Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Q A 30 3
CojpgM
COPHRIGHT DSPOSm
CALCULUS
WITH EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
BY
GEORGE
OSBORNE,
A.
IN
S.B.
THE MASSACHUSETTS
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
REVISED EDITION
BOSTON,
D.
C.
HEATH &
U.S.A.
CO.,
1906
PUBLISHERS
ao2>
UBRARY of CONGRESS
Two
Copies Received
JAN 111907
Cooyriarht Entry
Kioto
L.
It).
iSS
o^ XXc
COPY
No.
B.
Copyright,
1891
By GEORGE
A.
and
1906,
OSBORNE
PREFACE
In the original work,
tile
limits, that
should
all
that
is
essential to a
subject.
In the revision of the book the same object has been kept in view.
Most
the
of
text
has
demonstrations have
been carefully revised, and, for the most part, new examples have
been substituted for the
of subjects in a
old.
more natural
order.
be found,
also,
II.,
and applications of
differentia-
in the chapter
imme-
diately following.
is
entirely new.
illustrat-
and
in
ter has
my
The
latter chap-
It.
George, Jr.
The author
leagues, Professor H.
W. Tyler and
Professor F.
S.
Woods,
for
CONTENTS
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER
Functions
PAGES
AF.T*.
I.
-7, 9.
8.
and
Classification of
Examples
Notation of Functions.
CHAPTER
Limit.
10.
Definition of Limit
11.
Notation of Limit
12.
13-15.
16.
17-21.
22.
Increment,
1-5
Functions
Increment.
5-7
II
Derivative
8
8
e)
8-10
Derivative.
Illustration of Derivative.
.11,
Examples
CHAPTER
12
13-15
10-21
Examples
22-25
III
Differentiation
Algebraic Functions.
Examples
....
Examples
Examples
26-39
39-45
45-51
51-57
57-60
CHAPTER IV
Successive Differentiation
57, 58.
60.
The nth
60.
Leibnitz's Theorem.
Derivative.
Examples
Examples
61
63-65
65-67
CONTENTS
VI
CHAPTER V
Differentials.
Infinitesimals
PAGES
61-63.
Definitions of Differential
64.
65.
Infinitesimals
68-70
Examples
71-73
73,74
CHAPTER VI
Implicit Functions
66.
Examples
CHAPTER
Series.
75-77
VII
Power
Series
67,68.
CHAPTER
78, 79
85-87
79-85
VIII
Expansion of Functions
74-78.
Maclaurin's Theorem.
Examples
88-93
93
94-96
79.
96,97
97-100
89.
90-93.
94.
Rolle's
Theorem
Remainder
101
....
101-104
105
CHAPTER IX
Indeterminate Forms
95.
96, 97.
98-100.
Value
106
of Fraction as Limit
Evaluation of
106-110
Examples
0,
1",
oo.
Examples
110-113
CONTESTS
vn
CHAPTER X
Maxima and Minima of Functions of One Independent
Variable
PAGES
AUTS.
101.
102-104.
Definition of
Conditions for
105.
When
100.
Values
Examples
114
114-119
Examples
119-121
d.r
Taylor's Theorem.
Problems
121-129
CHAPTER XI
Partial Differentiation
Two
....
107.
Functions of
108.
Partial Differentiation.
109.
Geometrical Illustration
110.
or
130. 131
131. 132
133
Examples
Ill, 112.
114-116.
Order of Differentia
Examples
tion.
113.
133-136
Total Derivative.
Differentiation
136-139
Examples
Total Differential.
of Implicit Functions.
140-144
Taylor's Theorem
Examples
144-147
CHAPTER
XII
118.
119.
120,121.
in
Derivatives
148, 149
to y
149
Examples
Derivatives from Rectangular
Transformation of Partial
Polar Coordinates
to
z.
150-152
to
152-154
CHAPTER
XIII
Definition.
Conditions for
155, 156
156-161
CHAPTER XIV
Curves for Reference
120-127.
Cirsoid.
"Witch.
Folium
of Descartes
162, 163
CONTENTS
Vlll
PAGES
ARTS.
Cubical Pa-
128-130.
Catenary.
131-134.
Epicycloid.
135-145.
Spiral of Archimedes.
HyperCircle.
Polar Coordinates.
Logarithmic Spiral. Parabola. Cardioid.
bolic Spiral.
rabola.
Hypocycloid.
(-)*+{?)* =1
Equilateral Hyperbola.
r
Lemniscate.
164, 165
a*2/
= 2^-6
166,167
Four-leaved Rose.
= asm*-
167-172
CHAPTER XV
Direction or Curves.
147.
173
174-176
176-179
179-182
182, 183
183-186
186-188
CHAPTER XVI
Direction op Curvature.
157.
158.
Points of Inflexion
189
190-192
CHAPTER XVII
Curvature.
Radius of Curvature.
Involute
157-161.
162-164.
Circle of Curvature.
193, 194
168-170.
173.
Order of Contact
Osculating Curves
195-200
200
201, 202
CHAPTER
Order of Contact.
.....
Examples
166, 167.
171,172.
Evolute and
Examples
202-205
XVIII
Osculating Circle
206-208
208,209
CONTENTS
IX
PAGES
209
....
170.
Osculating Circle at
Maximum
Minimum
or
209-211
Ex-
Points.
amples
211-213
CHAPTER XIX
Envelopes
177.
Series of Curves
214
Envelope
178, 179.
Definition of Envelope.
180-182.
Equation of Envelope
Evolute of a Curve is the Envelope of
183,
is
Tangent
214,215
215-217
Examples
Normals.
its
217-221
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER XX
Integration of Standard Forms
184, 185.
Definition of Integration.
186-190.
Fundamental Integrals.
Elementary Principles
223-225
225-240
Examples
Derivation of Formulae.
CHAPTER XXI
Simple Applications of Integration.
Integration
191,192.
195.
Area
Examples
Derivative of Area.
Illustrations.
of Curve.
Constant of
Examples
241-244
244-248
CHAPTER XXII
Integration of Rational Fractions
194, 195.
196.
Partial Fractions
197.
Examples
Case II. Examples
Case III. Examples
Case IV.
Examples
198.
199.
200.
Case
p reliminary
249
250
250-253
I.
254-256
256-259
260-262
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XXIII
202.
Integration by Rationalization
263
203, 204.
206, 207.
Integrals containing
208.
&),
(ax
V x + q z +
2
Examples
Examples
b) s
b.
263-266
266-268
Integrable Cases
CHAPTER XXIV
Trigonometric Forms readily Integrable
209-211.
212, 213.
its
Examples
Differential.
270-272
273, 271
214.
274-276
215.
Integration of
276-278
Examples
sin x cos w x dx by Multiple Angles. Examples
CHAPTER XXV
Integration by Parts.
by
216.
Integration
217.
Integration of
218-222.
Parts.
e ax sin
279-282
dx.
Examples
223, 224.
Reduction Formulae
Examples
nx dx, e ax cos nx
283,284
Deri-
Examples
284-291
Examples
291-294
CHAPTER XXVI
Integration by Substitution
p
226.
227.
228-232.
y/x 2
Examples
bx2 )i.
a2
295, 296
by Trigonometric
Examples
Integration of Trigonometric
tion.
233.
-f
296-299
Forms by Algebraic
Substitu-
Examples
299-304
Miscellaneous Substitutions.
Examples
304, 305
CHAPTER XXVII
Integration as a Summation.
234.
235-237.
Area
of Curve.
Integral
Definite Integrals
Sum
Definite Integral.
306
Evolution of Definite
,
306-309
CONTEXTS
XI
PAGES
ART?.
of Definite Integral.
288, 239.
"Definition
240-242.
243-245.
Change
Constant of Integration.
Examples
310-314
Infinite Limits.
Infinite
Values
314-317
of/(.r)
Definite Integral as a
of Limits.
Sum
317-319
CHAPTER XXVIII
Application- of Integration to Plane Curves.
246. 247.
24S.
251.
252, 253.
Volumes
of Revolution.
Volumes by Area
Examples
Examples
Examples
of Section.
320-324
325-327
327-330
330-332
333-335
254.
Areas of Sur-
....
336-339
340-342
CHAPTER XXIX
Successive Integration
255-25'
Examples
Variable Limits.
Triple Integrals.
343-345
CHAPTER XXX
Applications of Double Integration
258-262.
Moment
of Inertia.
ordinates.
Integral.
Variable Limits.
346-350
26:5-265.
350-353
353, 354
CHAPTER XXXI
Surface, Volume, and
267.
To
amples
is
given
z.
Ex355-360
CONTENTS
Xll
To
268.
find the
Volume
whose Equation
ordinates,
Moment
269.
jc,
is
y, z.
of Inertia of
of
Any
Solid
bounded by a Surface,
Examples
Any
361-363
Examples
Solid.
363, 364
CHAPTER XXXII
Centre of Gravity. Pressure of Eldids.
Eorce of Attraction
Examples
Examples
Pressure of Liquids. Examples
Centre of Pressure. Examples
Attraction at a Point. Examples
365-369
Centre of Gravity.
270,271.
Theorems
272, 273.
274.
275.
276.
of Pappus.
369, 370
370-373
373-375
375-377
CHAPTER XXXIII
Integrals for Reference
277.
Index
....
378-385
386-388
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER
FUNCTIONS
1.
is
quantity which
may assume an
called a variable.
x 2 +y
=a
constant.
2
,
x, y,
unchanged.
Constants are usually denoted by the
a, b, C, a,
(3,
first letters
of the alphabet,
y, etc.
2.
<t>,
A,
etc
Function.
When
other that the value of the latter determines that of the former, the
former
is
x.
log
(V9
the expressions
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
The expressions
x 2 + xy
and
are functions of x
+y
g(x2 + y2), a x+ ^,
2
,
y.
The expressions
+ yz + zx, ^^~~f
xy
are functions of
3.
and
x, y,
log(x 2
+ y~z),
z.
If y
is
a function of
x,
as in the equations
=x
2
,
= tan
a?,
=e
x
-f-
is
It is evident that
as a function of
y,
variables reversed.
when y is
x=Vy,
= tan-
y,
= log
(y-l).
+ x y = 0,
iv
+ wz + zx + y = 0,
4.
is
and evolution
dental functions.
trigonometric or circular,
A more general
is,
FUNCTIONS
Functions.
Rational
5.
integral powers of
x,
is
called
integral function of x\
as,
for
2 + x - 4 .r + 3 x\
example,
a,r3
x*
example,
as, for
+ 2q;-l
+ x*-2x'
6.
Explicit
,r
rf-
3x -2x
2
x-1+
and Implicit
x-
+l
When
Functions.
one quantity
is
ex-
For example, y
y
is
= a? + 2x,
= Va + 1.
2
is
is
said to be an
an
y,
is
said
axy
-f
bx 4- cy
Sometimes, as in the
+d=
first of
-\-
log y
these equations,
= x.
we can
solve the
_bxd
m
ax
7.
Single-valued
and
Many-valued
y
Expressing x
in
terms of
= X- - 2
Functions.
In
y,
the
.r,
is
we have
= 1 Vy + 1-
y.
equation
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
is
In the
An
latter case,
is
a two-valued function of
The
8.
Notation
and the
is
of
like, are
x.
x,
we may
x.
Functions.
The symbols
used to denote functions of
a function of x,"
?/.
is
In the former
x.
x.
write
y=f(x), or y
= <f>(x).
A functional symbol occurring more than once in the same problem or discussion is understood to denote the same function or
Thus
f(x)
then
f(y)=y*
if
= x* + 5,
+ &,
/( ft )
(1)
= a + 5,
2
+ l) = (a + l) + 5 = a* + 2a + 6,
/(1) = 6.
/(2) = 2 + 5 = 9,
2
/(a
In
all
these expressions
fined
by
(1)
that
/(
is,
tween the
Thus if
then
variables.
/ (x,
then
xy
- f,
= a + 3 ab - b\
f(b, a) = b + 3 ba - a
jf(3, 2) = 3 + 3-3-2 - 2 = 23.
f(a, 0) = a
4>(x, y, z) = x + yz-y + 2,
l,-l) = 3 + l(-l)-l + 2 = 27;
<f>(3,
*(a, 0, 0) = a - b + 2
<K0, 0, 0) = 2.
f(a, b)
If
=x +3
y)
2
.
FUNCTIONS
9.
and
if
by
Inverse Function.
from
this relation
+(*),
we express x
'
(i)
<f>
and
in terms of
y,
so that
(2)
/<(.'/),
\p
is
other.
.
For example,
= * = <<>
x =VS = ^O/)V
if
then
Here
\p,
the
is
inverse
of
cf>,
the cube
function.
= a* = <Kx),
x = log y = xp(y).
V
If
then
Here
/r,
function.
y =-,
Again, suppose
is
the inverse of
<f>,
the exponential
n
-4- 2i
x-=<f>(x)
v 2
x =
j = \p(y)
(3)
From
this
we derive
'
(4)
Thus,
if
if
=
x=f~
x
<(#),
y=f(?),
The student
is
<
0/).
1
(y).
trigonometric functions.
If
1.
Given
<j>.
_1
sin x,
= sin -1
EXAM PLES
2x* 2 xy + y = a
2
?/.
2
;
= x Va x
2
2
.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Given
2.
sin
(a;
ft
y)~ m
sin
?/
^3.
Given
that
=/(*)
ft)
/ (a +
1)
+ (6
-6
2
a;
F(x)
fc
Show
/ (2a?) -/(- 2 ag =
<
Show
= ^t^l:
If
a;
Griven.f(x)
that
/(0).
1),
=6
+ l)h + (6x- 3)/i + 2
-/(*)
i
show that
%K^.
/(-
= (x -1)
i^(a? + 1) - F(x 1) = 8 X
H. Given
h.
m + cos x
= 2^-3^+^+2
/(a?)
Show
find
fix
= tan'
(0)
c,
<
find/(0),
(a -\-b)
/(*)+/(-).
[/ (a:)]
- [/ (- a?)]
2
.
cj>(a)cj> (6).
giving
(9,
if,
"
If
>-sfey
If
<f>(x)
ax
is
If
/()
Show
/ (a? +
ft,
<j>.
c.
= log.(+'V?=l),
= a* + *y
If
same form.
V9.
of the
2
;
/ (y, - a?).
that
ft)
=/(,
2/.)
ft
+f(h,
ft).
FUNCTIONS
\m-\-n
11.
Given
(m,n)
\m
where m,
<f>
12.
Given
(m, w
|w
+ 1) +
< (m
/ fe
+ 1,
& )
z,z
show that
) = <K m + 1? + !)
?i
?/,
2,
X,
*>
+ x, x + y) = 2/
(a;,
y, 0).
CHAPTER
LIMIT.
10.
When
Limit.
II
INCREMENT. DERIVATIVE
The student
meaning
x.
is
of this term, of
may
illustrations
be
mentioned.
of terms
The
is
indefinitely increased,
The
is
.3333
-J-
...,
as the
^.
,
number
as the
is 2.
~a
a
as x approaches a, is 3
a2
number
of sides
indefinitely increased.
The
as 6 approaches zero,
is 1,
provided
is
11.
Notation
"Lim^"
of
Limit.
"The
denotes
Special Limits.
(2 x
Lim 0=o
will be used
a, of."
a == 2.
xr ax
- hx + h ) =2x>.
x2
Lim A=0
Some
x approaches
Lim z=a
For example,
12.
limit, as
LIMIT
Let the angle
ADA' =
2 a sin
is,
<
that
2a0
is,
sin
<2 a tan
> cos
and
sin
let
^-
2 aO,
0.
(i)
fl
0,
^1)
and
>e,
(2)
is
(2),
As
Hence
cos
0.
Hence by
ACA!.
< AC A'
u
1
inter-
and cos
0.
approaches
1.
Lini =0
sin 9
..
The student
and
sin
6,
Angle
sin 6
= .0872605
36
.0871557
= .0174533
.0174524
=.0029089
.0029089
-5180
10'
'
1080
(b)
Lim 2=ae
M + IV
z )'
]
Thus,
z.
+ 1) = 2.25
+ 1) = 2.48832
2
+ to) = 2.59374
= 2.70481
(1.01)
= 2.71692
(1.001)
= 2.71815
(1.0001)
= 2.71827
(1.00001)
= 2.71&18
(1.000001)
(1
us compute
let
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
10
The required
last
number, 2.71828.
By
iy =
+
1\ /
1
i
zj
When
+ i + izl
+v
[2
|3
z increases,
the fractions -, z
have
This quantity
is
approach
zero,
and we
e,
so that
= 1+7 + %+ + + '1
The value
etc.,
usually denoted by
e
~w~~z/
|2
[3
|4
is
as follows:
1.
2) 1.
3)
.5
4)
.166666667
5)
.041666667
6)
.008333333
7)
.001388889
8)
000198413
9)
.000024802
10)
.000002756
11)
.000000276
.000000025
e=
This quantity
e is
2.7182818--.
is
referred to
more ex-
DERIVATIVE
11
An
increment of a variable quantity is any addidenoted by the symbol A written before this
quantity. Thus Ax denotes an increment of x, Ay, an increment of y.
For example, if we have given
Increments.
13.
and
is
= 10, then
and assume x
of y
is
if
we
=A
In other words,
if
is,
by
2,
the value
41.
of x to be
A& = 2, we
Ax
if
initial
value of
A.'-.
We
Ax =
It
zero.
=x
2
,
= 10,
Ay corresponding
to different values of
then Ay
and -^-
Ax
3.
09.
23.
2.
44.
22.
1.
21.
21.
20.1
0.1
2.01
0.01
0.2001
20.01
0.001
0.020001
20.001
20 h
The
equation,
If
ments
= - 36.
x,
z
let
Ay
then
Derivative.
14.
= - 2,
20+
1C-
ft
third column gives the value of the ratio between the increof
./
and of
y.
Ay
also diminishes
and approaches
zero.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
12
The
ratio
proaches 20 as
its limit.
This limit of
and
is
^=
dx
20.
^ is
denoted by -^.
