The Imprint of Faith on Viking Culture as Opposed to Mainland Culture

(With a Focus on Male and Female Value Systems)

By: Skyler Oudega
Grader: Danielle Kuehn
Professor: Cynthia Polecritti

As Christianity spread through mainland Europe after Jesus death, so

did it spread across the world. Many peoples however, had various different
kinds of religious beliefs tied to their cultures and the ways of their citizens.
One of the most culturally different peoples from what we see as mainland
European Christians were the people we know as the Vikings. Their religion
was based around a swath of gods and monsters, all characters of immense
emotion, all exhibiting certain traits that were held in importance by the
people of the North. Though they had only limited contact with the Southern
peoples of mainland Europe and the British Isles in the early days of
Christianitys spread, once Northmen came to be more present in these
civilizations, they gained a reputation and clashed with the Christians- not
just in culture, but also their thought processes on gender, violence, and
their views of the universe and life itself.
Intellectually, Viking-Age Scandinavians had a strong value of honor
and strength in a way that was directly connected to their afterlife. A
masculine, strong warrior would go to the honored afterlife in Valhalla where
they would drink and eat and prepare for the end-days with Odin. One who
does not (or cannot) fight would simply go to Helheim1- the generic afterlife
not attributed to those who died in conflict. In this sense, it can be said that
masculinity and strength that was connected to violence was more important
to them than to Christians. The whole Viking society and the role each
1 Helheim - Norse Mythology for Smart People, 2012, accessed November 30,
2016, http://norse-mythology.org/cosmology/the-nine-worlds/helheim/.

person played had a focus on the afterlife. Though this was true however,
they also had a sort of fatalism. In Viking Paganism, the universe, life, and
time itself would eventually end in Ragnarok, where the Godly beings would
battle (using the Viking warriors as infantry,) resulting in the end of the world
as we know it.2
Christians, in comparison, lived day-to-day simply with a sense of fault.
Sin was the biggest concern besides eating and surviving. Masculinity in the
sense of the Christian person during the Viking Age in Mainland Europe,
could only truly be manifested by a warrior or a person of high stature. And
even then, fighting, killing, and dying would have all been connected to sin
at one point or another, never truly giving or denying a pious person entry to
Heaven, and never truly being a central theme in the quest for an afterlife.
(A bishop may promote fighting for ones lord while a priest may rail against
it with threats of hell, leaving a common subject in a state of limbo.) There
was no reason to train and fight except in the case of an invasion or defense
of ones homestead. So masculinity did not effect a Christians daily life in
any real way.
Women in Scandinavian Viking culture seem to have been able to
exercise their opinion and freedom in ways very rare for the time period. This
impressive social freedom came not only from tradition and culture however,
but also may have had divine influence. In Norse mythology, there seem to
2 Pg. 26, John Haywood, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings (Hist Atlas), 16th
ed. (London: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1995).

be two groups of figures worshipped as gods by the Scandinavian and

Germanic pagans- the sir and the Vanir3. These two groups fought often
and had many interactions. But in a way similar to the gods of the GrecoRoman tradition, the sir and the Vanir were male and female deities who
interacted with each other in very human ways and seemed less omniscient
than the Abrahamic god. One of the Vanir (later becoming an sir,) however,
seems to have held great importance not just for women, but for Viking
society as a whole.
Freyja, in Norse mythology, is generally associated not only with love and
beauty, sex and nature, but also with war and death, magic and sorcery. This
broad range of characteristics makes her a powerful central figure depicted
not only in pagan art but also later art of European artists4. Freya was a
central figure who became a wife to Odin, the head god of the sir5. In the
Prose Edda6, she is said to cry red tears when Odin leaves on his journeys, as
she is forced to stay behind- as any Norse woman might be. A Norse wife
would have to stay home and keep her homestead intact and it can be
3 Hurstwic Norse Mythology: The First War, 1999, accessed November 30, 2016,
http://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/mythology/myths/text/first_war.htm.
4 James Doyle Penrose, Freya and the Necklace, in , circa 1890 on imgfave (n.p.:
imgfave, 1890), oil on canvas, http://imgfave.com/view/6119015
5 Freya - Norse Mythology for Smart People, 2012, accessed November 29, 2016,
http://norse-mythology.org/gods-and-creatures/the-vanir-gods-and-goddesses/freya/.
6 Nordal, Jean I Young, and Snorri Sturluson, The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson:
Tales from Norse Mythology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964).

