G. J. Flick, Jr, et al., eds. Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg. STUDY QUESTIONS What should food handlers do at home to maintain good personal hygiene? When should food handlers wash their hands while at work? Why do healthy employees need to be careful not to contaminate food? List seven body parts that are often sources of microbial infection Give two reasons why employees should not wear jewelry. How can employers help employees maintain good personel hygiene? aurene To FIND OUT MORE ABOUT PERSONAL HYGIENE 1. Observe a food handler (or ask someone else to watch you). Note how often they touch their face or hair, blow their nose, sneeze, and cough. Do they block their sneezes and coughs? Do they wash their hands afterwards? 2. Check the handwashing facilities at work, school, or home. Are they close to food prepa- ration areas? Are they clean? Do they have hot and cold water, liquid soap, a nail brush, and hand towels or blow drier?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.60 ESSENTIALS OF Foc SANITATION Ic is important to select the correct cleaning compound to remove a specific type of soil. Table 5.1 shows whether various kinds of soil are soluble in water, acid, of al- kali; whether heat helps to remove them; and how hard they are to remove. An acid cleaning compound works best to remove inorganic deposits: an alkaline cleaner is more effective for removing organic deposits. Table 5.2 shows examples of different types of inorganic and organic soil TaBLe 5.1. Removing Different Types of Soil Type of Soil Solubility Ease of Removal _ Eifects of Heat salts Soluble in water Easy to difficult Reacts with other types of soil Soluble in acid and becomes harder to remove Sugar Soluble in water Easy Caramelizes and becomes difficult to remove Fat Insoluble in water Difficult Molecules join together and Soluble in alkali become difficult to remove Protein Insoluble in water Very difficult Molecules change shape Slightly soluble in acid (denature) and become very Soluble in alkali difficult to remove TaBLe 5.2. Types of Soil Type of Soil Soil Subclass Examples Inorganic soils Hard-water deposiis Calcium and magnesium carbonates Metallic deposits Common rust, other oxides Alkaline deposits Films left when an alkaline cleaner is not rinsed off properly Organic soils Food deposits Food scraps and specs Petroleum deposits Lubrication oils, grease, and other lubricants Nonpetroleam Animal fats and vegetable oils deposits Soil deposits are often complex mixtures of organic and inorganic materials. It is important to know the type of soil and use the best cleaning compound or combina- tion of compounds to remove it. Employees often need to use a two-step cleaning procedure, using more than one cleaning compound to remove a combination of in- organic and organic deposits. Table 5.3 shows the best type of cleaning compound for each type of soilCLEANING ComPOUNDS 61 Cleaning Compounds for Different Types of Soil Type of Soil Cleaning Compound Inorganic soils Acid cleaner Organic soil Nonpetroleum Alkaline cleaner Petroleum, Solvent cleaner How Sol Is ATTACHED Type of Surface Something else to consider when choosing a cleaner is the type of suriace (see Table 5.4). The type of surface aifects the type of soil that collects and how it is removed Sanitation employees should know about the finishes on all equipment and areas in the food facility and which cleaning chemicals could attack each surface. If manage- ment is not familiar with the cleaning compounds and surface finishes, they should ask a consultant or reputable supplier of cleaning compounds for technical assistance Removing Soil from Surfaces Soil is difficult to remove from cracks, crevices, and other uneven surfaces, especially in hard-to-reach areas. It is easiest to remove soil from surfaces that are smooth, hard, and nonporous. Removal of soil from a surface takes three steps: (1) separating the soil from the surface, (2) dispersing the soil in the cleaning solution, and (3) pre- venting dispersed soil from reattaching to the surface. Step 1: Separating soil from the surface, material, or equipment to be cleaned. Soil can be separated mechanically (using high-pressure water, steam, ait, or scrubbing) or chemi- cally (for example, the reaction of an alkali cleaner with a fatty acid to form a soap). The soil and surface must be thoroughly wet for a cleaning compound to help separate the soil from the surface. The cleaning compound reduces the strength of the bond between the soil and the surface, so that the soil is loosened and separated. Heat or mechanical action (scrubbing, shaking, or high-pressure spray) can help reduce the strength of the bond (although heat does not help loosen some protein and fat soils) Step 2: Dispersing soil in the cleaning