**
In
this case,
tion y
=x
2
,
Without
-^ from y = x2
dx
Increase x by Ax.
the derivative
initial value
restricting ourselves to
tain
when x = 10,
10 assigned to
any one
initial value,
x.
we may
ob-
of y will be
= (x + Ax)
Ay = y y = (x + Ax) x = 2xAx + (Ax)
2
y'
therefore,
Dividing by Ax,
The
limit of this,
Ay =
2x+
Ax
2
.
when Ax approaches
=2
Hence,
zero, is 2x.
x.
dx
The
derivative of a function
may
then be defined as
the limiting
value of the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment of the
variable, as the latter increment approaches zero.
dx
a single symbol denoting the limit of the fraction
will find as he advances that
has
many
A ^.
The student
of the properties of
ordinary fraction.
The
derivative
is
differential coefficient.
In general,
y -/()
Increase x by Ax, and
we have
the
new
value of y }
y'=f(x-\-Ax).
let
an
DERIVATIVE
Ay =
13
- y =/(* + A ^) /(*)i
A?/
= /(* + A.r)-/(.r)
y'
A#
A.y
A#
The process of
(f.i'
Geometrical Illustration.
finding the
derivative
When
area
the side
is
Ay
is
squares.
That
Ay_
is,
Ay=2xAx+(Ax)* =^=2x+Ax,
Ax
dy
ax
From
16.
A?/
Ax
2x.
Ax
we have
P'
the following
it
(a) Increase x by Ax, and by substituting x -f- Ax for x, determine y + Ay, the new value of y.
(b) Find Ay by subtracting the initial value of y from the new
value.
(c)
(d)
limit
Ax
_?,
as
Ax approaches
zero.
the derivative
dx
Apply
=2
.r
6 x + 5.
Increasing x by Ax,
EXAMPLES
we have
This
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
14
Dividing by Ax,
-^ = 6x -6 + 6xAx + 2(Ax)
v
}
2
2
.
Ax
*
= Lim A ^/ = 6x
Ax
dx
2.
=
x
+1
x + Ax
+ Ax + 1
x + Ax
Ay =
x + Ax + 1
+ Ay =
-6.
Ax
x
z
+1
(x-f Ax-|-l)(x
+ l)
Ay =
1
Ax (x + Ax-fl)(x + l)'
= _J:
^-Lira
^Ax (x + 1)
dx~
2/= Vx.
3.
-\-
Ay
= Vx -f Ax,
A?/
= Vx + Ax Vx,
Ay _
Ax
The
limit
Vx
of
-f-
Ax
Ax
this
V#
takes the
indeterminate form
Az=0
^4.
4. 2/
y=x
-2x + 3x-4,
4
aj -
5.
Ax
?/=(x-a) 3
But by
J
we have
Ay _
Ax
Ax Ax(Vx + Ax+Vx)
dx
-.
Vx+Ax-fVx
2V
^
= 4x -4x +
dx
3
^/ =
dx
3(x-a) 2
3.
DERIVATIVE
6.
y=( + 2)(3-2)
11
g = -4*-l.
mo;
it
15
>
\n-xf
dx
= 2.V-T.
*
mn
da
"<*
cty
= .r + a
+ *>*
10.
.-/
dx
,=
*12.
^/=V^T2
dx _
14.
15.
16.
17.
dy
dx
"We shall
dt~
that the derivative of the area of a
is its
now
'circle,
'
-Vcrx2
1
2$
with respect
circumference.
tive.
Zx%
2
dy _
dx
Show
dx
Show
+l
dy _
1
dx 2Vz-r-2
= x\
to its radius,
+ a)
dt
2/=V -^,
s
(*-!)"
13.
(j
is
volume of a sphere,
with,
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
16
This
is
its
equation y
= f(x),
MP
If
Ax
we
= MN,
Draw PQ.
Now
will
Then
Ax diminish and
Ay will also
if
approach
approach
in-
= PQ.
crement Ay
zero,
point
the
zero,
move along
PQ
towards P, and
curve
the
will
approach in direction PT as
(1), we have
its
limit.
TPR = Lim Ax
tan
That
the derivative
is,
at
^
=^
Ax dx
is
the trigono
dx
metric tangent of the
clination to
tangent
OX
line
in-
of the
that
at
point.
This
quantity
The
de-
is
slope.
slope of a straight
inclination
of
to
the
axis
X
The
slope
of
a plane
is
the
at
that point.
is
DERIVATIVE
For example, consider the parabola x2
The
At
slope
of the curve
1
2p
At L, where
Beyond
all
horizontal.
inclination
For
dx
= -x
2
= py,
where x
0,
of 45 to the axis of
is
is
17
oo,
90.
Y",
is
being
negative.
Velocity in
Terms
OP =
18.
of a Variable
s in
denoting Time.
the time
t,
body moves
being a function of
t;
it is
Let As denote
the
PP
distance
ir
would be equal
P and
-,
P, and
is
If the velocity
to
As
make
traversed
As
is
the average or
mean
velocity between
to the velocity at
P the
less
we
At.
That
is,
the velocity at
-r.'
P Lim Afe0 -r.
At
dt
Thus,
is
= ds
s.
dt
Similarly,
-vr
and
-rr
and y respectively.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
18
19.
The
Acceleration.
acceleration.
If
we denote
this
by
a,
we have by
a
dv
dt
Then the
velocity,
= t\
= ds
3?
dt'
dv
6t.
dt'
Rates
20.
For further
two following problems
of Increase of Variables.
illustrations of the
Problem 1.
A man
walks across the street
from A to B at a uniform
rate of 5 feet per second.
A lamp
at
throws his
BL
feet.
How
fast is
he
16 feet from
is
When
26 feet
A?
When
30 feet?
Let P and Q be simultaneous positions of man and shadow.
Then
When
That
is,
y _ BL
x~PB
4
36
he walks from
Let
AP = x, AQ = y.
4x
V
(1)
36 a;
to P', the
to Q'.
Then we may
write
Ay =
Ax
to
Ax and
Ay.
At^
'
Ax
At
(2)
DERIVATIVE
If
now we suppose
At to diminish indefinitely,
members
19
of ^2),
f?
dy
dt
dx
dx
rate of increase of
?/
rate of increase of
Art. 18.
dt
velocity of
That
shadow
at
is,
velocity of
(1),
any point
Hence,
shadow
at
any point
See Ex.
144
=
=
=
Problem
The
2.
when x
12 feet
Let
AP=
x,
AQ = y.
Then
y
= 16
= 26
x = 30.
when x
is
= V400 - x
2
.
man)
is
the foot
of
X)-
How fast
(velocity
when
x}
The top
Art. 16.
x)
720
(oo
8,
144
Q=
(36
(36
dy
dx
we have
144
dy =
dx
(36 - xj
velocity of
Q_
man
(3)
at a
uniform
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
20
When
That
Pto
is, if
Ax
In the same
= PP',
way
Ay
as in
moves from Q
to
Q\
QQ'.
Problem
1,
Ay
Ay
Ax
_ At
~ Ax
At~
dy
And from
dy
this,
_dt
dx~ dx'
dt
that
Q_
velocity of top at
is,
velocity of foot
From
dy
(3),
dy
dx
<^~V400-;/
Hence,
velocity of top at any point
= (velocity of foot)
V400-X
2x
V400-^
decreases
When
12,
velocity of top
When
= 16,
velocity of top
From
these problems
it
of these variables.
dv
dx
is
Aw
-^
is
DERIVATIVE
Increasing and
21.
junction of x
is
Decreasing Functions.
if
If the derivative
of a
For
21
the derivative
which
if
is
dx
increase of the variables (see conclusion of Art. 20),
is positive, it
is,
when x
But
increases,
-^
ax
if
must have
different signs
that
is,
is
y increases
when x
y decreases
This
is
that
by regarding -^
as the slope of
a curve.
A to B,
As we pass from
C,
B to
y decreases as x in-
creases.
Between
slope
and
positive
is
the
be-
the
in
latter
the function y
Since
dx
is
x,
3x*.
the function y
=x
is
an
increasing function.
If
we take y
we
,
find
dx
When
When
is
is
=2
ar
- 6 x + 5,
^
=6
ax
(a?
- 1).
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
22
22.
Continuous Function.
y=f(x), is said to be
when y = f (afc) is a definite
AxQ approaches zero, Ax being
function,
of x,
The
latter condition is
nometric, functions)
is
when
the function
and inverse
trigo-
is infinite.
"-
\
For example, consider the function y
for all values of x except x = a.
When
taking x
= a, y =
when x>a, y
There
oo,
that
is,
sufficiently near a.
is
which
is
continuous
is positive.
when x
= a.
= a,
is
said
DERIVATIVE
The function y
(x-ay
is
23
likewise discontinuous
all
values of
x,
when x = a.
In general,
if/(.r)
= oo,
y=f(x) corresponding
x,
sec
x,
when x = a,
to x
= a, and
are discontinuous
there
when x =
Z
a break in the curve
is
I
X
is
seen
2
in the function y =
when a = 0.
limits, according
Lim z = +
-^
=1.
see that
when x =
from
B to
The function
ous for x
y=2
to
the
y=l,
A.
is
discontinu-
= 0.
definition
of
the
Lim
r+i
2'+l
is
as x approaches zero
that
2*+l
We
4-
derivative
= 2.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
24
Ay approaches
The converse
zero
Ax
when Ax approaches
zero.
is
practice.
EXAMPLES
The equation
1.
Find
(a)
of a curve is y
its
Find
where
points
curve
parallel
is
+ 2.
when x =
(b)
x>
x,
when x = 0, and
0
Ans.
1.
and
135.
the
the
to
the axis of X.
x=0
Ans.
and x=2.
Find the
where
the
(c)
points
slope
unity.
is
Ans.
= (1V2).
(d)
Find
the
is
the same as
that at x
>
2.
= 3.
Ans. x
In Problem
1,
when
man ?
Art. 20,
When
= l.
will the velocity of the
Ans.
^3.
When
AP = 12
At what
rate is the
conditions of Ex. 3 ?
is
When
ft.
man ?
ft.,
and 32
ft.
expanded by heat,
At what rate is
Ans. 2 irrm
volume
shadow
AP= 24
sq. in.
of a sphere increasing
per
sec.
under the
in.
per sec.
DERIVATIVE
5.
The radius
volume
is
increasing
when
the diameter
Ans.
6.
In Exs.
"
Is
7.
+l
5, 7,
is
at
which the
3 inches.
^ = 2.827
cu. in.
per
sec.
an increasing or a decreasing
o function of x ?
In the Example
ing function of
8.
25
x,
and
1,
for
s
y = X 6.i~ + 3.r
the curve. Ans.
x= 5
or 1.
9.
When
is
the fraction
-x
x +a
2
Ans.
When
x2
a??
=a
2
.
ft.
per
sec.
CHAPTER
III
DIFFERENTIATION
23.
The process
called differentiation.
trate the
meaning
The examples
method of
any but the
for
simplest functions.
Differentiation
is
In these formulae u and v will denote variable quantities, funcand c and n constant quantities.
tions of x
u instead of
dx
dx
the symbol
Thus
24.
A^ ~r
dx
v)
^
dx
k e derivative of (u
-f-
v\
may be written
i.
^=1.
dx
II.
TTT
=
dx
0.
dx
4-
dx
26
dx
-l-
dx
(u-\- v),
DIFFERENTIATION
du
d
(r) = v
dx
dx
TTT
IV.
d
dx
^ __
vi
?<
dx
du
dx
u
dx
dx
.
v2
dx\vj
VII.
dv
V
7
A/ ^
27
(vr)=nun ~ 1 .
dx
dx
differenti-
I.
TJie derivative
II.
TJie derivative
III.
TJie derivative
of the
sum of two
of
to itself is unity.
variables is the
sum of
their
derivatives.
IV.
TJie derivative
the products
tJie
of
tJie
eacJi variable
by
tJie
is tJie
sum of
multiplied
by
tJie
nator multiplied by
denominator minus
tJie
tJie
power
exponent diminisJied by
witJi
is tJie
product of the
&nd
the derivative
1,
of the variable.
25.
Proof of
a derivative.
26.
I.
For, since
Proof of II.
vary.
Hence Ac
and
\w
=
Ax
1, its limit
constant
=
Ax
is
1.
therefore
dx
=
dx
its
limit
=
dx
0.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
28
Let y
Proof of III.
27.
= u-\-v,
therefore
Divide by Ax
of y,
+ Ay = u + Au + v + Av,
Ay = Au-{- Av.
then
Ay _Au
Ax Ax
Now
suppose
Ax
Av
Ax
and approach
to diminish
zero,
dy _du
dx
dx
If in this
we
substitute for
y,
d /
(u
dx
dv
dx'
-{-v,
we have
+ v) = du
N
28.
and
We
du
dx
dv
dx
= uv;
y + Ay = (u + Au) (y + Av),
Ay = (u + Au) (y + Av) uv = vAu + (u
Divide by
Ax
dw
dx
-f-
Au) Av.
^/ = ^ + M + Au) ^.
Ax
Ax (
Aaj
then
Now
u + Ait
,i
that
dx
Let y
Proof of IV.
then
dv
d ,
dx
dx
suppose Ax to approach
is u,
dy
-
= v du
dx
dx
d (uv)=v du
dx
/
is,
we have
dx
\-u
\-u
dv
dx
dv
dx
DIFFERENTIATION
Formula IV. may be extended
Thus we have
29.
29
to
d ,
v
d ,
d ,
dw
x
as
(uv -w)=w
(uv)J + UV
( uviv)
y
K
K
)
}
dx
dx
dx
dx
= w[ v du
\-u
= vw du
dv\
-{-uv
\-uw
dx
dw
dx
dx
dx
dv
[-uv
dx
dw
dx
of
(
I
Wh
Then ^-(
u n \j
l(
-2
=u
u3
un
du,
-f
u u z uA
...
un
du
-
h u x u 2 ~-u,
uA + u&v
un
=u u
2
?,
Thus
7i-|-l
lW2
...
un+1
+ Uju u
du*
duo
ax
u n+l ? H
ax
.
p.
du n
dx
w^
du^
dx
w n _!W n+1
du
dx
Wn _ni.
ax
it
appears that
factors,
and
if
is
it
factors.
Tlie derivative
is the
sum of
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
30
30.
This
Proof of V.
we may
derive
it
is
dc
being
dx
zero.
But
independently thus
= cu,
y
y
+ Ay = c(u + Aw),
Ay = cAw,
Aw
Aw
=
Ax
Ax
c
dy
-^
dx
31.
= c du
du
dx
=u
+ Aw
+ Av
v+Av
'
Aw
Av
Aw_ ^ x
^x
Ax~ (y + Av)v
and
Now
dx
Ay = * tt - ? = * M ~ "f
therefore
or
~Lety
Proof of VI.
Then
(cw) =
d,
dx
Ax to approach
we have
suppose
+ Av is
v,
dy
dx
zero,
dw
dx
~~
u
v2
= -,
v
therefore
yv
= u.
dv
dx
of
DIFFERENTIATION
t>
By
dy
ttt
v-f +
dx
IV.,
dv
du
=
y
dx
dx
dy __ du
dx
dx
v
dy
therefore
u dv,
v dx
du
dx
dx
Proof of VII.
32.
and
that
= un
+ Ay = (u + Aw) n
Ay = (u + A?*)'
,
Putting
Ay
dv
dx
v
then
First,
Let
31
u"
u + A?<, we have
= (V u) (u" ~ + u ~ u + ~3 w H
Ay = Au (u'*- + it" - u + u*^V
w*= (u*- +u' u + m'- ^ + a-
u' for
un
hl
is,
let
1
)
...
ax
= nun ~
~l
;
u',
each of the n
therefore
dx
of Art. 29,
(O =u +u
n ~ lC
dx
du
dx
-1
dx
...
to
dx
Second, suppose n to be a positive fraction,-?.
Let
then
therefore
if
= u",
= up
Of) = (u
dx
dx
KJ
),
Ax
Then
~l
),
'
un
Ax diminish
,B
f-
^
Ax
Now
un
).
}
n terms
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
32
hence we
may
to be true
apply
when
the exponent
member
to each
it
This gives
qyq ijL
=pvP
dx
dx
4=!^*
~
therefore
dx
q yq
dx
Substituting for
y,
uq gives
,
dy
dx
by
is
_p
q~ l
du
dx'
to
m.
= u~ m =: m
u
dx
su 2m
dy
/- =
dx
Hence, VII.
du
q p _pdx
T7T
VI.,
Let
_p up ~
dx
u 2m
= - mic m - ,du
1
dx
EXAMPLES
Differentiate the following functions
1.
= x\
*
= !(*).
dx dx
If
we apply
VII., substituting
u = x and w
(z )=4ar
=4ar>.
dx
4
dx
Hence,
^
= 4^.
dx
by
J
= 4,
I.
we have
is
of this
DIFFERENTIATION
2.
= 3 + 4aj
4
8
.
*? = J*(3a;*+4a?)=
by
III.,
making
33
= 3x
and
= 4#
(3
+-^(4
x*)
),
3
.
byV.
|(3^)=3|(A
= 3-4^ = 12^.
= 4 (or) = 4
Similarly,
Hence,
^= 12a
(4
x3 )
3 x2
12a = 12 (a?
= 12 a?.
a?
).
e2as
3.
y = ** + 2.
dx
dx
|(,f)
dx
= |,i
by
|(2)=0,
Hence,
4.
by VII.
II.
^
= 1**
dx
2
y=3Vx-A + | +a
dx
dx
3 -I
= 2*
2 (-_1
--*- + _1 _
2x*
dx
3
'
x4
dx
'
dx
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
34
5.
= %
ar + 3
dy_
+ 3\
dx\x 2
dx
-{-3
(-
dfx+3\
<toV<s + 3y
2
3 and v
= x + 3,
2
we have
3-6a;-^
_ f + 3-(x + 3)2x =
~~
(z + 3)
(> + 3)
2
dy
=
dx
Hence,
6.
S-6x-a*
(x + 3)
= (x + 2)t.
6
2/
we apply
dx
making
VII.,
=x +2
2
and w
= 2-,we
3(2
Hence,
dx
have
7.
dx
If
3(x2
+ 2)3
= (x + l)Vx*-x.
2
^=A[(aj
+ l)(aJ-aOH
+ 2)i
DIFFERENTIATION
If
we apply
IV.,
m
35
making
as?
