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Subgrade Design KJJ PDF
Subgrade Design KJJ PDF
Sound pavement
Poor pavement
Low E
Surfacing
High E
Low E
Granular
Base
High E
HIGH
stresses
in S/G
Subgrade
LOW
stresses
in S/G
Figure 4.2 CBR Cover Design Curves adapted for 80kN axles (Freeme, Marais
and Walker)
The procedure for calculating the CBR is shown below. Material is first compacted to
densities that are representative of field density and soaked for 4 days before testing.
The name CBR comes from Californian Bearing Ratio because a high quality
Californian gravel was used as the reference material. Ironically, California does not
use CBR any longer (but many other countries still do).
Force
F
F0.1 Ref
Actual material
F0.1
P
Displacement P
0.1
0.2
0.3
Figure 4.3 Relationship between CBR and Dynamic Modulus (EDINAMIES) for
sands (Shell)
2. Material depth
In TRH4 in South Africa (Technical Recommendations for Highways: Structural
design of Flexible Pavements for Interurban and Rural Roads), the subgrade is
shown to play a very important role in the structural design of a road (Paragraph 6.2 6.8). The catalogue design method in the TRH4 can be used only if CBR of the
subgrade is at least 15% for a depth of 150mm and decreasing gradually with depth.
This is the depth below which very little influence of the loads on the subgrade can
be expected.
CBR
(%)
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Cum
Sum
CBR
(%)
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
D
Light
pavements,
rural access
50
0
Cum Frequency
(%)
CBR
Freq
60
50
2/7 = 28.5
40
3/7 = 42.8
6/7 = 85.7
7/7 = 100
30
Cum (%)
20
Cat B
10
CBRdesign
0
4
CBR (%) 8
wet
season
dry
season
Figure 4.6 Seasonal variations in moisture and CBR under a road (TRH4)
3. Compaction
In all aspects of material behaviour, the compaction plays a very important role. The
process of compaction increases the density of a soil by packing the particles closer
together with a reduction in the volume of air. Compaction influences stiffness (load
spreading), shear strength, bearing capacity, permeability, porosity etc of a material.
How is the compactibility of a material tested and which parameters are important?
There are various standard compaction methods used in different parts of the world.
Two commonly used methods are Proctor Compaction and Modified AASHTO (or
Modified Proctor) Compaction (see method A7 in TMH 1 of SA). These methods are
used in a laboratory to provide a benchmark for the levels of compaction that can be
achieved in the field. Each method uses a standard amount of energy that is
imparted on a material in a special way (a falling weight over a known height for a
certain number of blows, and compaction of 5 layers in the mould). From the
Modified AASHTO method, density requirements for the material in the field after
compaction are determined. One of the reasons for the evolution from Proctor
compaction (lower energy) to Modified AASHTO compaction (higher energy) was to
keep pace with the developments and improvements in roller technology. In this way
the specifications were kept more realistic.
The relationship between the moisture content and achievable density during
compaction is of particular importance. Based on the results of the Mod AASHTO
test, the optimum moisture content necessary to achieve a certain required dry
density for the material in the road, is determined. The achievable density and
resulting material properties such as stiffness and shear strength etc, will determine
the behaviour of the material during service life in a road pavement.
Density is specified as dry (dry density) in kg/m3 so that it is independent of moisture
content. But bulk density (aggregate plus moisture) is what is measured, so the
moisture content needs to be removed mathematically from the calculation. This can
be achieved using the formula below, where w = moisture content represented as a
fraction.
Dry Density
d (kg/m3)
Proctor-compaction of
5 layers of equal blows
Max d
OMC=x%
Moisture Content (%)
Figure 4.7 Moisture versus density relationship
The achievable compaction is dependent on numerous factors including aggregate
grading, particle shape, particle angularity, plasticity, moisture content, compaction
energy etc. If the compaction energy is increased, not only will the dry density
increase but the optimum moisture content reduces. A family of curves can be
developed for a specific material that shows the changes in the moisture-density
relationship relative to the compaction energy, as shown in the figure below.
The influence of material gradation on compaction can be shown in a similar fashion.
In Figure 4.9 it is apparent that the highest density is achieved for well graded gravel
(GW), followed by well graded sand (SW), then low plasticity silt (ML), followed by
low plasticity clay (CL) and then high plasticity clay (CH).
DD=(1-Va/V).1000/(1/Gs+w)
Compaction
Energy on
the
Moisture-Density
From the relationship given in Figure 4.8, it can be seen that the dry density is a
function of the aggregate specific gravity (Gs) and moisture content (w) when the air
voids are zero (Va = 0%).
Improve grading
Coarser grained
Compaction
Energy on
the
Moisture-Density
It can be shown using the compaction moisture curve in an elementary fashion that
with increasing density it is possible to maintain the strength of a plastic soil material
in certain service conditions. Using Figure 4.10, it can be seen that 2 samples of the
same material compacted at 17% moisture content with different compaction efforts,
the material at lower density (less compaction) exceeds the plastic limit when
saturated and will lose strength-supporting properties. The same material compacted
to a higher level will probably remain stable. This also indicates that relationships can
be found between CBR, compaction level and void content. Dry density requirements
are so very important for practice, therefore.
A similar situation can be ascribed to asphalt mixes. Instead of water, bitumen is
used in these materials. The bitumen cannot evaporate or leach out of the material
as is the case with water in granular materials and soils. However, the same
principles in terms of fluids will be used in order to understand what happens during
compaction. This is dealt with in another chapter.
ZAV
Dry
Density
High
Compaction
PL
Plastic Limit
Low
Compaction
17%
PL
25%
Moisture Content
10
11