assumed that very few tears would be shed over her husbands departure.
According to the lectures of Cynthia Polecritti at the University of California
Santa Cruz7, the women left behind developed a strong sense of
independence and responsibility that was very important to the structure of
Norse society. They often owned land with the death of their husband and
they could also be given a third of their husbands property in the case of a
divorce which they could even initiate- a privilege very rare in cultures of this
period globally- even those of continental Europe. The mothers held
responsibility over finances and in the case of the husbands departure or
death, the elder women/ widows could be very influential landowners. As
seen in Njals Saga, women could even incite feuds: one instance in chapter
116 of the saga gives the example of Hildigunnur igniting a feud because of
the murder of her husband8. This dedication to kin and independence is only
a part of her whole influence though and can be connected to the love,
beauty, and sex portion of her association. The other part of Freyas being
and influence is far more powerful and far more important.
Freyjas general power was known to come in the form of beauty, but she
also had roots in battle, death, and magic. Her influence over warriors came
in many forms, but one of the most important was her reign over the

7 Lectures of Cynthia Polecritti, UC Santa Cruz

8 Chapter 116, Leifur Eiricksson, Njals Saga, ed. Robert Cook and Robert Cook
Anonymous (New York: Penguin Group (USA), 2001).

dominion of Flkvangr9. As Odin had his Valhalla, so did Freyja have her plane
where she presided over the souls of half those slain in battle. In Flkvangr
lies Sessrmnir, the hall where warriors drink and sing, eat and celebrate in
death. Contrasting this to the heaven of Christians, one of broad beauty and
perfection, protection and strict entry requirements, it shows the amazing
divide between the cultures and values of the Norse and the mainland
Europeans. Valhalla and Flkvangr give a picture of a joyous, celebratory
realm of what Christians would see as gluttony and sin in general, but is
something that truly had to be earned. The Christian idea of heaven involves
following abstract rules given to you not only by God, but also his Bishops
and Priests whose dictations may shift over time. Entry into heaven did not
necessarily require the person to do anything except maybe go to service
and abstain from (or confess) sin. Entry into Valhalla or Flkvangr involved
years of training to be a warrior, participation in society, and eventually the
requirement to be slain in battle- something that cannot be taken lightly,
even in the face of an eternity of celebration in honor. In that sense, there
was a real, definable reason to work and participate in your society- not just
to survive, but to build yourself to a glorious afterlife. And even though, as
said in Haywoods Atlas of the Vikings10, we have no blatantly direct evidence
of war-maidens, the simple presence of a strong divine representation for
9 Pg. 26, John Haywood, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings (Hist Atlas), 16th
ed. (London: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1995).
10 John Haywood, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings (Hist Atlas), 16th ed.
(London: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1995).

women was enough to give Viking women a strong lead over those in the
mainland. Not to mention, women in Christianity were blamed for humanitys
expulsion from Eden- a crime that can be used to justify putting women
under men. In Viking society there really is no justification for inequalitythere were gods of both gender who played strong roles in creation and
history; in fact, the original god Ymir was a hermaphrodite, not a man, not a
woman11. And though we do not necessarily know of a plane of afterlife for
notable (or ordinary) women specifically besides the all encompassing
Helheim, we can see from archaeological evidence that notable women
were buried not only in huge, expensive ships, but also with jewelry,
clothing, and other grave goods. This can be seen best in the Oseberg Ship,
known as one of the most bountiful archaeological discoveries attributed to
the Vikings12. Though some sources say that the bountiful contents of the
burial were simply for show, evidence suggests that the burial could also
have been to (like it was for men,) leave items for them to have in the
afterlife. There is no absolute evidence for either case, but in many cultures,
such as Ancient Egypt, grave goods were literally meant to be translated into
the afterlife: Being buried with a ship or a servant, (or even a picture of one
in some cases,) would mean you possessed that thing or person in death.13
There is little reason to question whether this could have been the case for
11 The Creation of the Cosmos - Norse Mythology for Smart People, 2012,
accessed November 30, 2016, http://norse-mythology.org/tales/norse-creationmyth/.
12 Lectures of Cynthia Polecritti, UC Santa Cruz, 2016