+1
and v
= (x x)-,
3
we have
[(rf + i)(#-.)]
dx
+ 1) |- (X - )* + (*" - K)i|s
(x2
^=
=
i(.T 2
(j
+ 1)(3 x - 1) (ar
+ 1) (3
10.
= (x + 2a)(x-a)
s,= (*-ai)
'
13.
+ ar -5,
?
Example 11
~
v= 2x 1
(x-if
= z(a*+5)*,
=7
-)*2a
-2 -1
2{x - a>)*
4
a;
a;
^ = 3 (10 a
-4z
^=3 (a -a
2
,11..
Differentiate
a;)
(s3
= 3x
-2a;6
-*)- +
2
x-
10
8.
12
+ 1).
+ l)=2x.
11.
dx
dx
Hence
2
(a-
<fy
S=
(a; 3
).
q3)3
3ic f
dy =
dx
g=5
2x
(x-iy
(ar
+ l)(x + 5)i
3
-far )-
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
14.
'
Va - x
2
(^-a )^
la
16
dy
dx
members
Differentiate both
18.
/'^-A Y
a=
21
^^
y
y
* (*
= ^ + 2a + a 2
~ 3)
+ 2)
f=
25.
+ a )(* + a )T
2
n-i
aJ_a
(?
dx
'
+ l) (3z-8)
V2 aa; -
(nt
dt
= *(* + n)->
</=
(2a-3a) 9
<,
(z
(2a-3a?) 10
oj
24) (a;
+ 1)
(3
dy_ n(xn + l)
^d2/
+ 2f
+ 2^
^ = 3 (13 a
24.
+ <*)*&
(?
2,= (z
^_ = 1+
2
,
20.
23.
2 xy/ax
(x 2
'
-xf
+ ax -h a )(x ax + a = x* -f aV + a
17.
19.
(a
dy = 3aWx*-a 2
dx
15
a2
dy
dx
(ajn
+ n) l
a'
(2
aa - x2)%
a;
- 8)
(x
+ 2)
5
.
DIFFERENTIATION
*"
~~
'
~4
37
4
^.4
Q x
3
,7^
x
rf
cty
28.
g=
d*
4
*=(*^2)JJ7i;
\
29.
30.
t,
(x3
?)
if
c7y
l'
y
V
= ^jX-
6 x2 4- 6 *
31.
(.r
(x
+ Vx
+ 8az +
4- l) ("
15
)3
)
- 9a )
_
3 cu.) 5(4 rf + 8 ax + 15 a )*
(rf
4(2
te
34.
or
Vx + 1 - *),
cZ.V
ing function of x
(4 + l) f
*b
y
+x + 1) Vx + x +
12
c7?/_
33.
)V-') f
x-'-l
2/== ( iC2_3ax)^(4^
3_h a3
(a*
dy_
(4*+l) f
32.
2 a 3x 2
cfy_
ax
~X-\-l
+ 1)1
d*
\^+x + l'
3
(ti
is
= (,r-l)(z+Vz + l).
3 x4
8x
an increasing or a decreas-
Increasing,
when x
>2
decreasing,
when x
<
vessel in the
Arts.
.76 in.
.19 in.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
38
36.
The
How
second.
37.
vessel,
hour'.
is
at the rate of
Another
vessel is sailing due north 20 miles per hour.
40 miles north of the first, is sailing due east 15 miles per
At what rate are they approaching each other after one
After 2 hours ? Ans. Approaching 7 mi. per hr. separating
hour ?
15 mi. per
When
hr.
is
then
Ans.
38.
A train
starts at
being represented by
From Worcester,
f.
= 24
Distance
=9
sec.
its
mi.
motion
Boston, another train starts at the same time, moving in the same
are in miles,
When
Ans.
39.
is
Given
41.
= - + bt
body
starts
the coordinates of
its
from the
2
;
origin,
and
acceleration.
seconds
position are
Find the
rates of increase of
its
x and
path,
vdHty
vn
y.
which
is
Ans.
5f + o.
DIFFERENTIATION
42.
axis of
Two
and
y,
At what
1 minute ?
in
5=
39
aj,
and y = 6 1 9
feet,
feet.
After 3 minutes
Ans.
Approaching 2
ft.
per min.
separating 6
per min.
ft.
sec.
Suggestion.
line parallel to
33. Formulae
P being
BP.
for
and Exponential
Logarithmic
Differentiation of
Functions.
du
VIII.
-^-log u
= log e^.
a
dx
TV
IX.
du
dx
log w=u
i
a
dx
*e"
XI.
= log a-au
e
=e
d
-
dx
dx
dx
dx
YTi
XII.
dx
X.
"='//
.du
dx
-,
h log e
?^
uv
dv
dx
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
40
34.
Lety = loga u,
Proof of VIII.
then
+ Ay = \og
(u
+ Au),
^^
= log/l + ^=^log(l+^f
".
u J
\_
u J
Dividing by Ax,
^logA+^f^
u J
u
Ax
If
Ax approach
Au
zero,
if
=
Au
we put
i+
(
and as An approaches
But
in Art. 12
fr=(i+
zero, z
Hence,
we
infinity.
we have found
Lim AM=0 [ 1
if
t:
approaches
Lim^M +-j
therefore
z,
-\
=e;
- r" =
e.
dy
dx
member
du
dx
u
of (1),
CD
DIFFERENTIATION
This
41
is
when a = e.
In this case
log a e
Note.
Logarithms
Hereafter,
to base e are
when no base
understood; that
= log e = l.
is specified,
is,
u.
Proof of X.
Let
= au
dy
dx
= u log a;
= loga du
dx
therefore by
J IX.,7
Multiplying by y
= au
we have
dy
= loga
dx
t
37.
Proof of XI.
38.
Proof of XII.
This
is
au
du
dx
Let y = u v
e.
\ogy=v\ogu;
therefore
dy
dx
by
J IX.,
'
y
Multiplying by y
=u
v
,
du
dx
do
+ logw
dx
u
.
we have
dv
dy
r-idu
vuv l
hlog^-^ v
dx
dx
dx
.
-?-
The method
each member,
of proving X.
may
This exercise
is left
to the student.
VII
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
42
EXAMPLES
(See note, Art. 35.)
1.
= log
2.
3-
4.
2/
(2^
+ 3 r%
10
(3
ox
dy
dx
ax+b
dy _ _
dx
xlogx
= log
dy _ 6 (a; + 1)
dx 2 a? 2 + 3 x
+ 2),
riy
da
+ log x
(x log x) 2
= 3 log e = 1.3029
3x + 2 3a+2
10
5.
= log ax b
aa? + 6
dy _ 2 ab
dx a2x'2 b 2
I.
= lo{ 3^ + 1
+3
dy
dx
'
dy
eft
8.
=ae
9.
= log(a* + 6*),
10.
+nlog(ax+b)
3a + 10a;-f 3
2
(f-
- 1)
^4-^-j_^
|2=(l + loga)a*e".
x x
,
dy _ a x log a +
~
dx
ax +
dy
=8
dx
= (-_ 1)*,
2x
(e
2x
&*
log b
- l)
s
.
11.
12.
= 6* +
x3
y=(3x-l)
<fy
cte
2 3x
-2
,
dy
dx
= 24a--10^
&
(x-S) 2
3 (9 x2
l)e 3x -\
DIFFERENTIATION
13.
=x
5x
~JL
,
=x
43
o T (o
+x
log
5).
da;
14.
= log
d#
dx
log x -
log x
members
Differentiate both
+e
15.
(x
16.
(a*
17.
log
18.
.i
..
20.
4
.r
2
(e *
+ 4 .rV + 6 xV" +
2a
e'
= log
(e
~a
3 a x e 2x
+e
a"x
4 a* 3*
+e
+ x + a.
(Vx~HTa
dy
Vx),
log x
dx
dy _
da
22.
= log
^i-^
+ +
dy _
ax
= x [(log x) - 2
2
log x
+ 2],
23.
oa
24.
r = log(VJ+7-V,fc
26
,,
V4r>- 1
1
xVx + 1
4
= (log X)
UX
"''
,r
'.-"'
- 1 + *'"'
+ 1 + <r"
''!
,
dx
ax
2-
^
-
(x
a)*
+ (x - a)*
..'
2Vx*
= log (2a-+V4x*-l),
a.,-
<ty_
25.
4 *.
- e*.
21.
a;)
log x
los:
= log
"
=a
y=
x (log
- e f = a3 - 3 cr*e +
Jog a
_ 1 + log X
2),
g=^/||
= 2 (,'-?-<)
c-"' + 1 + e"-"
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
44
87.
lo x
y = log
1
L =
log x
x log
dv
30
+ log x)
(1
a;
e*
2/
dx
fly __
a;
^"~^-2V^T3
30.
= log
(a
+ V2ax-a ) +
2
Va 4- V2 a
a;
0>
dx
+ l4-V^ + 3a + l
2
a;2
v _,i og
31
2(x
+ V2 ax - a )
2
dy =
x2 -!
dx x^/x^ + Stf + l
33.
= xnx
34.
= (ax>) x
35.
2/
= x**
36.
2/
= (logx)*,
37.
= x<
38
,(-_
\x
+ aJ
+ log x).
[2
=
+ 21ogx).
^
ax
= x)/-i + log log x V
^
ax
Vlogx
y
* (w +
V <^
ax*
10
(ax
^=
ax
(1
2+1
(l
(log
te
*
dx
rf
1} (log
,,)
io,
f-fL,W-i-+ilg^-A.
x + a)
a
\x-\-aJ \x + a
DIFFERENTIATION
The method
expression
may
This
tions.
45
is
39.
What
is
When
X?
x=
at
),
0.
inclined 45
is
Ans. x = a log e (1
+ V2).
When
Ans.
When
to the axis of
40.
-f-
= log
When
Ans.
10
= .4343.
x = 1.3029.
by a point
If a point
is
is
given by
= ae + be~
c
moves so that in
seconds
= 10
log
feet,
- 2) - 9 ^~ 36 x + 32
~ )
\
x > 3; decreasing when x < 3.
y = log (x
an increasing or a decreasing function ?
a?
is
+4
Ans. Velocity
of 16 seconds.
43.
Formulae
for
Differentiation
Trigonometric Functions.
of
is
circular measure.
XIII
d
du
XIV
cos u =
XV.
dx
- sin u
tanw = sec
dx
dx
In
supposed to be expressed in
M
dx
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
46
du
d
cot u = cosec w
dx
dx
o
2
XVI
see u=
dx
XVII.
u tan %
sec
dx
XVIII.
?t
dx
-versw=sm?t
XIX.
ax
ax
40.
Proof of XIII.
then
= sin u,
y-\-Ay = sin
+ Am);
A y = sin (w A u) sin
Let y
(it
therefore
?t.
-f-
If
we
substitute
^4
= u + A w,
and
(A
B = m,
-)sin
Av = 2cos(mH
we have
+ B).
Aw
Hence,
Now when Ax
as
Au
is
=
H
Ax
cos
+ *g)
2
approaches zero,
Aw
in circular measure,
sin
Au
2
= 1.
T
TT
l^
An Ax
Hence,
dy
= cos a du
dx
dx
DIFFERENTIATION
41. Proof of XIV.
for u,
may
This
47
-?/.
Then
d
cos?*
dx
or
Proof of XV.
42.
= cos(|-)|(| r )
|-(l-)
du\
dxj
= sin
?/[
=-sm d
dx
= ^-^,
Since tan u
cos u
cos
bv
tf
~y~
\ 1.,
d*
tan "
sm
tf
?/
sm
cos u
?/
(to
ete
cos-
>/
dv
dn
b
t sm- u
cos 2
COS"
du
COS"
?'
w.
sec- "
CfeB
ing
Proof of XVI.
43.
v for
?/.
Since sec u
cos u
d
,
f?
3~ sec
bv
J A L,
ax
cos-
= sec
sm
cos u
eta
cos-
?<
c?u
dx
u
du
v tan
>/
dx
45.
Proof of XVIII.
stituting
u for
u.
may
This
This
vers
is
u= 1 cos
1
u.
XIV. by
the
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
48
EXAMPLES
y
u
=3
2.
= log cos
3.
?/
= log
1.
sin
2 cos
3x cos 2x
Sx sin
= 5 cos 3x cos
2x, -^
2x.
dx
2
x-\-2x tan
a?
2
a?
-^-= 2x tan 2
= m
#.
sec wa?.
C*3J
?/
u
= log5
(a
v
= cos
a log sec
>i
4.
c
5.
6.
sm
+ 6*
i
cc
//)
y=(m 1)
(8
sec m+1
dy
tan #
= 2(ab)
r
dx
a tan x +
\
cos 2 a),
;
a) + a sin
\
dv
ot,
sin
-^
dv
cos (0
a)
3
a;.
cia;
7.
2/
8.
9.
= log tan
= log&
aa?
^"j,
tan 6 (sec
v
[sec
L
= 2a sec 2ax.
-^
+ tan
0)y J
]
,
'
= (sec 6 + tan ^
dB
2
-
tan
2/
bx).
dx
10.
= 2x
sin
2x
-&
==
4a2 cos
2a\
da;
11.
=2
?/
tan3
a;
sec
a;
+ tan
a;
sec x
log
+ tan #),
-^ = 8 tan x sec
(sec
a;.
dx
12
-
13.
dy
a;
'
2 sin x
Tx
^ =13e
ax
to
(sin2x
- cos2z).
DIFFERENTIATION
14.
cos (x
15.
16.
17.
= sin
= log
2/
dy
dx
cos x
= log
a)
sin
4- vers
sin
vers
(sin 2
-^
dx
cos 4 3x,
4.r
= 12
sin a
+ a)
cos x cos (x
dy
-^
= secx.
dx
a;
1
a;)
49
2/
(log sin
+ 2a;
2x
cot
2a;).
da;
18.
19.
20.
= (tan
?/
a;)
= (sin x)
7/
= y (cos
8inz
,
log c0 * x
-^
dx
7/
= (tan -3 cot
a;
sin^fl
22.
23.
24.
a;)
sin
a;
Vtana;,
a;
+ sec
- = 2 sec
x.
da;
dy
d*
= 3sec
dy
4
a;
2 tan* x
sine*
d0~"cos-cos0
+ a)'
a;)
+ 6a,
^ = _^_&!_,
da;
a tan
da;
dy
d*
4-5 sW
a;
-f b
=2-
sin
+ i)
tan25.
a;
a;
= log
sini^
log tan
-2
y = log
2tan?-l
a?).
*
1
21.
a;
dx
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
50
oa
D.
= a sin + b vers x
a sm x b vers x
2 ab vers x
dy
if
])
dx
(a
sm x b
vers x)~.
differentia-
27
= 2 sin x cos x,
sin
cos 2 x = cos
sin 2
a;
28.
sin 2
a?
ic.
2 tan x
a;
1 -f tan 2 aj'
cos 2
tan
aj
a*
tan 2 #
29.
= 3 sin 4 sin
4 cos 3 cos #.
cos 3 x
sin 3
a;
a?
30.
sin 4
cos 4
31.
32.
onds,
a?
a:,
a;
a;
a:
(m + n) x =
33.
a;
sin 3 #,
sin
rase
made in ir
when = 0,
rates of
increase of
of tan
a;
V3, ^/%
when
= 0,
1. 0,
0,
sec-
30,
per second.
If 6 is increasing uniformly,
0,
sin
rates of increase
sion.
34.
0,
less
than 90,
is
sin 6 -f cos
an increas-
Find
its rate
of change
when
15.
Ans.
vr
and 10
35.
feet respectively, and the crank revolves uniformly, making two
At what rate is the piston moving, when
revolutions per second.
of a steam engine are 3
DIFFERENTIATION
makes with the
the crank
line of
51
0,.
45, 90,
135, 180 :
If a,
and
the triangle,
b, x,
opposite
$ the
angle
b,
=a
+ V6 a2
cos
Ans.
OP
PQ
0,
sin2
6.
ft.
per
sec.
crank
connecting rod
revolves about
is
OX
meets a perpendicular to
OX drawn through
47.
But
-1
the angle
if
number
is,
where n
for
of values of sin
-= - 2mr,
is
O.
-1
is
#,
any
tan
-1
#,
&c.
integer.
than a right angle, sin -1 x will have only one value for a given value
of
x.
cosec
the
Then
-1
x,
first
sin
tan
-1
-1
x,
= -,
6'
and
cot
sin
_1
_1
.T,
6
2y
V
as taken between
(
We
-
and
-, that
-1
is,
x,
in
or fourth quadrants.
-1
x,
entiation.
XX.
sin
VI - u2
dx
clu
XXI.
i^cos-S<
dx
=
x
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
52
du
dx
XXII.
~l + w
dx
XXIII.
cot
dx
XXIV.
sec
dx
du
dx
l+u
du
therefore
XX.
d
vers
dx
du
dx
##
u-Vu 2
1 jl
du
dx
V2w
y sin-1 %;
sin y = u.
Let
'
By XIIL,
V -1
XXVI.
Proof of
dx
d
cosec
dx
XXV.
49.
-1
cos
du
dx
2// =
du
dx
du
therefore
But
dy _ dx
dx ~ cos y
cos y
= Vl- sin
2
2/
Hence
and
cosy
dy
dx
= Vl_
du
dx
VI
<
= VT
and fourth quadrants
DIFFERENTIATION
Proof of XXI.
50.
Let y
cos y
therefore
u.
du
dx
du
dx
dy_
dx~
therefore
But
sin y
If the
= cos _1 w;
dy
dx
A, TT ^
angle
?/
is
53
smy
= Vl cos' y = Vl uK
2
Hence
VI -
sin y - =
VI -u
Let y
dy
dx
sec 2 y
But
dy
dx
therefore
cot
-1
Proof of XXIII.
u = tan -1 -
= u.
o
dy
du
sec^-^ =
dx dx
therefore
52.
= tan -1 u
tan y
therefore
By XV,
du
dx
dy_
dx~
and
u2
This
may
du
dx
sec 2 ?/
= 1 -h tai
du
dx
_
1
+u
be derived like
XXIL,
or
from
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
54
53. Proof
sec
u=
-1
cos
XXIV.
of
-1
This
may
XXI.
be obtained from
Since
-,
-11
cosec
XXV.