solution. Dispersion means diluting soil in a cleaning solution. Cleaning staff must use enough cleaning solution to dissolve all of the soil. More soil will need more cleaning solution. As the cleaning solution be- comes saturated with soil, staff need to use fresh cleaning solution. Some soils that have been loosened from the surface will not dissolve in the cleaning solution. Dispersion of soils that do not dissolve is more complicated. It is important to break up the soil into smaller particles or droplets that can be carried82 ESSENTIALS OF FOOD SANITATION TABLE 5.4. Characteristics of Surfaces in Food-Processing Plants Material Characteristics Precautions Wood Soaks up moisture, fats, and oils. Do not use, becatuse it is Difficult to maintain. Softened by unsanitary: Use stainless steel, alkali, Destroyed by caustics polyethylene, or rubber instead. Black metals Acid or chlorinated detergents Often tinned or galvanized to may cause rust prevent rust. Use neutral detergents to clean. Tin May be corroded by strong Do not allow tin surfaces to alkaline or acid cleaners. touch foods, Concrete May be etched by acid foods Concrete should be dense and and cleaning compounds acid resiscant. Should not make dust. Can use acid brick instead. Glass Smooth and impervious. May Clean glass with moderately be etched by strong alkaline alkaline or neutral detergents. cleaning compounds, Paint Method of application affects Some edible paints can be used surface quality. Etched by strong, in food plants. alkaline cleaning compounds. Rubber Should not be porous or spongy. Rubber cutting boards can warp Stainless steel Not affected by alkaline detergents. Attacked by organic solvents and strong acids, Generally resists conmosion. Smooth, impervious surface, Resists oxidation at high temperatures Fasy to clean. Nonmagnetic. and their surface dulls knife blades. Stainless steel is expensive and may not be readily available in the future, Some stainless steel is attacked by halogens (chlorine iodine, bromine, and fluorine). away from the cleaned surface. Mechanical energy (shaking, high-pressure water, or scrubbing) helps cleaning compounds break down the soil into small particles. Step 3: Preventing dispersed soil from reattaching to the surface. Cleaning methods should: + Remove the dispersed solution from the surface being cleaned. + Shake the dispersed solution to stop the soil from settling. * Prevent reactions between the cleaning compound and water on the soil (ie., by using soft water to prevent deposits formed when hard water reacts with soap in the cleaning compound).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this 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book.Quality Assurance/Food Processing and Engineering scuwee We ESSENTIALS OF FOOD SANITATION Alll of the essential information that you have come to rely on in the widely acclaimed Principles of Food Sanitation by Norman G. Marriott is now available to you in a simy fied, practical, and updated format. Providing a step-by-step, hands-on approach, this in- comparable text offers useful and interesting information on food sanitation at all stages of food processing and foodservice and stresses how important the role of each employee is at each stage. Essentials of Food Sanitation covers a wide variety of topics from cleaning and sanitiz-~ ing compounds, systems, and equipment to food sanitation in various types of food pro- cessing such as dairy products, seafood, meat, poultry, ete. Each chapter provides food handlers and students with interesting real-life reports of recent food sanitation problems, plus different techniques to ensure a firm understanding of the subject, including: visual aids, a comprehensive glossary, several summaries, study questions, references, chapter bibliographies, a resource section on how to learn more about the topic, and case studies. A thorough discussion of HACCP and how a HACCP system relates to quality assurance and sanitation functions is also outlined in the text. Furthermore, expanded material on foodservice, including the methods and principles for sanitary food handling and consider- ations at various control points in the flow of foodservice, is provided. Presented in language that is easy to understand, this comprehensive introductory treat- ‘ment on food sanitation will be of interest to all professionals working in the food produc- tion, food-processing, and foodservices industries. In addition, this book is an ideal learn- ing tool for undergraduate students taking courses in food sanitation, About the author Norman G. Marriott is a Professor and Extension Food Specialist in the Department of Food Science and Technology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. 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