Running head: FACTORS THAT AFFECT MALE PERCEPTIONS OF RAPE

Factors that Affect Male Perceptions of Rape: Language, Situation, and Emotion
Cintly Guzman, Ashlyn Pack, Queenie Webb
The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

Introduction

2
Knowledge and perception of a topic can consciously and subconsciously affect a persons
behavior. To begin to change negative perceptions or misconceptions, a person must first be
aware that such perceptions exist, and individuals who are unaware of their inherited biases or
preconceived notions are unlikely to change or fight them without provocation or initiation. Rape
and other sexually coercive behaviors are a progressing problem on college campuses as 1 in 5
women and 1 in 16 men will be raped while in college (Statistics About Sexual Violence, 2015).
To combat this issue, many researchers have conducted studies on factors that affect the behavior
of males in situations where they need to discern between rape and consent cues (Edwards,
Bradshaw, & Hinsz, 2014, Barbaree & Murphey, 1991, White & Yamawaki, 2009, & Whattley &
Riggio, 1993).
However, it feels there is a gap in the research in regards to how aware males are of these factors.
To fill this gap, we seek to interview a selection of males to identify the factors they perceive
affect the behavior of perpetrators, victims, and the outcomes of scenarios in general. By filling
this gap, we hope to focus in on the factors men are unaware of as well as reinforce accurate
knowledge of factors men are conscious of. We will be honing in on three major topics affecting
the perceptions of men in these scenarios of perpetrating rape include: language, situation, and
emotional state.

Literature Review
One of the topics that affects mens perceptions of rape and similar acts is the language
associated with or used when discussing rape. The word choices of law enforcement, researchers,
and programs often lead to a change in responses by males (Edwards, Bradshaw, & Hinsz, 2014).
A study conducted by Edwards, Bradshaw, and Hinsz (2014) determined that male respondents

3
were more likely to admit to the use of force to obtain sex than admit to rape. This change in
response due to the language associated with the action demonstrates that a males perception of
what is and is not rape can be colored by the use of different phrasing. The mental images
associated with the word rape and rapist can be very strong and negative, so many may assume
all rapists fit one category and cannot be associated to them if they do not fill that role. However,
the research focusing on this stereotyped cloak-and-dagger perpetrator appeared to be lacking
and determining if this character causes cognitive dissonance in men is difficult with the current
research.
Another language issue when it comes to mens perceptions is the existence of permissive
instructions. Permissive instructions involve normalizing something through the use of language
(Barbaree & Murphey, 1991). If permissive instructions are used, male respondents are more
likely to develop difficulty discriminating between rape and consent (Barbaree & Murphey,
1991). Barbaree and Murphey (1991) conducted a study where two groups were exposed to
scenarios describing rape and consensual situations. One group was told that feeling aroused by
force, violence, and nonconsent was normal and did not indicate any intent to act in such a
way. Participants who were given these instructions were significantly more likely to show
arousal to both consent and rape cues; this demonstrates that they showed an increase in issues
discriminating between rape and consent (Barbaree & Murphey, 1991).
Though permissive instructions are rarely as direct as in Barbaree and Murpheys (1991)
study, there are situations where the use of force is undermined or deemed excusable. A highly
controversial claim made by Thornhill and Palmer (1999) stated that rape was a natural,
biological phenomenon in men brought on by evolution. Though these authors may have had no
intention of causing negative repercussions, such a claim can cause an uproar of negative effects

4
on men due to the change in language. By viewing rape as natural one of two major things can
happen: 1) some men may justify their actions by claiming that the urge itself is natural and by
being natural, it is not meant to be fought or prevented, or 2) men, as a population, can be vilified
and demeaned by society due to the belief that rape is an urge all men naturally feel and to the
negative connotations associated with rape. Rapists can use this change in the narrative to their
benefit, while men as a population suffer for actions they have not committed and have never felt
the urge to.
Outside of language, another factor that can alter males perceptions concerning rape is
situation. People often behave differently depending on the situation they are in, and these
changes in behavior can be affected by biological functions or situations outside of ones control.
A situation of significant concern is the consumption of alcohol. Out of the estimated twenty-five
percent of women who are sexually assaulted approximately half of them occurred while the
perpetrator, victim, or both were under the influence of alcohol (Abbey, Zawacki, Buck, Clinton,
& McAuslan, n.d.) Disinhibition is the removal of a factor preventing someone from acting on a
stimulus (Barbaree, Marshall, Yates, & Lightfoot, 1983). The disinhibition to rape that happens
while under the influence of alcohol has a dangerous effect on a males biological reaction to
rape and consent cues (Barbaree, Marshall, Yates, & Lightfoot, 1983).
Barbaree, Marshall, Yates, and Lightfoot (1983) replicated a study done by Briddell, Rimm,
Caddy, Krawitz, Sholis, and Wunderlin (1978) that tested the effect of alcohol on a males
physical arousal to rape and consent cues. Barbaree et al. (1983) replicated the experiment with
higher alcohol content than the participants in Bridell at al.s (1978) study. The researchers found
that intoxicated male nonoffenders showed significant issues with distinguishing between rape