Proof of
54.
d /1\
dx \uj
d
_,1
cos l - =
dx
u
d
_!
sec * u
dx
mav
du
du
./
This
u2 dx
dx
V% -1
2
XX.
be obtained from
Since
- ll
sin ->
_!
,
n -1
d 1
f )
dx
du
du
dx
u 2 dx
,-\/ir
^-i +-i
55.
XXVI.
Proof of
vers _1 w
This
may
XXL
be obtained from
Since
= cos -1 (1 w),
d
vers
-1
= cos
dx
dx
(1
/-.
du
u)
Vl-(l-w)
V2
EXAM PLES
!
1.
3.
4.
y
^
2/
y
u
?/
= 4.-1
tan
x
= sec
= sin
dy
dx
^.V
(8#
5.r- 2a? -h 1
da;
= vers -1
dt/
^V4x -9
2
dy
V(aj
),
da;
5.
3/
= tan
>
dx
8#
%_
- 5)(2 -
VI a
x2
X)
DIFFERENTIATION
6.
7.
?/
= tan
dy
d6
(3 tail 0),
= sec -1
55
dy_
sec 2
10.
11.
//
= cosec -1
= tan
*-
(-
'
cot
6x
cos
13.
y
J
14.
>/
-1
Vvers
cot-
^ +^a
16.
Sill
= sin _i
= sin
2a
e
tan-
dy
*c
-^
= 0.
*=
da;
j/
dy
sin
-1
= cot
'
1
.,-
4-a 2)<>2
+&
,
2
+a
2
a;
1.
ty
k -6
2
-a; 2
#_.1
a?)
-*
x 4- 1)
dx
- cut"
(a;
dy
1)
da;
2
'
&a
dy
a7.
(a'-ftV
2
(sec x 4- tan
e' 4- e
19.
4- sec
dx
da*
18.
+ 2b - 1
SB
= tan -1
-2x
(a;
da;
17.
a V8ar
da;
COS
V2
2ax_|_
+ l'
da;
fa;
15.
2
*
= 4 Vl
>
sc,
-b
tan- ?
+1
Vsec 2
dy
dx
12.
dy _
dx
y=cot -i *"+':'
er* e
//
cos 2
0,
-1
y = vers
-4
dO
8.
2
a;
4-
4- e~
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
56
20.
y=:tan- l4
+ 5tanfl;
21.
2/
= cos-
22.
2/
=^
members
^i = cos-
23.
2cos-
24.
3 vers- 1 x
25.
sin
26.
ol-
27.
-1
,2
a6(l
OQ
29
'
].
01
= 2lQg
__
-\-x
/a;
+ tanx)
fa
\b
a;
aj
Vl a ).
-2a; + 5 14 _!^-5
+tan
17^
^ + 2, + 5
4
= tan -1 ^
1 mnxr
"'tan*-* =
tan-
dy
&
.^(a^-a
^- )^
i
3 V3 a a
32.
What
V4 a - or
2
a?
may
2\ x -a
dy =
-
a-
54^F+3'
2/=sm
12x 2 -20
dy
Q1
31.
sec" 1 -
a;
a.
2
+-=2tan
_i
\\ +^2
+3
=[
sin 2a;
nse
=2
da;
= vers" [x(2x- 3)
a;
28.
^/
+ sin -1 a = sin -1 (a y 1 x
vers
+4
% = V6av-a^
=l,
--2V^
2
Differentiate both
da?
^^-2 x /^
sec- 1
log e (x
7 a)
-f-
tan -1 a,
X at the point x = 1 ?
^4ns.
J or
i.
DIFFERENTIATION
57
A man
50 feet
when 75
feet
when
at circumference.
10, 9 T8g, 8,
Ans.
6-f,
ft.
per
sec.
It is necessary to notice
To
may
have
express
dx
in
terms of
'
If y
dy
be regarded as a function of
-^,
latter,
dx
is
From
y.
a given function of
x,
then x
we
dy
by a simple
relation.
It is evident that
= -,
Ax A#
*9
however small the values of Ax and Ay. As these quantities approach zero, we have for the limits of the members of this equation,
ft=i
dx
That
is,
(i)
dx
dy
-,.
dx
..
ordinary tractions.
is
the same as
if
they were
dy
a
x=-^~.
y
Differentiating with respect to
y,
By( i),
we have
dx
dy
(2)
+1
a
G/
+ 1)
!=_M!=-!,
by(2)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
58
This
is
ence to
y,
= - 1,
and differentiating
x.
dx
By
differentiating the
find
and, and
dz
dx
dy_dy^dz^
dz dx
/on
dx
For
it is
evident that
^=^
Ax
we
obtain
Az Ax
Az.
By
(3).
That
=*
fractions.
x,
dz
By
(3),
%L = bz\- 2x)
dx
4
K)
z^tf-x .}
first
with respect to
we have
dx
= - 10x(a - x )\
2
by
(4).
z,
and
DIFFERENTIATION
The same
(4),
result
59
between
giving
and differentiating
The
relation (1)
substituting y
= x.
with respect to x.
be obtained as a special case of
this
may
dx dz _ dx
dx
dz dx
Another form of
(3)
by
This gives
..
(3) is
dy
dx
dy
(5)
dz~dz'
dx
which
is
of frequent use.
EXAMPLES
In Exs. 1-4, find
and thence
,-
ay
by
2.
3.
dy _ _ 2
dx
+ logy'
V2-X
2z-l'
~
dz
and
dy
2^/tf
dx
dx
:;./;-
_
xy
f
x
2z
= olog Vy + q hV^,
cos y
logy
dx
Va
Vl + sin
dy._(l-flog;V ) 2
"
a?
(1).
dy _ (by k) 2 __ bh ak
dx
bh ak
(bx a) 2
~^
k'
= vl +siny,
4.
by
dx
dy
2'
and thence
-j-
dx
by
J
(3).
v '
'
dx
2x
+ cu = e-e
(a>+2) 2
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
60
6.
y = log,
dy e-e~*_
= x
x
dx
e + e~
= ,
7.
y=ze z
+e
2z
= \og(x-x
^/
),
=4
a)
-6
+ l.
ar>
dec
8.
?/
= log
62
= sec x -f tan #,
-fa
%
2 ab
da?
Differentiate
9.
(a?
+ 2)
Let y = (x 2 + 2) 2 and
,
^=
2 ==
4aj(aj
dy
w
(5)
= 3a;
+ 2),
(7 7/
-j*-
2
.
dx
= x(x + 2) = (x + 2)
2
3x
dz
3x
6 + 6
10.
dz
cte
BJ
(a -f 6 2) cos
n fi
nrl
It is required to
find
3
sb .
with respect to
ar
a2
-\-
'
with respect
to c
a
+x
Sfc + l + \
Ans.
a;
11.
sin 3a;
12.
of taii
-1
x.
3 (4 cos 2 x
Ans.
3).
+ x).
Ans.
2-Vx
Find the derivative of log
13.
a sin x
j
2
a sin x
14.
cos x
cos x
<f>
cos
5cf>,
sin<
b
+b
ab (a 2 tan x
Given x = 5 cos
with respect to
sin
5<;
find
cot x)
ciaj
u.-i?t.s.
= tan 3
dx
4>.
CHAPTER IV
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
57.
Definition.
As we have
what
is
differentiations
For example,
is
may
x.
if
= %\
dx
-1^=12^,
dxdx
dx dx dx
58.
Notation.
denoted by
J
That
The second
derivative of
^
dx2
is,
dry
dx2
Similarly,
d dy
dx dx
2
_ d d y
d dy
dx dx dx
dhj __ d
dx3
d 4y
dx
dry
dx n
dx dx2
d d d dy
dx dx dx dx
d d" _1 .y.
dx dxn ~
l
01
d d 3y
dx dx3
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
62
Thus,
if
dy_
4a3
dx
= 12a;',
dx 2
fry
==
24x.
dxs
The successive
third,
59.
tive of
first,
second,
differential coefficients.
is
denoted by f(x),
/'"().
/?()
its
successive de-
by
/*(?).
/-(*)
is
For example,
(a)
From y = e ax we have
,
dy
ae ax
(b)
From y =
fry
'
dec
ax
+b
dx2
_ae
2
ax
= (ax + b)~\
g = (-l)a(aa +
6)-*,
fry
. . .
dxn
g=
(-1)(
3)a 8 (aa
2JL = (_ l)"|na-(aa!
+ 6)"Bj1 -
11
'
we have
g = (- 1)(- 2)(dx
= a"e ax
- 2)a\ax + &)-,
+ 6)~ = (- 1)^3 a
4
(ax
n+l
6)
(ax
+ 6)"
4
,
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
(c)
From y =
sin ax,
=a
-^-
cos ax
63
we have
=a
*"
sin
GKE-f-
da;
*fc
=a
dx
&=
cos
faa
crcos fe
+ 1) = a
+ \= a
i = a n- sin /ckb H
(/"?/
sin few
+ ^\
sin few
+^\
?nr\
].
efo"
1.
y = Za*- 5
rt
+ 20
EXAMPLES
-or' + 2^
^=
ar
a^M
= {x -^,
2
!/
- + 1).
120(0?
ax
= 20(x
a?
-l)(x 2 -4:)i
ctx~
3.
= xr + x~ m
5.
6.
//
da*
da5
_24
X
'
=x
2
a*
log
log
a-*,
(a*
[3
8.
9.
.,
= 4^_2)e*+(a,'-l)e
2x
.
d 2y_
4 x(e x
dx2
= ^_3^ + -3)ea
= log sec 0,
J9
1),
dx"'
7.
|6
d 2x
,
:4ts e 2t
-I) 3
+ *)
df
dfr
-
6 sec 4
0-4 sec
(9-
ro
-3
.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
64
10.
^=
y=ze-x (llsin2x-\-2eos2x),
dx3
11.
12.
= tan _,
.
?/
e sin 2 x.
125
A2 = 24a<l-a;
)
>->
a?,
'
dx
^tan-f^,
J
2
da;
a;
2(^ + ^-6).
g,
'
(1
2 4
e*
+ e-*)3
13.
2/
= logV^ + a- + tan-'-,
+
^y_2(x aYx
(^ + y
14.
^ + 4a
,_
?/
16.
2/
= e- %
18.
19.
a;e
(sma;
cos a;)-}- 3 e
2/
^+
x 2 \
dar
?^2/
+n
^=
0.
o.
3 x-^- + 5 v = 0.
^=
*,
= 0.
(tana;-l)
+ coswa?
=a
t/
-^ = 4 a;e* cos x.
cos a?,
^+
a;
du
tan
sinwg
! ax + a 2)
15.
l7
d3
a;
da;
(XX
20.
2/
9
= log(3a;+2),y
,
22.
2/
^ = (1Y- + t==.
I
0*
da;
d"2/
i-
3n \n
(3a;
2)
^V
?n
cosf7a;+^Yj
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
The following
65
before differentiating.
1
23
i/
fin..
oa
24.
=-1
x -1
3w
\n
+1
d"y
= ( l)
,
K
da?
13
2x--
26.
l)
daT
3a?-4
2.r-' + 3.r-2
. n|
n
J
LH
2X
+ 1)"*
2"
|~
-\_( x
+ 2y
+1
(2a>-l)+1
3" +1
2 " +1
^1 = (- \n\ f
+x+l
(x
L(aj-1)"
+z
2.r'-x-l
-1
On+1
V
da"
27.
x2
y=
(x
28.
60.
jf
3f
^/
_ (- l)"
dry
+ 2)
'
dx
= /ax + 1 \
\ax - 1/
L L3(x-l) n+1
2)'
4 ( - i)" 01 " |*
dx"
(ax
This
is
a?
+ 1)
- n + 1)
4[w (x
(x
d" y
Leibnitz's Theorem.
+1
3(2
+2
a:c
+ n)
iy
?ith
derivative
Tx
For convenience
du
{ttV)
=Hx
let us
vi
Uj
Theorem, when n
= 1,
is
Formula
v+u dv
m\
(1)
<r
x
= dv
dx
= du
dx
v2
d?v
=
o>
u2
"
dx
= cPu
=d
'"
vn
un =
dxr
IV.,
dx n
u
dn
dx"
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
66
Then
(1)
becomes
(uv)=u 1 v+uv 1
(2)
Differentiating (2),
d (uv) = u v +
2
ihVi -h VqVi
+ uv = u v + 2 u v
2
uv 2
4-
dx~
d
3
(uv)
dx>
= u v + U V + 2 iu>v + 2u V + 0^2 4- uv
= u v 4- 3 w ^i 4- Sufis 4~ wy3
2
We
mial Theorem
(uv)
so that
Un-2 2
1-
-\
(XX
UU^O^ + UV n
dx
if
(3)
true for
left for
the
student.
(3)
becomes
d f N d u
v
}
nK(uv)=
dxn
dx
dn
~l
udv
+ n dxn ~
,
dx
dud n ~
dx dx"*
nn(n-l)d
ud*v
[2
dxn -*da?
dnv
dxn
EXAMPLES
1.
Given 9y
From
sin 2 x
(uv)
d*
(3),
find
by Leibnitz's Theorem
== u#)
^.
dx4
+ 4 u^ + 6 u v + 4 w^ 4
2
ttv4 .
Cta?
^
v
v4
a;
3
,
i<!
=3
a?
= sin 2 %\ 2 cos 2 x,
= 16 sin 2
a?,
a;.
u2 = 6
v2
a?,
Wg
= 6,
= 4 sin 2 x,
u4 = 0.
v3
8 cos 2
a?
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
<P
^ = dx
!&/
.r sin 2 x)
= 0.
sin 2
+ 4-6-
-J-
4 3 x3 ( 8
- 16
2.
Given
[(.i-
cos 2 )
- 9 x)
= **
3
a?
sin 2
2 cos 2
16 sin 2
-f 0-6
.r
67
(- 4 sin 2 )
a;
aj
+ (3 - 6 a )
2
cos 2 ].
25
find
d.r"
= e"
v = x,
Here
Substituting in
(3),
^=
3.
Mj
= oe",
vl
=l
v.2
= 0,
(e**x)
^^
=a
n ax
dA y
-ilo
J=
/o
,31
2/
= 0,
ax
= ane
un
ax
+ m"" ^ =a
1
tl
-1
ax
(ax
+ w).
in
a,*,
c?
8(-l)*
J,l
Z X
,46,8
48(a;4-l)(22
- = sin
a;
6\
+ x-^^-x*)
+ 2x + l)
[log cos x
2 tan
#(3 tan 2 x
dar
7.
y=
^=
x*a*,
ax (loga)"- 2 [(ajloga
ft)
8.
9v
= ( . + i )V^ri; ^3(5^-14,4-13).
6.
v3
we have
d7?
a
1
u,^ = a n ~
(a-,+ 1)
>
-=( 1)
dx n
ft-
(x
+ l) n+
-ft].
-*-
5)1.
CHAPTER V
INFINITESIMALS
DIFFERENTIALS.
61.
The
ax
numerator and denominator, but as a single symbol representing the
limiting value of
as
Ax approaches
zero.
derivative has not been defined as a ratio, but as the limit of a ratio.
We
of fractions,
dx
Various definitions have been given for dx and dy, but however
defined, they are called differentials of x and y respectively.
The
symbol d before any quantity is read " differential of."
62.
The
Definition
of
One
Differential.
definition
is
the following:
algebraic function,
Ay
is
For example,
and
if
=x
Ay
first.
y+
3
,
= 3x
Ay=(x + Ax)
3
,
Ax + 3x(Axy+(Ax)\
...
(1)
^=
in which, as
Ax approaches
3x?
+ 3xAx + (Ax)
zero, the
second
2
,
member approaches
3x?
zero.
DIFFERENTIALS
If
we
let A.r
nevertheless a
marked
69
(1),
the
first,
Ax higher than
Thus we have
Ay=3x 2 Ax
and the closeness of the approximation increases
approximately,
as
Ax approaches
zero.
From
increments,
we may
and dy as
infinitely small
write
dy
= 3x
dx,
not in the sense that both sides ultimately vanish, but in the sense
that the ratio of the two sides approaches unity.
dy=3x
Thus
dx,
and
^- = 3x 2
dx
are
of x.
of the ratio of
the
increment of y
to that
of
x,
as the latter
is 3xr.
So in general,
if
is
unity."
y =f(x),
^/ =/'(*) +
Ax
is,
where
e,
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
70
Ay
Hence
= f'(x)Ax-\-eAx,
and as the term eAx diminishes more rapidly than the term f'(x)Ax
we have
Ay = / '(a?) Ax approxim ately
dy=f'(x)dx.
or
for the
more
of
derivative
Differentials.
dy
Y
dx
Let us see what this
tion
The
defini-
means geometrically.
If
we regard
the derivative
o/
dy
tan
?^<k\ TR
RPT.
dx
By
dx
will
appear,
if
we suppose
PR
diminished.
to
be
indefinitely
is
RT equal to unity, or
^RQ
RT equal
to
RQ.
PR is
more nearly
is
differ-
DIFFERENTIALS
The second may be
tions,
but the
said to be the
71
defini-
first
and physics.
64.
may
member.
To each
for a differential.
Thus we have
II.
III.
= 0.
d(u + v) = du + dv.
dc
vdu
IV.
d(uc)
VI.
jfu\ _ vdu
VII.
d(u")
= nu
-f udv.
n~l
udv
du.
(l
"
IX.
d7 log u
XI.
= e 'du.
d sinw = cosu du.
d cos u = sin u du.
d tan u = sec udu.
d cot u= cosec u du.
d sec u = sec u tan u du.
d cosec u = cosec u cot u du.
u.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XX.
XXII.
de"
O7
,i
_i
Sill
*.
tan
-1
fl
Vl-u
(l
d sec
XXVI.
il
vers
-,
"
-
XXIV.