Scandinavians similarly. Therefore, Scandinavian women also may have had

immense reason to cultivate wealth or even fight in battle.
Male masculinity is given a divine justification by the gods themselves.
From the murder of the first being Ymir by the sir who emerged from his
surroundings, (including Odin,) there was always violence and blood in
Scandinavian paganism. Not only is violence necessary to achieve an
honorable death and a glorified afterlife, it was also necessary for the final
battle of Ragnarok. But the most famous of the Norse gods was one of great
strength, who even after the encroachment of Christianity in Norse culture,
was venerated and worshipped.
Thor, the god of thunder, though not known for his intelligence or
cunning, was known to be the strongest, mightiest, and bravest of the gods.
He was well-respected by Viking men who aspired to be great warriors and
wind up in Valhalla. When Christianity swept into Norse life, those who
wished to keep their pagan heritage and alliances with the Gods yet still be
accepted into Christian community, wore crucifixes specially made to serve
as both a cross and Mjlnir- Thors hammer14. This simple fact could be given
as proof that the religion and cultural imprint Norse Paganism had on the
people of the North and their ideas of masculinity was too strong to be
13 Ancient Egyptian Grave Goods, 1997, accessed November 30, 2016,
http://www.akhet.co.uk/grave.php.
14 Thors Hammers Disguised as Crucifixes, March 17, 2014, accessed November
30, 2016, https://thornews.com/2014/03/17/thors-hammers-disguised-as-crucifixes/.

broken by a new faith. In the minds of the Scandinavian people, Thor still
served not only as a divine role model, but as a figure of personal heritage as
well, giving Norse men a sense of community, tradition, and patrimony while
retaining their masculinity. Norse masculinity was also important for another
purpose however: rule.
Mainland Christian European rule was a varied topic: sometimes rulers
were labeled (or labeled themselves,) divinely ordained- such was the case
with Pepin the Short and his son Charlemagne, by having the pope ordain the
kingship15- and was often based on inheritance, not necessarily on strength.
Rulers could pass their rule down to their sons without much question and
their subjects would generally oblige. Viking rule however, seems to have
been based not only on honor but also on strength instead of strictly fatherto-son inheritance. In Norse social structure, there is generally thought to be
three different loosely based social standings16: the rll was the lowest
class of slaves and those bonded to another man because of debt. If they
resisted this bond, their punishment could have been physically severe but
also would have meant a loss of honor- something very important to Gods
and men. The Karls were the middle class- the normal craftsmen and low
warriors, farmers and commoners. The highest class were the Jarls- those

15 Einhard 1999, 3. Charlemagne's Accession,

http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/einhard.asp#Charlemagne's Accession
16 Hurstwic: Social Classes in Viking Society, 1999, accessed November 30, 2016,
http://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/society/text/social_classes.htm.

who won over the will of the people through their show of strength, honor,
valor, or brute force. This class is where the idea of masculinity comes most
importantly. A Jarl could pass down his title and property to his son, but a
Karl could also theoretically become a Jarl simply by showing himself as the
better leader or warrior. He could gain followers, amass wealth, gain land,
and take power by gaining the trust of those around him. This is a tradition
that can be traced through tribal traditions, but can also be seen as a
product of a smaller, more democratic community. Theoretically, this
democratic practice can also be attributed to the gods as well. Though there
is Odin, the head god, he overthrew the original elder Ymir- and his fellow
gods through the lore dont seem to simply submit to Odins rule, even
conducting a war between the sir and the Vanir. So not only does their
tribal heritage promote a form of democracy that comes from a primal
respect of power, but it also comes from (or itself developed into,) the Norse
Pagan faith where the Gods like Thor and Odin promote masculinity and
violence.
In conclusion, Norse Paganism when analyzed, is a complex faith that
ties in immensely to the cultures and day-to-day lives of the Scandinavian
peoples- into their specific form of masculinity and femininity, their ideas on
the afterlife, their relationships, and their systems of rule. It seems nearly
every facet of Scandinavian being was intertwined with their faith and their
faith was developed intertwined with their culture and their surroundings.