5
and consent; Barbaree and Marshall (year) later went on to state in a review of the literature, In
this respect, the intoxicated nonoffenders were behaving like rapists we have tested.
Another situational factor of concern is how excusable a rapists behavior is to an individual.
This is a particularly dangerous factor considering the multiple conditions studies have found
make a rapists actions more excusable to participants (Barbaree & Seto, 1991, White &
Yamawaki, 2009, & Whatley & Riggio, 1993). Barbaree & Seto (1991) found that if a rapist was
(1) heavily drinking or (2) in a long standing intimate relationship with the victim, perpetrators
were considered less to blame for their actions. A follow up test indicated that when a rapist was
described as being drunk and in a sexual relationship with the victim, arousal towards the rape
was disinhibited (Barbaree & Seto, 1991). Another study by White and Yamawaki (2009) also
identified that male participants are more likely to consider the victim to be partially to blame if
the perpetrator was an acquaintance, and many minimized the seriousness of the case if the
victim was homosexual, regardless of the orientation of the perpetrator.
Melvin Lerners Belief in a Just World System (BJWS), a phenomenon found in both men and
women, has particularly negative implications when applied to rape. BJWS is a mindset ensuring
that traumatic events do not affect good people, or people get what they deserve. Whatley and
Riggio (1993) determined that males often agreed that the rapist was the first at fault for the rape.
However, a significant portion believed the victim is also to blame, to a secondary degree,
especially if the victim has something like an arrest record or poor reputation (Whatley & Riggio
1993).
The last major factor that can affect men is emotion. Suppression of emotions is often
attributed to males, and men are often put under pressure to work through their emotions on their
own as opposed to seeking help (Winerman, 2005). Socially, the roles associated with men instill

6
them with a need to be independant, emotionally in control, and tough with phrases like Men
dont cry and Be a man offering examples of common language used to enforce this role
(Winerman, 2005 & Vogel, Heimerdinger- Edwards, Hammer, & Hubbard, 2011). Many social
norms force men to feel they cannot express or discuss their emotions and lead many to believe
expression of emotion in a healthy way is abnormal (Winerman, 2005). Due to these stereotypes,
some men take out their emotions in negative ways like substance abuse, partner abuse, or other
sexually aggressive behaviors, and these men often suffer from undiagnosed and untreated
mental issues (Winerman, 2005 & Rando, Rogers, Brittan-Powell, 1998).
Furthermore, children grow up with the idea that alcohol abuse and violence are acceptable
despite being victims of the violence caused by the abuse themselves (Karner, 1998) . Children
also witness the violence against women by their drunk fathers and because their mother tries to
protect her children, but does not fight back, she is seen as a self-sacrificing, passive
victim(Karner 1998). This view of weak women since childhood translated into mens view
of women later on in life. Pacoes ethnography found that adolescent boys sometimes use
violence to turn girls and women into tools to show their heterosexuality. They sexually harassed
girls with unwanted touching and joked about rape (Schrock & Schwalbe, 2009).
Men are also often attributed with having issues with temper or anger, and the suppression or
misdirection of this anger can have serious negative effects on a males biological reactions to
rape and consent cues. Yates et. al. (1984) determined participants who were slighted by a female
confederate in regards to their endurance would have more difficulty discerning between cues of
consent and cues of rape. The unhealthy hiding of emotions or the misdirection of negative
emotions can lead to males having more issues discerning between rape and consent.

Methods
Population
Due to the sensitive subject matter of our topic, we decided the best course of action is to
interview a selection of participants about their awareness of factors that affect perpetrators in
instances of rape. The population we are focused on is college age males, and to gather our
sample, we want to advertise for volunteers and work in conjunction with a department on
campus to offer the interview sessions to a selection of their students. We seek to retrieve 10-15
participants as a realistic goal that allows for a range of responses. Due to our focus on a male
population, our sample will be non-probability, and the sensitive topic of rape can naturally deter
volunteers thus making our sample not random.