"
+U*
du
"VuY^l
du
V2u
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
72
Differentiation
by the
old, differing
substantially the
is
same
as
(XX
For example,
to,
ay
let
X2
-\-
- (x
_ rif^l\
~
a
[x^T3j~
(z
+ 3)
~ (x + 3) dx - (x + 3) 2 xdx
=
2
(x 2
(a;
If
we wish
by
+ 3 - 2 -6 apcfa = (3 - 6 - a
(x + 3)
+ 3)
2
a;
to divide
+ 3)
a;
) cfa
(a;
we have only
dx, giving
dy_ 3 6x x
dx~ (x -\-3)
2
EXAMPLES
Differentiate the following
process
1.
y=(a?-l)(2-3a>)(2a> +
3.
4.
= (t-l)(t-2)
(* + l)(* + 2)'
y=
-vVTT Va7^2,
dx= 6(f-2)dt2)"
(t+l)(*
Wx'-\- 1
rdx~Z=
Var 2
dy =
^ = (2 +cosm^)sin^
= 5J2l-*,
cos 3
5.
3),
(^ + Adx.
the
INFINITESIMALS
7.
= sin 6
= tan
log tan
4.r
<^
x2
dy
cfa
+x
^,
= SVI 9 x* dx.
3 tan 2
d^ =
tan
6>
may
infinitesimal
dO
spoken of
If there are
a,
Then a
(9
tair^+1'
In Art. 62 we have
65. Order of Infinitesimals.
f6.
small or infinitesimal increments.
An
+ sec 6 dO.
sc
+ 3.r Vl - 9
= tan-Han
o?/=
5
-,
sin- 1 3a
9.
dr
9,
73
may
zero
infinitely
is zero.
simulta-
infinitesimal.
2
,
with respect to
?ith orders,
a.
Lim a=0 ^ =
When n=
When
1, (3 is
= 2,
(3 is
A',
(1)
a.
From the definition it may be shown that the limit of the ratio of
an infinitesimal to one of the same order is finite, and to one of a
lower order, zero.
Equation
If
we
write
(1),
it
dy
= 3x
dx + 3x (dx) 2
(dx)8,
are Bin a;
infinitesimal, of
what orders
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
74
By
Hence by
to
x.
T
Lim
x=0
.
Limx=o ?HL!
Art. 12,
(1) sin
is
=l
cosx
a finite quantity.
an infinitesimal of the
= Lim
versa;
x=0
x-
sin'
siii
or
sc
== T
first
Lim x=0
l
/sinscV
+ cosa?y
x J
a finite quality.
Hence by
respect to
Show
(1) versa? is
that tan 6
respect to
x.
6.
sin 6
is
CHAPTER VI
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
(See also Art. 114.)
66.
explicit
The same
functions of a variable.
*,
4,
dx2 dx5
'
,
'
'
when yy
is
an
implicit function of x
that is, when the relation between y and x is
expressed by an equation containing these variables, but not solved
;
with respect to y.
For example, suppose the relation between y and x to be given by
the equation
9
cry
9,799
2
b xr
97 9
orb'.
x,
dx
(
2ahJ hl + 2bix = o,
dx
b x^
dx
a 2y
first
derivative,
we may by another
cC-ylfJ
dx-
d.ca 2
y~
- Hm3K
dx
<i^f
7-3
fy
-x&S
dx)
d2y 2
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
76
Substituting
now
dry
dx
-^
dx
for
its
+bx
b\a2f
The
entials
b*
ay
we may
differentiatin g again,
d3y _
dx8
value,
obtain
6\
'
a 4y 5
first differentiation
may
be conveniently performed by
differ-
instead of derivatives.
equation
a 2y 2
-f b
x2 =a2 b 2
2a ydy + 2b xdx = 0,
2
dn
-^ =
dx
giving
In deriving
differentials.
^, *,
dx dx
"hi*
as before.
a 2y
...,
EXAMPLES
Find the following derivatives.
1.
(x- a) 2 + (y-b) 2 =
2
,
xa
dv _
dx
2.
x=y\og(xy),
b'
d 2y
4.
+x
'
dB
d 3y_
dx*
3c 2 (x-a)
(y-by
<frtanfl
Iogcos0-Ocotcf>
1,
<fy_ _axjj-hy
hx + by'
dx
xy
gj = logBin* +
(coB^=(8in^,
ry
v
7
ax2 +2 hxy-\-by 2 =
''_
(y-by
dy_xy- y
dx
3.
dx 2
d 2y _ lr ab
dx2
(hx + by) 3
d2x _
'
dy 2
h 2 ab
(ax
+ hyy
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
5.
aa?
6.
tan
+ 2hx!r + bf =
.
tand>
r
/=x
_x6
rtd>
d =
_x
d>
sin2
ch/
2)/
d2
(x
)/
25
y)
(3x
9.
,W + 2r + l =
0,
(|J
diJ
e-=crtr
c?
+ 2,eot.|=^
?/
"~ logft
a;
log
+
hilog (,-+,-) = 2o tan -^, g=^-J
/
ii.
2 sin 2 Afcos
2
^v
sin2 0'c?0 2
'd0
\
sin 2
= w,"
8.
10.
d
dx
77
oN
r?y
d2y
?/
6'
^y = %-iog)
2
(to
2x?
(a;
+ 2w
J=-^r#-
log b)
j
'
CHAPTER
POWER SERIES
SERIES.
67.
VII
%+w
-f
u8 +
The
+un + un+1
series
.
...
(1)
this
n terms of
(1),
Lim
When
the series
a
convergent
when
number
of terms is indefi-
Sn
is, if
denote the
when
series,
+ ar +ar
-f-
ar 3
-f-
r is numerically less
Sn = a + ar + ar* +
~
+ ar"" = a (} **)
1
When
When
When
* \r
=1,
<
1,
Lim^ Sn = ^_i_
1 r
>
1,
Liin n=00
the series
is
Sn = oo.
also divergent.
Convergence.
and
of the
For
68.
sum
when
convergent,
is
is
Sn = some
)(=00
sum
That
the
finite limit, as
But when
nitely increased.
is
made between
absolute convergence
conditional convergence.
* r
|
r.
SERIES
79
A series
formed by
is
is
con vergent.
we may regard
the given series as the difference between two series formed of the
positive ami negative terms respectively.
If the
convergent.
when
terms is convergent.
series whose terms have different signs
absolute values of
its
Such a
may
be convergent
series is said to
be
conditionally convergent.
For example
but
it is
2,
2
is
is
l_i + I_I +
But
is
(1)
32
22
...
42
The following
are
some
of the
most
useful tests.
That
is
is,
the series
convergent, only
For
when
+ Mg+
Lim =x u 0.
Sn = #__, + u n
v^
u2
-f-
#,
+ un
-\
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
80
sum
If the
Lim n =
Lim n=00
Hence
For a decreasing
series
is
+ log
2,
(1)
series
_3
_5
4*"
Lim M=00 u n
(1), since
series
not sufficient.
an
- + = + -*
2
it
two
series is called
For a
divergent, as
The sum
Mn
'
convergent.
Sn = Lim n=0O Sn
is sufficient.*
For example,
is
a0
is
= 1.
and
Such a
limits, loge 2
even or odd.
oscillating series.
series
^2^3 4^
is
We may
Comparison Test.
series of positive
terms
is
may
series
+ -2 + 3- + -++ -6 + -7 + 8- +
4
5
1+ I +
HHH
+
is
it
(1)
with
+-
omitted.
(2)
SERIES
Each term
term of
(2)
may
Hence
(2).
81
if (2) is
divergent, (1)
But
also divergent.
is
be written
T 2 T 4816
=1+1+1+1+1+
The sum
therefore
...
hence
(2) is divergent,
and
(1).
Consider
now
h+h + h + h+If
If
p = 1,
p < 1,
every term of
responding term of
(3)
which
is
divergent.
Hence
(1).
(1),
(3)
(3) is
than the
> 1, compare
! + !+!+L + L + !+!+L + ...+JL +
15"
1
If p
2'
3'
1'
6'
Every term of
But
(5).
(4) is
(5)
equal
may
or less than,
to,
the
4:
ratio,
is less
whenp^l,
when p >1,
corresponding
...
'
than unity.
(4)
v i
'
The
be written
L + ^+l+^
+
9P
\P
P
p
series,
...
8'
7'
cor-
is
is
(4).
divergent;
convergent.
may
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
82
71.
+u
h un
+ un+1 +
(1)
this ratio is
Let us
first
consider,
series
Here the
We
ratio
from
+ ar + ar
-^ =
r,
and
is
|r|<
,
That
is,
(2) is
ratio
now
Wi
(1) is
is
(2)
1,
i
or |?-|> 1.
,
<
If
....
according as
arn 4- ar n+1
\-
-\
any
1,
>1.
or
series
The
then
series is
<
Liim
We
Wi >1.
or Lim, J=
(3)
=P
Lim,
Let
Suppose p
1,
<
approach
1.
its
By
taking n sufficiently
limit p as nearly as
we
large
we can make
please.
-^- <
Hence
r,
n,
m,
a proper fraction.
< u mr
2
,
etc.
uy+
-.
SERIES
But
since
< 1,
the second
member
of
series, is
is
83
Consequently
convergent.
> 1.
Suppose p
By
v.
Since r
> 1,
r,
is
the geometrical
member
convergent.
similar reasoning,
-^ >
Hence
(1) is
which
(4),
first
when
> m,
an improper fraction.
^ > u m r,
u m+2
must be divergent.
Thus the theorem
first
member,
u.n+l
l
Lim,
<1.
>1.
Lira,
The proof
If
U n+1
Lira,
-i
the series
tests for
EXAMPLES
1.
1-2
Applying
(3),
Art. 71,
2-
3.2 s
we have
^**
un
2(w
+ l)
2 (n
As
Its limit is
+ 1)
this is less
is
convergent.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
84
and which
divergent.
2
'
+ \3 + + \5 +
10
4
-
+ 10
l+ +
l
1
l-f?
1+
10 4
10 3
By
II
2
By
'*
9
'
+ Vl
(1),
Art. 69.
Compare with
(3),
Art. 70.
Compare with
(3),
Art. 70.
(1),
Art.
Ji=
11
i
,
n2 + l
4i-_ +
1
+ V2
+ V3
11.
log?-log| + log|-log| +
12.
sec^-see^+sec^-sec^ +
13.
sin 2
^+
2
By
10
Art. 70.
+* *
1+I+A.+
_r 5"r
10.
(1),
i_?+?-^+A_
3
^
+l
2
2
2
L?
Art. 71.
1
I
6.
By (3),
sin 2
- + sin 2 ^ + sin2 ^
3
By
..
69.1
POWER
14.
15.
12
+1
+1
+1
2+1
2
+1
'
'
OS
+1
+l
+1
4+1
+l
.19
-t
42
85
'
+1
16.
+l
32
22
SERIES
2^-1
5 S_
43_1
33_1
Answers
Exs.
2, 5, 6, 9, 11,
Exs.
Exs.
8, 12, oscillating.
series of
divergent.
+ a x + a # + a$?
2
-\
is
For example,
in-
x,
+ 2a; + 3a,- + 4^
2
a,-,,
a l5 a2
are
1_ t+ I*_ t +
12
are
power
series in
li
1$
x and y respectively.
power
series
is
generally
If
we apply
we have
{)
(3),
+a x + a#?-\
\-a nx
power
n
-\
= Lim,
anx
an x
= |a?|Liin
series
(1)
Lim.
BS
n-l
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
86
The
x Li
that
is,
<
m^
1,
>i;
Lim,
a;
|
according as
|<c|<Lim n=
The
or
case
or
= Lim w=Q
\x\
+ 2x + 3x + 4lX
2
Here
an
Hence
(2) is
We may
t-naT-1
3
-\
Lim,,^,
71
+ (n + 1) a? +.
+1
(2)
= 1.
terval from
series
7t=
|#|>Lim
to
<
or
\x\
> 1.
when
1 < x < 1,
and the
is
convergent
is
in-
EXAMPLES
Determine the values of the variable for which the following
+x+x +x
2
1.
2.
x
x-J^-j-_^_
+
,
1-2
2-3
/v*
3.
A
4
+---
-^ +
3-4
rW*
+'-+- + - + .
,2^3
X
-
/y3
Xs
X
x
-3 + 5~7 + -'
,
POWER SERIES
5-
- + 1-T3 ~ + 1n
.1
.r
.r*
.i-
m3
7.-
7.
V-
)"*
}'
[6
a-
12
3
,
T> .r
-+
,
,.
/>v*
1- + -=-+'.
3
87
6
.
sc
a*'
12
II
when
all
1 < <
a?
values of
jc.
CHAPTER
VIII
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
When
74.
of
a variable
is
is
said to
Thus by ordinary
By
division
+x
= l_ + ^_ x +
3
a;
...
(1)
+ a) = a + 4 a x+ 6 a + 4 ax + x*.
(l- )- = l + 2x + 3 + 4ar +...
4
(x
method
(2)
We are now
general
of expansion, of
special
cases.
power
series of
involving
the
other.
We
shall
Theorem.
88
first
consider
Maclaurin's
'
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
Maclaurin's Theorem.
75.
of x
89
may
be
expressed as follows
/(*) =/(0)
in
which f(x)
f"(x),
its
is
Derivation
when * = -
'
Maclaurin's
of
Theorem.
If
power
the following manner:
Assume
where A, B,
(x),
successive derivatives.
f(O),f(0),f'(0),
/(*), / (*)> /' (*)> ;
76.
+/(Q)j+/' (0)|+/"(0)|+ -,
we assume
series in x,
the
we may
(1)
we have
f\x)
f"(x)
= 2C + 2.3Dx + 3.Ex
f"'(x)
= 2.3D + 2-3-4;Ex +
..-
....
2 ...
...
Now
x,
and consequently
(2), (3),
when x = 0.
we have
from
(1),
f(0)=A,
A=f(0),
from
(2),
f(0)=B,
B=f(0),
from
(3),
/'(0)
= 2C,
(4)
(5)
(3)
r(x) = 2'Z-E+...
(2)
=^'
are supposed
Substituting
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
90
from
(4),
from
(5),
/'(0)
iv
(0)
=2- 3D,
D = OS,
= 2-34^
E = G^-,
li
we have
in (1),
...
(6)
77.
it
As an example
f(x)
-f x) into
= log (1 + x),
= -- =
/(0)
+ x)-\
(l
/'(0)
f'(x)=-(l + x)-*,
Substituting in
(6),
Art. 76,
=0 + 1.^-1- 2
/v?2
= 1.
/"(0)
= - [3.
/-
=14.
(0)
we have
x2
log(l+x)
= log 1 = 0.
/'"(0)=2.
= - [3 (1 + *)/*.(*) = 14(1+.*)^,
let
x.
/"(0)=-l.
/'(*)= 2 (1+z)- 3
/* (x)
Theorem,
a power series in
/yiO
2 xs
[3*
4
,
+^--^J
/yi4
Li*
+ ^g----
/yi5
iog(i-M)=*-f +!-!+!-.
78.
If
Theorem
to a
given
In
x
= 0,
The
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
91
EXAM PLES
Expand the following functions
Theorem
3
1.
x4
t
= 1 + x + -r- + '
4- ' H
|4
|3
\2
power
into
series
by Maclaurin's
Convergent for
all
values of
x.
Convergent for
all
values of
x.
Convergent for
all
values of x.
2*^
4.
X'
= x + 'X ~
H
sin x
cos a;
(a
[3
[5
,2
,4
j2
|4
[7
=1 +-
+
[6
+ "O*- 1 )!"- 2
^-3^3
...
< a.
Convergent when
\x\
Convergent when
|a;|< 1.
[3
5.
log u (l
+ = log ae ^-|+|-j+a;)
(1*) =
6.
log
7.
tan- 1 ;/ x
+ ^--\
O
Here
/(a?)
x-
Convergent when x
Convergent when
= tan -1
/" (a?)
-o'+^-aM3
.r
'
\x\
< 1.
\x\
<1.
a;,
=^-1-^ =
< 1.
/'(*)
1.3
8
a?
...,
x7
Convergent when
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
92
Here
f(x)
sin -1 #,
VI XT
= 1 +aar>+ bx + cx +
1 3
a = -, 5 = , c^
2*
2-4'
/'
where
'
'
5
,
2.4.6'
/"
9.
(a;)
sin (x
(x)
= 2 ax + 4&c + 6ca +
3
+ a) = sin a +
sin a cos a +
cos a
a;
Convergent for
10.
log(l
11.
e*
sin x
= +
cc
a3
12.
e*
cos #
=1+
a;
< 1,
o
Convergent when
Convergent for
all
values of
x.
Convergent for
all
values of
x.
tana = a + ^ + ? ?+"-.
r
lo
=l+ +
| |f+-.
14.
S ec*
15.
logsec*
= -+-+-+
....
2
16.
sinh
x.
+ x + x*) = x + ^-?f + ^ + ^
^
13.
values of
all
cosh x
'
=* + - + -+.-.
[3
|5
'
tanh x
e-H-e-'
show that
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
x"
= 1 + ar
;- + ;-+.
,
17.
cosh 3
18.
tanh x = x
x
2 r
4- 7715
Show by means
19.
93
,xiA-l
-x
v/- 1
cos
4-
as
V 1 sin
_ cos _ -y/ _ 1
a-
sin
x,
ACB, a
may be shown that
= 8 b -- a
arc, it
its
.,
approximately.
.
Let
<
Then
a=2r
=2
sm<
r<j>,
AOC.
and by Ex.
= 2W
*!
<f>
2,
Art
72,
[5
[3
in| = 2r^-^4--*
3
2
Combining so
b-a =
V2
25
2 [3
'
as to eliminate
1^
3
<
2rfs^ + ^=3s(l-^.
480
If
s is
If s is
an arc of
an arc of
&
,T
30,
G0,
<*>
= ,
12'
= |,
<
102000
< ^q
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
94
80.
Computation by
Compute by Ex.
Series.
1, p. 91,
Ve
to 5 decimal places.
Ans. 1.64872.
Compute
^\/e
Compute by Ex.
7T
Ans. 1.1051709181.
to 10 decimal places.
2, p. 91,
= 3.14159265.
Compute
Ans. 0.01745241.
whose arc
81.
log (1
Calculation
+ x),
is
Ans. 0.5403.
of
By means
the expansion of
of
numbers may be
computed.
log 9
=0.6931,
=1.0986,
=1.3862,
=1.6094,
=1.7917,
=1.9459,
=2.0793,
=2.1972,
log 10
= 2.3025.
log 2
log 3
log 4
log 5
log 6
log 7
log 8
table.
This series
is
prime
in terms of these.
would give only two decimal places correctly. But we may obtain
a series converging much more rapidly by taking
log2
= log
~3
= log
(1
|)-log (1-|).
EXPAXSIOX OF FUNCTIONS
For log
+x
log (1
1-x
=X
.v-
x3
+ X) a*
(-a
- x)
log (1
95
ar
_ ar _
.t
2~
Convergent when
Thus
Four terms of
losr
!a;|<l.
~ .333333
= .6931.
as follows:
i =.333333
3
1
.037037
1
3"'
_ .004115
= .012346
3-3 3
33
=.000823
5-3
.000457
= .000065
37
1
.000051
9
,J
= .000006
3"
.34657
2
.69314
The numbers
cessively
by
in the first
9.
2.
+x
T
1
an(j
\ Q(T
suc-
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
But having log 2,
easier to
it is
1
log -
compute
= log
and then
log3
= log| + log2.
log -
=!log
i+i
'4-
of 2,
3, 5, 7,
To
obtain the
common
logarithm, that
article.
is,
logarithm 10
it is only-
tables,
82. Computation of
From Ex.
ir.
I=
a slowly converging
To obtain a
taa->l
7, p. 91,
= l-! +
by letting x =
+ ..,
series.
series converging
tan" 1 1
= tan"
from which
4
3 2s
^3
3-3 3
+ tan +5
'
3'
25
5-3 5
27
7-3 7
1,
we have
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
By
first series
97
= 0.463647
and
= 3.14159
7T
more rapidly,
may
...
0.321751...
..
as
1=2
tan" 1
tan
-1
tan" 1 -
= 4 tan -1
+ tan"
By
tan-i
mal
239
places.
sum
of the
of
quantities.
may
be expressed as follows
/(x
84.
+ ft)=/(x)+/'(x)A+/"(x)|+/"'()|+-.
The proof
of Taylor's
principle
If
we
differentiate
to h, regarding
That
is,
For, let
x constant.
-ff(x
ax
+ h) =-
f(x + h).
all
z
= x + h,
(1)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
98
then by
dx
dx
Jy
dh
But from
dh
dh
'
dh
of the expansion of
series
f(x
where A, B,
C,
+ h)
into a
we assume
If
power
= A + Bh + Ch +
2
we may
Assume
article.
j.,
dA
7N
dx,
dB
f(x + h)=B + 2 Ch
Art. 84, the first
members
-f
x,
(1)
3Dh 2 +
of these
h.
dC.o
dx
dx
deter-
m+
d
dx
the possibility
series in h,
f(x+h)
By
K J
dz
=1
and
1.
dx
mine the
Af(
f (x '+ h)
JK x +
^ h)= JKJ
therefore
85.
dJi
dx
(1),
v
;'
dx
dz
dD JS
h,
dx
....
to-
dx
dx
....
dx
principle of
^=
B = ^.
B,
dx
dx
dB_2f
p_
dx
dC=3D,
dx
j)
2
1 d A
2 dx2
=~
[3
~
c
dx 3
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
The
99
= 0,
coefficient
equation
is
Then
A =/().
Hence
=^ =/'()
in (1),
as that
we have
/(.r
+ /o=/>o+/'(^A+rw|Vr'(^,4
[2
Maclaurin's Theorem
86.
by substituting x
= 0. We
+---.
(2)
[3
is
As an example
+ h) into a power
f(x + h) = sin (x + h)
/ (x) = sin x,
f'(x) = cos x,
f"(x) = sin x,
/"'(a*) = cos x,
= sin x.
/
Theorem,
series in h.
hence
iv
(a;)
/ij
(2),
Art. 85,
we
find
4
sin x -f h cos
/r
h
h*
sin
cos x + sm
a:
re.
a:
-f
x.
let it
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
100
EXAM PLES
Derive the following expansions by Taylor's Theorem
h2
1.
cos (x
3.
(x
/i)
4.
(x
7i)
5.
log
= x + 7a;
7i+
= af + nxn~
+ h) = log x
(a;
tan
(a;
h2
a?
7Tl>
2 ar
8.
As
a;
A4
+ 3^Js~T^4
+
ar
4 ar
4- 7r sec
a;
'
tan x
7.
10
h3
h
-\
a;
(n 1)
+ h) = tan + h sec
+ ^(3sec aj-2sec x) + ....
6.
h3
75 s i n ^
1,
cos 62
6,
tan 44
h)
=f(x)
= 0.4695.
= 0.9657,
tan 46
= 1.0355.
+ | r(x)+ V /iv(a;) + _
g /"'(g) + g/ + -;
= /(a )+x/^) +
/{)
12.
+ aJ
/'
W + |r'W +
/'(*)
f"
+
(1
05
+ *)
-...
(x)
2
1
x3
(1
13.
If 2/= /(#),
show that
y
da;
^cto2
[2
^da:3
[3
+ *)
f'"(x)
3
[3
EXrAXSIOX OF FUNCTIONS
101
=a
If a given
Theorem.
Rolle's
89.
well as
its
derivative
is
<'(.r);
function
<(.r)
zero
is
when
then
<f>\x)
of
by the
6 A = a,
OB = b.
Then
accord-
when
= a,
= b.
and when x
is
O/A
B\
continuous
x=
b,
is
parallel to
there
b-a
This
may
be stated geometrically
thus:
The
OX,
A(
/Y
mediate point.
In the figure
let the
represent y=f(x).
curve
PRQ
K
to
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
102
Let
OA = a, OB = b.
Then
PM
b-a
At some point
of the curve, as R,
PQ.
be drawn parallel to
Call
between
OK=x
P and
Q, a tangent can
Then the
slope of the
tangent at
Hence
AB = b a = h,
),
< x, < b.
(1)
CL
If
we
let
+ h)=f(a)+hf(a +
f(a
= a + h,
(1)
important, in that
it
may
may
be written
0<<<1.
where
cf>h),
(2)
Let
R be
defined by
f(a
That
is,
let
+ h)-f(a)-hR =
/( a
R denote
+ ?0
(1)
-/()
.
x substituted for
That
h.
is,
<(#)
Differentiating,
It is evident
<j>'
from
=f(a + x) -f(a)
Hence by
-xR
= f (a + x) - R
<j>(x) = 0, when x = h,
<j}(x) = 0, when x = 0.
(2) that
and
<j>'(x)
x, 6h,
f'(a -f Bh)
f(a
we have from
-R =
R in
(3)
by
== 0, for
h.
(2)
(x)
also
between
is
4>(x).
(3)
0.
(1),
(1)
some value of x
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
92.
103
method
and
obtain
f(a
Hence
From
=f (a + f
4>"(x)=f"(a + x)-B
(a)
x)
<f>'(x)
(2) it is
evident that
also
and
Also
<f>'
Hence
<f>"
and
tween
= 0,
(x) = 0,
(x)
h.
<f>(x)
= 0,
when x =
for
when
value,
= Oh,
be noticed that
=a
Define
It
to
x2 between
,
is,
be-
(3),
in (1),
we have
a + h.
This
for
+ 0h)-E = O.
it is
to x
Taylor's Theorem.
(1);
= 0.
= 0,
we have from
may now
by
continuous from x
It is
<f>'(x)
a;
h,
0.
some
f'(a
It is to
when x =
h.
Writing x2
f(a
(2)
(3)
x between
from
(1)
xE,
<ft(x)=0,
Hence by
93.
$(x)=f(a + x)-f(a)-xf(a)-^R
Let
of
~M =
f(a + h)-f(a)-hf(a)
Define i? by
?*th derivative.
its first
= a + h.
by
f(a + h)-f(a)-kf(a)-gf(a)
[2
^/-i(a)-f"i^0.
\n-l
\n
(1)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
104
Let
J^/^(
= fr(a + x)-f'(a)-xf(a)
if(x)
/^(a)-^
+(x)=f(a+z)-f($-xfXa)-f"(a)
)-
tt
$-* ()
=/w "
(a
a;)
-/"- 1 (a)
*-(oj)=/
As
(a
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
<f>"(x) = 0,
Hence
But
- a>2J,
+ aj)-iJ
-gL j
|
when x =
(2)
evident that
it is
h,
<f>'(x)
when x = x where
<f>'(x)
when # =0
1,
0<x
<h.
hence
when x = x2 where
,
<
x2
< xv
<
xn
< xn_u
that
is,
(x)
= 0,
where xn
Hence from
(2)
is
<"
when x = x n where
,
(Oh)
=f
f(a
and
between
(a
h.
+ 6h) - R = 0.
R in
(1),
Since a
is ara/
quantity,
we may
...
we have
+ |r^/-'(a)+^/"(a +
write x in place of
a,
fl).
giving
+ .-/(* + ).
.....
(3)
EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS
94.
Remainder.
The
105
last
I*
is
is zero,
When
the
series.
We
write Maclaurin's
Theorem
f(x) and
from
we may
article,
its first
to
sb.
Theorem
is
When
Lim n=I=e
0,
(1)
Applying
(1) to
f(x)
=e
we have
= 0,
Lim,
which
is
The same
llf(x)
is
true for
= log (1 4- *),
f(x)
(1)
all
values of
= sin x,
x.
and f(x)
= cos x.
becomes
Lhn_ \* (-1)-|!L=11
(i + Bxy
J
U
=--[ =Ffe)-]=!
This
is satisfied
It is to
when
|aj|
<
1.
is
of no
CHAPTER IX
INDETERMINATE FORMS
Value
95.
"#
any assigned value
This
When
is
The value
of Fraction as Limit.
i
ot x, as x
=a,
is
^v y
<K)
of the fraction ^;
'
or
<j>(a)
\{/(a) is
zero or infinity.
as a
continuous variable,
when x approaches
That
limit
a.
the value of
is,
for
^>
^'
'
,
Lim x _ a ^
when x
or
what
= a,
is
is
defined to be
(a+M.
+ h)
Lim h
-t(a
There
is
no
difficulty in
when one
We
x,
is
will
zero
now
zero or infinity
is
or
infinity.
The
fraction
is
96. Evaluation
of
the Indeterminate
Form -
Thus,
But
if
j-
x2
we reduce
LinL,_,
* _1
value.
its
l.
the fraction to
2
when x =
Frequently a trans-
its
lowest terms,
+.t-2 = TLim^i x +2 = -3
.
Vhl
x*-l
106
we have
INDETERMINATE FORMS
2 =
-, when x = 2.
z-1 -1
r
Again,
By
-2
(a;
- 2) (V -1 + 1)
g'2
Vai-1-1
= Lim^Va-l +
As another
1)
= 2.
illustration,
008
cos
cos 6
Lillian (cos 6
(9
4
2
(9
fl
(9
sin 0)
cos4
Form
-f-
sin-=
4
-y^.
T/>>-
variable,
We
value of this
the given
new
this rule
' -,
*W
= o.
By
is /la-
will
is
derived.
when x
a-,
that
By
as h approaches zero.
h)
the
(2),
Art. 90
(ft
(a
+h)
<t>
where
and
method:
<
<<
nator.
= ?.
whenfl
97.
for
= ,
The
2g
0- sin
cos 6- sin
7 Lim e _zr
;r~ w
~4 cos^-siu^
sin
cos 2
"But Liui ep ~
_zr
107
is, <f>(a)
is
=0, and
the limit of
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
108
But
since
= 0, we have
4 h) = h<f>'(a 4 Oh) = (a +
^(a 4
^'(a 4 dji)
4 0^)
cj>(a)
and
if/(a)
<t>(a
which
If
that
is
Lim
^^ = M
<j>'(a)
is,
*
t
i}/'(a
/i)
Hence
flft)
<fr
and
ij/'
(a)
= 0,
it
often as
may
is
not indeter-
minate.
For example,
let
Art. 96.
x2
$(x)
y,>
-l
= 2'
-,
2x
xp\x)
0'
when
05
= 1.
is
Z
For another example, let us find the limiting value,
e*
i//
_2
e
COS
_|_
(a?)
<'(<e)
-x
cos
= -,
_ e e~* _
x
ij/'(x)
sin
a;
xj/"(x)
cos
a?
when
a;
=0.
a?
when x = 0.
0'
when x = 0.
Thus the required
limiting value
is 2.
when x = 0,
INDETERMIXATE FORMS
109
EXAMPLES
Find the limiting values of the following fractions for the assigned
values of the variable.
1.
*0g ~ 1 ;r~ 2
x-
2X
+ s-3)
log(3*
.r tan
_1
.T
108(^-4 8 + 6)
log cos (#
whenz = 2.
Ans.
whenx = l.
Ans.
7.
when x = 0.
Ans.
log 6 a.
when x = 0.
-4?is.
2.
2)
w-log(x + l)
>
when* = 2.
^n S
wh enx = 0.
4&
XT
vers
-2.
g.
Jj
fl
sin 2
8.
+ \.
L
\ogx
3.
= 0.
Ans.
whenm = .
Ans.
when
0.
'
"",
n)
sin^ + |)-l
when0 = ?
^4??s.
when a =6.
^w.
cos no.
log sin 2
6
10.
5^=
b
a b"
log >g
-log.6
^-2ar' + 2x-l
when
6.
^+J2S-
1 log 6
Ans.
b log b
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
110
13>
14.
15.
faums-ntans
wh en
nsmx sin7ix
n tan x
n sin x sin nx
tan nx
wnen?i =
-,
(a;
eto
98.
+ e"
x cos x
A
Ans.
m m
4
Lmu=
The method
.
00
is
the
form -
article that
T^-ZL_1
if/
0,
when x = A0.
<()=
xsec 2 ^ tana;
af
if
A
Ans.
l.
2.
log sec 2 x
It has
Ans.
sin x
m sin x sin mx
x
(x 1) e +
+ 1) e~
16.
= 0.
(a
= T--l
(1)
i//(a)
li)
and ^(a)=0.
when x = 0.
cot x
&)=M^ =
cot
\f/(x)
when z = 0.
oo
1
sin 2 a;
=
7?H=
cosec^a?
y(x)
6'(a?)
d>"(x)
,.) (
\\>"(x)
a;
2 sin a; cos
a;
a;
= - = A0,
A
whenx-0.
,
a'
when
-,
= A0.
is 0.
Note.
a;
1.
GO
INDETERMINATE FORMS
111
the form - or
cc
cc
will
assume either
(?r
2 x) tan
But
when x = ~+
x,
oc
(tt-2x)J taiix=
7r
~ 2x =,
cot
0'
a;
~2
-cosec 2 a-
i//(.r)
when = J.
2
= 2j
when
**
2
is 2.
log X
-But
log
sc
^
'
when x = 1.
xx
-p,-,4.
= b 1 log = 1) log x
a;
___=4 when
1-1+fcg.
*(*)
=-
=
12 + 1
a?
-,
when x
(a;
.
'
when
a;
=l
a-
= 1.
.,
1.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
112
100. Evaluation
The
of the
which
0,
will
00
,
oo
given function.
y
log y
=x
x*,
when x
= 0.
x
;
= x log x = ^
= GO
-\
when x
= 0.
iLLA
= x = 0,
when x = 0.
_1_
ij/'(x)
x2
is 0.
of y is
1.
(1
ax)* t
-f-
when x = 0.
00
.
Let
log y
= (l + ax)x,
= lpg (! + ax = %
)
when * = 0.
a;
oo.
have the
^' (a)
a,
when x = 0.
is e
::
INDETERMINATE FORMS
113
EXAMPLES
Find the limiting values of the following expressions for the
assigned values of the variable.
when #
a; = 00
00.
3.
x tan v
4.
2T
sec x,
j:
Ans.
a;
when
a'
sec 3 x
fx
7T
+ x\-\
:
Ans.
3.
1.
0.
when x = 0.
'
Ans.
^ns.
6*
a;
sec o x
when x ~2*
Ans.
when x
= 1.
Ans.
when
~2*
when
when
5
3'
3
J
tan
8.
(cosec0)
9.
(tan0) cos<
>
/ 2 sec 2 6
(9
- Il\V
10
=
^.
~2"
7T
when
2x tan
2x?
== 0.
=
2 X tan
6.
a;
or
2.
when
log(lH-aj),
1.
Ans.
vz
0: "2"
Ans.
1.
0: _
"4"
Ans.
when x = 0.
Ans.
= e.
Ans.
tan2 '
c"\i
7T
7i'
7r
3-
abc.
12.
(log a>>--,
13.
(a
/ cos
when
a;
+ z)x,
ax
4- cos
when x =
0.
Ans.
when a; = = 0.
Ans.
bx\
xZ
ae.
CHAPTER X
MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF FUNCTIONS OF ONE
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
101. Definition. A maximum value of a function is a value greater
than those immediately preceding or immediately following.
A minimum value of a function is a value less than those immediately preceding or immediately following.
If the function is represented
represents a
minimum
102.
maximum
QN
PM
represents a
value.
Maximum
Conditions for a
It is evident that at
both
or a
P and
Minimum.
the tangent
is
parallel to
OX,
clx
positive to negative
but at Q,
At
P the
slope decreases as
...
x increases.
At Q the
x increases
By
when
(a)
slope increases as
Art. 21
(b)
we have
d
(slope)
dx
114
<
0.
(1)
But
Iv
dx
and
(1)
(slope)J
*
L15
= ^f^\
=
dx\dxj lW
\ <
becomes
0.
efar
^=
Hence when
and
0,
dx
there
By
is
maximum
value of
similar reasoning
0,
dx2
(2)
y.
we have
the case
$y >
when
(6),
0.
dx2
S=
Hence when
and
0,
is
a mi id mum value of
For example,
let
^>
0,
(3)
dar
r/.v
there
^<
?/.
us find the
the function
values of
Put
|_2o; + 3^ + l.
2
2/==
^ = a*-4a?^&
Then
(4)
da;
fH*- 4
Putting
4)
= 0,
s?
- 4 + 3 = 0,
a;
whence
Substituting those values of
when a =1,
a;
in (5),
we
= _2<0;
find
<5 >
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
116
Hence by
(2)
and
(3),
when x = 1,
y has a
maximum
value
when x = 3,
y has a
minimum
value.