Research Design
Before beginning, participants will be informed of the sensitive nature of the topic as well
as the fact that participation is entirely voluntary, and confidentiality is assured. Participants will
be lead to an office style room with an interviewer. There will be a black sheet blocking the
participant from view of the interviewer to ensure more anonymity for the participant. To gather
the participants responses, with their permission, we will record their voice which will later be
tonally altered to prevent anyone from determining the identity of the participant. Only the initial
researchers will have access to the responses, and one will be tasked with verbatim transcription
of the responses. Once the transcriptions are written, the audio files will be deleted.
The interviewer will be given a selection of questions as well as a secondary hand out of
probing questions, but he/she will not be told the full nature of the study. He/she will also not be

8
required to say follow up questions verbatim, but initial questions and vignettes must be read
verbatim. Each participant will have an interview as to avoid peer influence on his responses. We
seek a male interviewer in hopes that it will allow for a more relaxed and honest response from
participants. The interviews will all consist of the same base questions, but the order of the
questions will be randomized so participants are less likely to be lead to respond a certain way.
The study focuses heavily on determining if most men are aware of the factors that affect
their behaviors, so to measure this, we want to present them with a vignette or question that
establishes one of the factors from the literature then ask a series of questions to determine if
they were aware of the presence and effect of the factor. For example, if the key factors are
emotion suppression, emotional misdirection, or anger towards a woman or women in general,
the vignette would appear as follows to the interviewer:
Vignette 1:
Bob has been trying to make some gains in the gym. After a good work out, hes feeling
confident and flirts with an attractive woman at the gym, but she rudely rejects him and
mocks his performance. Bob feels slighted but recovers quickly and decides to go out
with friends that night to cheer up. He meets another gorgeous girl and chats her up, but
she also rejects him. Feeling frustrated, Bob decides to go home. Later in the week, Bob
has had a rough time and is irritable and temperamental. He runs into Kris late at night
at one of his usual stops. To try and bring his mood back, he talks with her a bit and
things are going well, but she turns him down when he asks for her number. Bob is pissed
and snaps at her. When she fights back, he forces her to somewhere private and makes
her have sex with him.
Initial Question: From your perspective, what factors affected the outcome of the
situation in this scenario?
Probing Questions: (if not answered in the above response)
What factors affected the behavior of (Bob)?
What factors affected the behavior of (Kris)?
What could have prevented the outcome of the scenario?
(DO NOT mention these factors if they are NOT brought up unassisted by the
PARTICIPANT)
(if answer mentions one of the following, ask the following questions)

9
Alcohol, influence of a peer, language (i.e. he/she said X so I think.), relationship
(he/she is dating him/her, they are together, etc), emotion (anger, jealousy, sadness,
loneliness, desperation, etc), or any other factor that the participant did not explain in
detail.
X = factor from the list above
If X was not involved, how do you think the outcome would have been affected?
Why do you think that?
How much do you think the presence of X affected the outcome?
Why do you think that?
If the next key factors are alcohol and relationship of the victim and perpetrator, the interviewer
would have the following prompt:
Vignette 2:
Jack and Amanda are in a relationship. They go to party. Jack has had one too many
drinks and is getting a little sexually forceful with his girlfriend. Amandas looks a little
uncomfortable. She wants to block out these feelings and begins to drink with Jack. Jack
is already intoxicated. He leans over to Amanda and says, Come on babe its been a
month. Lets go upstairs! He begins to sweet talk her and convinces her to drink more.
Amanda is clearly against the idea of having sex and appears unhappy with the situation.
She tells Jack shes not feeling well and wants to go home. Jack tells her no and that
everything will be okay. He convinces her go upstairs and forces her to have sex with
him.
Initial Question: From your perspective, what factors affected the outcome of the
situation in this scenario?
Probing Questions: (if not answered in the above response)
What factors affected the behavior of (Jack)?
What factors affected the behavior of (Amanda)?
What could have prevented the outcome of the scenario?
(DO NOT mention these factors if they are NOT brought up unassisted by the
PARTICIPANT)
(if answer mentions one of the following, ask the following questions)
Alcohol, influence of a peer, language (i.e. he/she said X so I think.), relationship
(he/she is dating him/her, they are together, etc), emotion (anger, jealousy, sadness,
loneliness, desperation, etc), or any other factor that the participant did not explain in
detail.
X = factor from the list above
If X was not involved, how do you think the outcome would have been affected?
Why do you think that?