From
that the
maximum
we
value of y
^=
0,
In exceptional cases
makes
find
y,
it
== 0, so that
is
= 2J,
y = 1.
y
a value of x given
by
is satisfied.
dxdx
This would be the case for a
point of inflection
OX.
is
neither a
(see Art.
parallel
is
maximum
RL
nor a
minimum.
But there may be a maximum
or
minimum
when 4=0.
2
value of
This
is
dx
considered
in
Art.
following article
is
y,
even
more fully
J
106.
The
also appli-
Maxima
without using
%.
dx2
We have seen in Art. 102 that when y is a maximum, as at
P, the slope, that
is,
changes from
ax
mum,
as at Q, -& changes
dx
from
to
-f-
to
and when y
(It is
is
a mini-
understood that
we
the form of
form,
it
changes from
^ = X - 4a? + 3 =
dx
or
from
in Art. 102,
1)(*
3).
can change
sign only when x = 1 or x =
3.
dx
By
-f to
in factor
for
Here
117
greater than
we
1,
find that (x
1)
less, to
changes from
to
one slightly
but since
dx
mum.
(x
4) (# + 2)
Il
dx
= 3 (3 x -
2)(x
"When x =-.
3
since
(a;
As
this
changes from
When
4,
+ to
-2 changes from
dx
to
dx
= 2,
4)
=
"When x
sign,
cannot be negative.
when x
-*-
- 4:)\x + 2)
but neither a
is
minimum when #
2
-;
maximun
maximum
nor
minimum when x
it
is
= 4.
preferable to thai
dx
of Art. 102,
differentiation of y involves
much work
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
118
EXAMPLES
1.
Find the
32
a;
Ans.
2.
2X
3 x 12 x + 12.
Ans.
3.
2 x3
11
^4ns.
a?
2
= -,
gives a
3,
gives a
4.
+9
(a
ic
+ 12 x + 10.
#)
^tfts.
= 3-a
maximum
_._
gives a
".-.
.
gives a
minimum
=2
= gives a
,
1
-\
V3
2 (3
7.
Show
8.
^_
+ 2) 3 #
2
6.
a?
that
-2
maximum
^-^^t
= 2,
aj
gives a
maximum
has no
maximum
80.
nor minimum.
a2
=
a
Show
+b
a2
=
a
a
gives a
minimum
(a-b)1-2
^
a
no*^
n
/
Show
'
maximum ^(a4-bY
.
gives a
y*
a;
10.
minimum
Ans.
9.
3V3
-4ns.
gives
9 a3
3V3"
'
16
V3
x
9 a3
-,
= 3a
= 2o
a>
1.
maximum
(x-l)(x-2)(x-3).
A
-4ws.
13-J-f-
minimum
5.
48.
cos 2
is
ne
+-
sin
is
9
8
-.
,
;
11.
that the
sin 2 $
sin 2
13.
Find the
maximum value of
values of
- and
are
12.
taken in the
a sin x
tan
-1
b cos x.
tan -1 ~,
quadrant.
first
119
2
Ans.
Va + b
2
2
.
_j3
4'
14.
that of
15.
16.
ere**
y
J
+ &V",
~x
-2x
)
a tan
-f b cot
is
the same as
to 2 ab.
u4?is.
A minimum when x = -
= (.r-l)%r + 2)
Ans. A maximum
3
2/
neither
17.
of
and equal
7/=0-2)
J./<s.
(2z
when a =
when
+ l)
a;
minimum when x = 1
= 2.
A maximum
when x
=-
minimum when x =
2
neither
when x = 2.
= oo
dx
sign by passing through
Hence
lo
It is to be noticed that
-^
dx
may change
^=oo,
if
dx
those given by
''"
dx
=0.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
120
= a b(x c)
dy_
Then
dx
25
3(x-cy
hence we have
dy
dx
oo
2
3
.
Y
,
when x = c.
It is evideDt that
when x
dx
changes from
4- to
maximum
y, which is a.
shows the maximum
The
indicating a
value of
figure
ordinate
PM,
corresponding
to
'
cusp at P.
On
dy
Then
dx
But
dy
dx
= a b(x c)"
3".
= oo
when x = c.
3(-c) 8
when x = c,
is
there
shown
is
no maxi-
in the figure.
121
EXAMPLES
Find the maximum and minimum values of the two following
functions:
y=(x + l)i{*-oy-
1.
Ans.
2.
= 5;
x = 1.
A minimum when
minimum when
maximum when
a;
= (2x-ay(x-a)*'
Ans.
106.
A maximum
Conditions for
when x =
minimum when x =
a.
/(o)>/(a + ft),
f(a) >f(a
and also
where h
is
h),
finite quantity.
Now, by the
substitution
we have
S
/(a + A)-/(a)=
Rf(a) + ^/"(a)
/"'(a) + -.
+i
['
the hypothesis
also
/(a
h)-f(a) < 0.
context.
of Art. 93
of both (1)
may
(2)
/(a) < 0,
/(a
/*)
(1)*
and
(2)
must be negative.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
122
By
sum
entire second
first
member
etc.
and
(2),
the second
mem-
/(a) = 0.
Equations
(1)
and
f(a
(2)
then become
...
/(a-A)-/(a)=|/"(a)-|/''(a)+....
The term containing h 2 now determines the sign of the second
members. That these may be negative, we must have
f"(a)<6.
/'(a) =
If then
f(a)
is
and
/"(a)<0,
maximum.
Similarly,
it
may
be shown that
/'(a)
if
and
/"(a)>0,
and
/"(a) =
If
show that
for a
0,
maximum we must
also have
iv
f'"(a)=0
and
f (a)<0;
/"'(a)=0
and
The
conditions
may
lv
(a)>0.
be generalized as follows
Suppose that
f(a) = 0,
Then if n
If
is
is
is
/"(a)
= 0,
f"'(a)
= 0,
...
f(a) = 0,
not zero.
even, /(a)
is
neither a
/M+1 (a)<0
or
>0.
123
IN
Divide 10 into two such parts that the product of the square
and the cube of the other may be the greatest possible.
1.
of one
Let x and 10
mum.
Letting u
:>.i'(4-.t)(10-.t) 2
x)
is
to be a maxi-
du
dx
2.
x 2 (10
maximum when
is
= 0,
= 4.
is
Hence the
a has a small
maximum when x=
which
-,
is
AD = a, DC=b.
Let
Let x
= DQ,
= PQ,
its altitude.
From the
we find
ADC, PQC,
similar triangles
b-x
The volume
.r).
y=i
of the cylinder is
= 7r-X
7r:r?/
(6
x).
This will be a
is
maximum.
This
is
found
to be
when
=|
b,
required cylinder.
From
this,
= -,
o
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
124
4.
Let r OP, the radius of the sphere x = OR, the radius of base
and y = PR, one half its altitude.
;
of cylinder
From
OPR
x2 -jg y2 =r2
we have
The convex
2
ttx
2y
= 4 7rx Vr x
2
is
2
.
irx
Vr x
2
when
x V?*2
and
x-y/r
when
its
square
i^x
maximum, when x
x
x
r^x
is
maximum,
is
maximum
maximum,
is
is
maximum.*
k
,
is
=
V2
From
this
= -,
V2
2?/
Another Method.
The convex
= rV2.
The equations
surface
= 4 irxy,
2
may
+y =
2
we
= xy,
(1)
i*,
(2)
(1)
(2).
Vr2 x 2
and differentiating
Substituting in
^L = y
dx
Differentiating (1),
(2).
+ X dx
dx
=y
dx
=*
y
x=y,
dx
changes from
Combining
-f to
= y,
= =
V2
giving a
with* (2),
= V2
(3)
*= _5
c
+ y ^=0,
dx
(3),
125
it
is
when
evident that
maximum
value of
u.
we have
as before.
first.
5. Divide 48 into two parts, such that the sum of the square cd
one and the cube of the other may be a minimum.
Ans. 42f, 5-|.
6.
Divide 20 into two parts, such that the sum of four times the
and nine times the reciprocal of the other may be
reciprocal of one
minimum.
7.
Ans.
may form
a box of
maximum
this square
contents.
Ans.
8.
8, 12.
How
1J
in.
Ans.
9.
is
is
ft.
What
the length of the shortest ladder from the ground over the wall
to the house ?
Ans.
13
V 13= 46.87
ft.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
126
10.
beach, wishes to reach in the shortest time a place 5 miles from that
point along the shore; supposing he can run 6 miles an hour, but.
row only
at the rate of
land.
11.
ellipse
12.
What must
is
to
its
Altitude, 5 in
a given capacity.
is
be
made which
to be
shall
have
the diameter of the base that the smallest amount of tin shall be
Ans.
required.
14.
drical
What
Height
= diameter.
water tank,
if
is
two
Ans. Height
=f
diameter.
15. (a) Find the altitude of the rectangle of greatest area that
can be inscribed in a circle whose radius is r.
Ans. rV2; a square.
(b)
of greatest
volume that
Ans.
is r.
^
V3
16.
(a)
(b)
r.
Ans.
in a sphere of radius
r,
equilateral triangle.
of greatest
volume inscribed
Ans.
(a)
r.
Arts.
(b)
18.
least
volume circumAns. 4
r.
maximum volume
right cone of
127
is
r.
cone, the vertex of one being at the center of the base of the other.
Show
is
of the other.
19.
line,
2x + y = 16,
from
(4,
sum
3) may
be a
and
5)
(6,
minimum.
20.
-f -
= 1,
'
21.
Ans.
bv
& the minimum distance.
J rinding
what
is
Another
hour on a
will they be nearest together, and
When
is
In 7 hrs.
Distance 15 Vo7
= 113.25
mi.
is
Opposite a point
anchored 9 miles
to land a passenger
is
What
vessel.
The
velocity of
the
is
Ans. 13 mi.
Va + &*
Ans.
22.
'
vessel is sailing
to the line
Ans.
'
(7, 2).
is
propor-
tional to
the velocity
24.
+ -,
is
Show
C=
in a voltaic cell is
maximum when
R=
is
P=RC
-j-
that
the external,
2
\
show that
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
128
From a
25.
may form
Angle
Arts.
maximum
a conical vessel of
of sector
capacity.
^-)2 ir = 66
14'.
3,
26.
nation
is
Ans.
V2
At what point on the
27.
must a
amount
two spheres
of spherical
surface ?
Ans.
The
centres being A,
AP :PB =a?:b
2
point;
28.
(a)
The strength
the radii,
a, b
and
P the required
s
.
of a rectangular
beam
and the square of the depth. Find the dimensions of the strongest
beam that can be cut from a cylindrical log whose diameter is 2 a.
Ans. Breadth
The
beam
V3
Depth = 2a A /?.
\3
and
Find the dimensions of the stiffest beam
that can be cut from the log.
Ans. Breadth = a. Depth = a VS.
(6)
stiffness of a rectangular
29.
The work
The
A?is.
cost of fuel
Ans. -^2000
31.
is to
minimum.
weight of 1000
lbs.
= 12.6
(a)
of a leaf,
whose width
of the crease
is
129
a, is
folded
a minimum.
Ans.
(b)
J a.
folded over
33. A steel girder 25 feet long is moved on rollers along a passageway 12.8 feet wide, and into a corridor at right angles to the
passageway. ISTeglecting the horizontal width of the girder, how
wide must the corridor be, in order that the girder may go around
Ans.
the corner ?
34.
5.4
ft.
be
tangent
is
drawn
major
to the ellipse
axis.
its
length
is
a -f-
b.
the base
Ans. 3
b.
that
b,
CHAPTER XI
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
107. Functions of Two or More Independent Variables. In the preceding chapters differentiation has been applied only to functions of
We
shall
now
u=f(x,y)
Let
y.
Since x and
we may suppose x to
vary while y remains constant, or y to vary while x remains conWe
stant or we may suppose x and y to vary simultaneously.
must distinguish between the changes in u resulting from these dif-
ferent suppositions.
Let
only,
u,
total
be the
in-
from
OA
to
stant,
That
& 3u
Ay
change.
If x changes
is,
in x
AM.
Ax u = area AM.
130
A^u
Ax
'
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
OB
y changes from
If
That
If x
of
131
is
BX.
\u = area BN.
is,
A = area
u,
108. Partial Differentiation. This supposes only one of the independent variables to vary at the same time, so that the differentiation is performed by the same rules that have been applied to
functions of a single variable.
we
If
we
constant,
If
we
obtain
dx
differentiate,
du
obtain
= f(x,
differentiate
y),
we
dy
The
derivatives,
dy
,
dx
tives,
For example,
if
ox
dy
,
is
= x + 2 x?y y3
-f
= 2x
3y
=3x
dx
4 xy,
2
,
the ^derivative of u.
the ^/-derivative of
u.
time.
EXAMPLES
Derive by partial differentiation the following results
du
xy
1.
'
2.
du
V.
+y
= (ax + 2
2
bxy
+ off,
(to
+)*_(.+)*
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
132
o
5.
6.
= AVx
/ T +#>
vt
-
ii
12.
3
c?/ ),
0g
3-
du
du
+2/
oy
ox
+2 du = A0.
du
dz
2 2)i
sin
vw
V^y
(^
+ r+^-)
a5logaj-^+ylogy-^ =
da;
0.
d?/
a?,
2+
(tan x
J,
a;
a?/
=logy aj4-log x y,
= log
=
dy
= + *+
*
oy
ox
x~ + y
2/
2/
u= e z sin y + e
^)
13.
dy
\-
ofl?
2/
1 w
^ + ^ = + 2/- iN
^l + 2tan-^,
dx
du
'
du
a-
,
y
4-
dr
= x dr
dx
+e
du
xy
..
foci/
(^
11.
x
= +-z + -,
a;
10
w
y
?/
*=
?/
= log (x + ace +
du
4.
\/
\/
= e2x + e2 + 2 e +
*
(fr)*
"
sin
(*+*)
o du
sm 2x
+
'
da;
o
sin 2w
du
f-
a?/
sm o2z
.
du
=2.
dz
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Geometrical Illustration of Partial Derivatives.
109.
133
Let
= f(x, y)
APCIL
The ordinate
PN
is
thus
Let
XT.
APB
and
CPD
be
sec-
by planes
to XZ and
through P. parallel
YZ. respectively.
If x and y both vary,
moves
to
on the surface.
If x vary, y
stant,
Hence
dx
is
Hence
APB
at P.
P moves
is
CPD
APB.
to
CPD
in the plane
It is evident
CPNL.
PT
are
,
6V
-,(-'),
dx
and of
= y',
(1)*
PT,
*"*'* #<*-&>
ax'
^dy'
dx
$?
dy
=X
'-
(2)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
134
PT and PT'.
For
to the surface at
- z,==d
x, y, z,
and
- x )+
'
W'
{y
~ y,)
(3)
by
is satisfied
(x
and
(1),
also
by
(2).
TJie equations
(x', y', z')
P contains
Its equation is
d^_
dz^_
dx'
dy'
x'y
-jn= ?-^-
i/'
the tangent
...
K
-(z-z')
'
y
(4)
v J
By
dz[
dx' '
dy'
_1
Hence, if a, {3,
OZ, respectively,
y,
cos a
cos 2 a
Also
From
(5)
and
(6)
/3
dz;
dx
dy'
+ cos
we
_ cos _ cos y
+ cos
/3
find,
OX, OY,
=1
dx
(5)
(6)
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
135
-(DM!)
to
(7),
<
XY
=v(IJ + (SJEXAMPLES
Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal,
sphere x 2 y 2 + z- = a2 at (V, y,' z').
to the
1.
dz
dx
Hence
Substituting in
dz
z'
By
x'
dx
z'
dz'
(3),
"''-
xx'
(x-x')
=
Oy
dz'
-,
- z' = -
y'
-;
z'
(y
- y'),
-j- z'
=a
2
,
vlws.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
136
From
we
(4)
(y-y')- = ^-^
^-^-,=
x
y
1 = ^ 1 = - 1,
y'
x'
2.
- = 2- = -.
x
z'
3x
-y + 2z = 0,
2
at
y\
(x',
z= 3 x2 + 2
2
,
at the point
Find the
5.
of tangent plane
and normal
to the ellipsoid,
3y = 4;Z + 2.
Ans.
111.
2z'
6x+8y 2 = 11.
+ 2y + 3z =20,
x = 3, y = 2, z being positive.
Ans. 3x + y + 3z = 20; x = z + 2,
2
icaj'-f-
-.
to the sphere,
l,
at
yy'
By
successive differ-
may
'
y'
a;'
Ans.
4.
to the cone,
z').
loid,
Ans.
z'
^-^ = y-^- = z ~ z
3xx'-yy'+2zz' = 0,
Ans.
3.
y'
we
obtain
d 2u
dx
If
we
differentiate
to y,
we
obtain
2'
d 2u
dy 2
dhc
dhc
dx*
dy
'
u with respect
I -^ \ which
dy\dxj
is
4>
written
-.
dydx
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Similarly,
J
is
dyd.r
to x,
is
*\
and
dx
That
137
are commutative.
dy
is,
dydx
112. Given
dydx 2
dxdy
(1)
fe)"Sfe>
Supposing x to change in
(1),
y being constant,
Au = f(x +
Ax
supposing y to change in
AVAtA = f( x +
dx*dy
u=f(x,y),
to prove that
Now
dxdydx
As, y
As, y) -f(x, y)
(2)
"
Ax
x being constant,
(2),
gfl
Ax
Ay
Ay\Ax)
Ay
A (*^\ = f( x + Ax y + A
>
y)
-f( x + Aa:
Ax\Ay)
Hence
= f'(x+0>Ax),
As
y)
f(x
>
+ A ^) +
f fa y)
Ax Ay
/A\
A/Aii\
Ay\AxJ
Ax\Ay)
>
and
(2),
Art. 90,
(3)J
may be
where u =f(x).
expressed in the
0< 6< 1.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
138
In the present
ty{lx)
Similarly,
and
By
where u =f(x,
case,
iy
fx {X
+ &1
AX
'
V)
+ ^' AX
=fyx(X
'
+ $rAy)
'
x ,y + B^Ay),
^=f(
Ay
= f* y<KX + 6i
Ax\^r)
(3)
'
y) f
/^(aj+^.Ax, y
'
Ax> V
+ '^'
+ Or Ay) =f
Aaj,
xy (x
approach
A?/,
+ 6fAx, y +
8 .Ay).
zero,
is,
d fdu\
-d fdu\
=-
ay\axj
ay ax
ax ay
d u
d u
__
= _-
or
dx\&yj
Thus
d 3u
dydx
=
2
fdu\
d 2u \
dx\dydxj
It is evident that the
same
is
fdu\
d
f
d 3u
dx 2 dy
variables.
dx
may
dxdydx
d 2u \
dx\dxdyj
immaterial,
&u
dxdy\dxj
dydx\dx)
d2
is
ay
more
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
139
EXAMPLES
A erlfy
dx dy
1.
in Lxs. l-o.
dy dx
= ax +
ay + bx
l) /
!
w = fBylog?.