10
How much do you think the presence of X affected the outcome?
Why do you think that?
When reviewing the responses, we will be looking for: if the participant mentioned the
expected key factors for the vignette, if the participant focuses more on the behavior of the
perpetrator or the victim, the opinion of the participant of the factor and its effect, and other
factors that we did not notice in the vignette that participants picked up on. To fill in gaps left by
the factors we cannot integrate into vignettes, we will offer a series of follow up/closing
questions such as:
How do you imagine a rapist? Is it different from how you would imagine a person who
forces someone to have sex with them? How so?
Do you think the language a person is used to hearing when discussing non-consensual
sex affects his/her likelihood to force someone to have sex with him/her?
A major limitation is the data we are collecting is focused on the quality of responses as
opposed to the quantity of responses; therefore, our data will lack generalizability across the
population. Another limitation is that the interpretation of the responses may be varied depending
on the researcher, and we can only determine a few interpretations from the survey responses we
gather. Finding volunteers and gathering participants will also be a huge limitation considering
the topic we are researching. We hope to use a single interviewer to avoid interrater reliability
issues, but if we cannot achieve this, we must be aware that the reliability between interviewers
is limited. Another limitation we came across during our research was finding already tested and
reliable surveys that we believed asked the questions we wanted to know.

11
References
Abbey, A., Zawacki, T., Buck, P.O., Clinton, A. M., & McAuslan, P. (n.d.) Alcohol and sexual assault.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Angelone, D.J., Mitchell, D., & Grossi, L. (2015) Mens perceptions of an acquaintance rape: the role of
relationship length, victim resistance, and gender role attitudes. The Journal of Interpersonal
Violence. 30(13), 2278-2303.
Barbaree, H. & Marshall, W. L. (1991) The role of male sexual arousal in rape: six models. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(5), 621-630.
Barbaree, H. E., Marshall, W L, Yates, E., & Lightfoot, L. O. (1983). Alcohol intoxication and deviant
sexual arousal in male social drinkers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21, 365-373.
Barbaree, H. E., & Murphy, R. A. J. (1991). The effect of permissive instructions on sexual arousal to
rape cues in university undergraduate men. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Barbaree, H. E.,& Seto, M. (1991). Perceived responsibility of rapist and disinhibition of sexual arousal
to rapecues in university undergraduate men. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Briddell, D. W, Rimm, D. C., Caddy, G. R., Krawitz, G, Sholis, D., & Wunderlin, R. J. (1978). Effects of
alcohol and cognitive set on sexual arousal to deviant stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,
7,418- 430.
Edwards S.R., Bradshaw K.A., and Hinsz V.B. (2014) Denying rape but endorsing forceful intercourse:
exploring differences among responders. Violence and Gender, 1(4),188-193.
Karner, Tracy. (1998) University of Houston. Engendering Violent Men: Oral Histories of Military
Masculinity. Sage.197-232
Rando, R. A., Rogers, J. R., Brittan-Powell, C. S. (1998) Gender role conflict and college men's sexually
aggressive attitudes and behavior. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 20(4), 359-369.
Schrock, Douglas & Michael Schwalbe. (2009) Men, Masculinity, and Manhood Acts. The Annual
Review of Sociology. 277-298.
Statistics About Sexual Violence. (2015) National Sexual Violence Resource Center.

12
Swartout, K.M. (2013) The company they keep: how peer networks influence male sexual aggression.
Psychology of Violence. 3(2), 157-171.
Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (1999). Why Men Rape. The New York Academy of Sciences.
Yates, E., Barbaree, H. E., & Marshall, W L. (1984). Anger and deviant sexual arousal. Behavior Therapy,
15, 287-294.
Vogel, D. L., Heimerdinger- Edwards, S.R., Hammer, J. H., & Hubbard, A. (2011) Boys don't cry:
Examination of the links between endorsement of masculine norms, self-stigma, and help-seeking
attitudes for men from diverse backgrounds. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(3), 368.
Whatley, M.A., & Riggio, R. E. (1993) Gender differences in attributions of blame for male rape victims.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 8(4), 502-511.
White, S. & Yamawaki, N. (2009) Moderating influence of homophobia and gender role traditionality on
perceptions of male rape victims. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 39(5), 1116-1136.
Winerman, L. (2005) Helping men help themselves. Monitor. 36(6), 57.