2.
s.
6.
7.
= a.x* -f 6 Saf^ +
8
dx2 dy 2
g_^_g.
*d u
dhi
ar
-f 2a^-- +
>
d 2q
= log
11.
i^ztan
(e
dar
io
13.
d 2ii
"
999,00').
999
- y-z-e+ z-.cre- + afyV,
= sin
(jj
+ z) sin (z +
2
1 d q
a;)
dy z
r2 d#-
5?'
d 2u
t-=2
dy
d 2u
+ dz
,
1%,
U
IV
14.
2
2/
3 .
+ dy + dz- = o.
+
dx
/".>,
^
= log (ar
-f y + z ),
i
-,
?/
10
12.
1 dq
= 2e^+t4V
dxdydz
+ e" + <*)
odhi
oxdy
-^ =
d>
10.
c,
dar
d*u
find
,.
y) e*-.
dx dy 2 dx
dx dy dx dy
find
= ,= tan-' 2 - r tan- 5,
/
(a;
g+g=-
1/
8.
d a
,
x
= - + log-,
a*
4
d u
c?/
tt
?*
.=iog(* +!o,
3.
x2 -\-y 2 -\-z 2
= e-0,9,0
+ er + e
V
*
2
.
sin (x -f y),
2cos(2a;
dxdydz
+ 2?/ + 2z).
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
140
113.
Total
This change
is
In Art. 107
Total Differential.
Derivative.
Thus the
mentof
we have
simultaneously.
total incre-
u=f(x,y)
Au
is
The terms
total derivative
and
example,
let
= x y-3x y
s
dt
(1)
to be functions of a variable
dt
y)
dt
= tfty. + 3^2*
dt
For
t.
t,
J)
dx
dt
_ 6x2J
dy
_6
dt
dx
dt
....
(2)
But from
(1)
we
find
= 3 x y 6 xy
ox
Cj7/
So that
(2)
may
= x 6x
fi?f
dy
y.
be written
_du dx du dy
dt~dxdtdydt'
du
If
we had used
,q\
^ '
we should have
obtained
du
= dx H
dx
dn
in
(2)
and
(3) is called
the
dy
dy
J
total derivative,
(4)
and du
aii
differential, of u.
We
x and
proceed to show that (3) and (4) are true for any function of
y.
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Noticing that
and A x u, A
u,
An
is
L/
let
141
u,
= f(x, y),
x and y
u'=r\x + Ax,y),
u"=f(x + Ax,y + Ay).
u
separately,
being functions of
t.
= u'
A u' = w"
Ait = u" m.
Axm
Then
it,
m',
Am
Hence
Am
and
At
Taking the
approach
= A m + A,.M
Axu A.U Aw'
_
~~
clu
Am
Ay At
Aa A
limits of each
zero,
member,
as At,
= dudx
du dy
dxdt
dy dt'
dt
"
This
may
du
dx
dy
dx
if
dt
and
ri
u =f(x,
y, z),
dx dt
dy
that
is,
are functions of
x, y, z
dz dt'
dt
dy
t,
(8)
dz
write in (8)
du
ox
giving
where
(6)
We may
dy
J
,
tfaj
= d,
_
dy = dw,
dy
cht
tt
du
= dxu + dvu
is
du
the
4-
cZz
= d u,
1
dz
dz u,
sum
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
142
=du+d
u,
may be illustrated
+ A u + area MN,
Aw == A w + A u Ax Ay.
Aw
that
=A
we have
is,
-+-
rap-
Aw
the
closeness
approach
of
+A
u,
approximately,
we suppose
Ax and Ay
== x,
u=f(x, y),
then
(5)
as
zero.
If in (5)
and
=A
du^du
becomes
Similarly, if in (7),
dx
ox
u =f(x,
y, z),
=.x
3udy_
By dx
(9)
y and
du
=
+ du dv
dy dx
dx
du
dx
whence
y being a function of x
being functions of x
du dz
-h
/iAN
(10)
'
-=
dx
dz
EXAMPLES
Find the
1.
total derivative of
u=f(x,y,z),
where
w by
2
t
z-.
1?,
2
dx
4- ^
= log (x ~ y
2
),
where
= a cos
t,
= a sin
-
dy
dt
2.
dz'
t.
^ = - 2 tan 2
dt
3-
w = tan -1
-,
where
= 2t,
y
.r
=1
2
t
=
dt
+ t\
t.
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Apply
4.
two following
(10) to the
=/(*,
143
y, z),
where
= x x,
2
= x? x
2
.
h = ^+(2x-l)^ + (3x*-2x)^.
(
dx
= tan
where
dx
= d ar,
dy
=1o
dz
flr,
da?
Find the
6.
total differential
= ax + 2 6y + cy
2
by
(6) or (8) in
du
sin
i( x + y)
sin
rr
v.
du
y)'
du
= sinydx-smxdy
cos cos
a)
= ax + ty + cz + 2/#2 + 2
2
graj
it
= af'
11.
?/
= tan
+ 2 fta#,
du
a:tair?/tairz,
du
a;
c?y
+ xy log
a;
dz)
sin2y
sin 2zy
t in (5) and
(7) denotes the time, we have the
between the rates of increase of the variables.
If the variable
For
12.
One
cond.
another side
is
re-
example
At what
?/
10.
lation
'
(a?
the following
+x
and increasing 4
is 00,
and increasing
2 per second.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
144
A=
The area
dA =
dt
,db
c
- sin^l
from which
-be sin A,
V-
b
-
sm^lA
dt
dc
be
cos
AA dA
dt
dt
32
= .4934
= 70.05
sq. ft.
90
13. One side of a rectangle is 10 inches long, and increasing uniformly 2 inches per second. The other side is 15 inches long, and
At what rate is the area
decreasing uniformly 1 inch per second.
increasing ?
Ans. 20 sq. in. per sec.
At what rate after the lapse of 2 seconds ?
Ans. 12 sq. in. per sec.
14.
The
is
At what
is
is
50 inches and
the volume in-
creasing ?
15.
rate
is
Ans. 8.63
of
per sec.
increasing ?
114. Differentiation
ft.
an Implicit Function.
may
in.
per sec.
The
be expressed in terms of
partial derivatives.
may
by transposing
x,
all
the terms to
be represented by
+ (*,y)=o
From
Let
(9),
Art. 113,
we have
du
dx
cj>(x, y).
_ du
da dy
dx
dy dx
(i)
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
But by
(1)
a constant
is,
and therefore
its total
dx
may
be zero, that
derivative must be
dx
du dy _
=
By dx
du
Hence
145
zero.
0,
du
dy = _-_
_ dx
^
and
dx
For example,
find
(2)
du
dy
+ ^y
x?y 2
from
om
dx
Let
J?
o.r
By
- 3 a^ + 2 a-r,
dy
(2)
cfa
115.
Extension
of
If
-+-
xry3
f?
dy
2^ +
first
Taylor's
3a^?/
"
h,
*y.
Theorem
to
Functions of
f(x+
3ay + 2y 2
2z 2 + 3a*/'
f(x+7i,y+k),
to
= 2 &y +
3.i-y+ 2ay =
pendent Variables.
= xPy-
= --a5
k)
Two
Inde-
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
146
Now
expanding f(x, y
f(x, y
+ k) =f(x,
Substituting this in
/i2
may
This
* /(
if
dx
and
+ k d f(x,
y)
=f(x, y)+hf(x,
+2J
f(x
h&
dyj
k~
y)
is to
y f(x,
2
y)
....
>
y)
+ h^-f(x, y)
*>+"/<* + ..
(2)
result-
y).
dependent Variables.
f(x
d2
article
k
+-
dy
dx
116.
y)
where (h
7c),
(1),
+ h,y + k)
fix
we
By
Any Number
of In-
shall find
+ |(*s +
This expansion
may
*S
+,
s)
z)
^^
f>
+: -
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
147
EXAM PLES
Expand
1.
T
Let
.
log
-,
u =/(.i\ y)
(a?
+ h) log (y + A).
= log x log y,
i
= a^y = --,
ay
dx
los:
d>/
losr
d?<
a;
d 2 ??
32 m
log?/
?/
_ 1
d'
log
d.r
By
.
4-
A*
+ -loga-,
a;
2.
log
-logy
2/
(a
+ A)
(y
(+*) log
_
*&
A2
log?/ H
(y
AA
xy
re
dy~
scy*
+ A) = log a logy
A_2
5
i loga5+
2y-
+ A) = xY + 3 A.r y + 2 fc^y
2
dyda;
ar
+ 3 h xy + 6 AAa; y + A~V +
2
3.
sin
[(a:
7 2
V, 9 ,2
'
sin(a;y)
CHAPTER
XII
This
is
dy d2y d3y
dx dx* dx3
in terms
'
of
(1),
Art. 56,
By
(3),
Art. 56,
dy
= _
dx
dx
dy
to y.
(1)
dry_dL dy_d_dy
dx2
'
'
By
dx d 2x d3x
dy dy 2 dy3
dxdx
dy
dydx dx
d 2x
From
(1),
d dy _ d 1
dy dx ~ dy dx ~
dy
dy 2
(ax*
[dy,
d?x
d2y _
dx2 ~
dy2
fdx\ 3
Similarly,
dPj[_dL d^_dL
dx3
dx dx 2
(2),
d d 2y
dy dx 2
d^y
dy
dy dx 2 dx
2
From
(2)
fd x\
\dy 2)
_ dx (Px
dydy 3
dx^ 4
dy
fdrx^ 2
d3y
dx3
_ dx d x
3
dydy 3
\dy 2)
dx^ 5
148
(3)
IN DERIVATIVES
149
dy
dx
to introduce a
new
d*y
effy
dar
dx?
variable z in place of x or
y, z
being a given
118
where y
By
J
To express 4, g, g,
-,
dx dxr dx6
First.
is
a given function of
dydh__ d 2y/dz\ 2
dz\dxj
<fy d?z
dz dx2
find
4,
^,
(XX
-.,
o^ydz_dh,dy
may
dz dx3
be expressed in terms of
and
no change of the
x.
z*.
= 3z ^.
2
dx
dx2
=
^
dx
3
x.
CIX
*V
dx
d?z_
'
dxdx2
dz 2
Then
'
dz dx2
d3y _ cPy/dzY,
dx3
dz3 \dx)
Similarly,
**
dx dxr dxr
z.
d 2y _ d fdy\dz
dx2 dx\dz Jdx
we
*
= **.
dx
dz dx
(3),
v
" Art. 56,'
Similarly,
in terms of
\dx)
6
dx1
18**^ + 3*^.
f*Y+
\dxj
dxdx
dx
2
in-
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
150
119.
To express^, **, *M
dx dx2 dx3
Second.
'
in
terms
of
-2
dz
This
is
_Jl
dz 6
dz 2
where
a;
is
...,
'
'
a given function of
to
z.
z.
dy
By
(3),
dy _ dy dz _
dx dz dx
Art. 56,
dz
dx
dz
d fdy\
d*y
dx2
dz
2
dx d y
dy d x
dz dz 2
dz dz 2
may
generally easier to
be expressed.
In practice
it
itself.
3
.
dy _ dy dz
dx dz dx
But
Hence
dx
dz~
dz
2
'
_ z~
~dx~~3'
ySdy_l z -2 <ty
dx
d 2y
dx2
d_
(1)
dz
fdy\ _
dx\dx)
d_ fdy\
dz
dz\dxjdx
From(l),
*(&\u.(f**!-i r*\.
v
" dz\dx) S\ dz 2
dz)
Hence
'&*(,-& _2r*#\
dx2
9\
dz 2
dz)
w
(2)
::
h */*3t\
2
(2),
v
151
S-#(V.
dz \darj dx
dar
Similarly,
From
IN DERIVATIVES
dz\dx J
dz 2
dz"
dz
SU
A(r*S*- 6r^+10 *+$L\
dx
27
Hence
c?2
dz 2
dz
EXAMPLES
Change the independent variable from x to y in the two following
equations
1.
** - *W=
(Wyiry
dx\dxj
4s.
0.
J\dx~J
c?oj
dx
fff-i1
^~
+
,
to z in the
2(i+ yy%Y
TTFW'
\dy
Jdif
_ tan/
y
iK
^-2^Y=eos**.
2
da;
'cfo3
Veto:/
dxdx 2
to z in
the following
equations
'/.'
,J
das'
./'
(for
'A''
+ a^rfx
(1
+z)
2 2
0.
dy 2
(**\U** + ay*
\dy-J
&=
Jdx dxs
Ans.
*5s +
dy
dsccfcc
C?Z
ciz
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
152
(2aj-l) 3
7.
g+
(2a
-l)^ = 2
2 = l + e'.
2/,
= 0.
4^-12^-f-9^-2/
dr
dr
dz
+ 9^ + 3^ +
^^ + 6^
dx
8.
da;
dar
2/
= ^^,
a;
e*.
da;
d?
+2/
-*'
d**
u f(x, y),
Given
to express
and
dx
dy
dr
in terms of
dO
and
where
x, y,
are rec-
tangular,
We
du _ du dr
dx
dr dx
du_dudr
dy~drdy
The values
tions
between
These are
But
of
a;,
dx
y,
-,
ay
and
a;
,^
dudO
are
now
^x
<j$dy
dy
,
du dO
d6 dx
0,
to be found
from the
rela-
ox
r, 0.
= rcos0,
= rsmO
^, ^ and
dy
da;
(3)
dx dy
,
y.
^ = a^ +
2
2/ ,
= tan-
^.
and 6 are
re-
dx
86
we
find
8y
_ sin 6
y
x2
dx
153
+ y-
(2),
86
x
x2
8y
'
+y
cosfl
we have
8u
= cos0-8u
dx
dr
sin 6
8u
86
//IN
(4)
8u
8u
8u
= sm0
+ cos
dr
r
86
*
/trx
(5)
8y
121.
Transformation
of
from Rectangular
dxr
to Polar Co-
8y 2
*\
ordinates.
8rv
8_(8u\_
dx*~dx\dxj
Differentiating
(4),
(8v\_
8r\8x)~
86\8x)
q 8
for u,
dr
sin
r2
8r86
fl
dr
r,
da
,o\
K)
8$
drd6
,*.
^'
~8~6\8x)
sinfl 8 u
we have
(8u\
sin 6 8
(4),
(8u\_
8i\dx)
2
q8 h
Differentiating
CS
dx
862
6,
86
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
154
=
dhi
2
dx
ad u
cos 2 6
dr2
2 sin
cos
we have
(1),
dhi
sin 2
drdd
Similarly by using
dy 2
a dhi
(5),
2 sin
dr2
sin 2
du
dr
2 sin
d 2u
d$
du
cos
...
cos
drdO
cos 2
d 2u
r2
dO 2
2 sin
we
find
cos 2 6 du
r
cos
dr
du
.(5)
d$
Adding
(4)
and
(5^
=*>*
^ 2u
c%
dx
obtain
d 2u
dhi
dy
_ d5
dr
1 du
r dr
1 d 2u
r
d&
CHAPTER
XIII
Definition.
said to have a
is
sufficiently small
maximum
k,
+ h,b + k),
(a)
(6)
f(ti,b)>f(a
123.
Conditions for
Maxima
or
Minima.
u=f(x,y),
If
we
=
ox
This
may
0,
and
= 0,
when x =
dy
(&)
Jc
maximum
f(a,b)>f(a + h,b),
for a
(6) is
that
= b.
be shown as follows
and
a,
and
minimum
f(a,
6)</(a +
//.
155
ft,
&),
= 0,
and we have
for a
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
156
We
By
Art. 106,
we must have
f(x,
for both
b)
= 0,
when x = a,
dx
x
jrf(
ox
that is
Similarly,
by
'
^ = >
letting h
=a
wnen x
in (a) and
>
(6),
V =b>
we may
derive
~\
f(%, V) =
T
dy
As
0,
when
= a,
a;
= b.
maximum
in the case of
of higher orders.
rigorous derivation
is
are as follows
ox
0,
and
For a maximum,
-^ < 0,
and
For a minimum,
>
ox
and
S<*
-
0,
< 2>
^ <
(3)
>
(4)
dy 2
for a
?!f
dx
o
'
dy
^u
'
dz
(^L\< d u d u
2
and
(1)
6S-Y<SS
\dy oxJ
dx dy
also
124
|5_0s
dy
\dx dy)
dx dy 2
y, z)
The
conditions
are as follows
for a
2
d u
maximum
-<0, and
A<0;
and
A>0;
dx2
minimum,
|^>0,
d2u
dh
dx dy
dx dz
d2u
dx
where A
2*
d2u
d 2u
d 2u
2'
dy dz
d 2u
d2u
d2u
dx dz
dy dz
dz1
dx dy
dy
EXAMPLES
Find the
1.
maximum
value of
u = 3 axy
Here
= 3ay-3x =3ax-Sy
^
dx
dy
2
d2U
d2U
=_6flj
^j
dx
Also
Applying
xP y3
(1),
>
Art. 123,
dy
d2U
= - a6 y>
=Sa"
r~^dx
dy
we have
ay x2 =
whence
-z-i2
0,
= 0, y = 0;
and
or x
ax
y = 0;
2
= a, y = a.
= 0,
= =
dy
,
0,
3ct,
dx dy
157
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
158
The values x a, y = a,
= n6
give
dx
u a
= ba,
by
d2
d u
-
a,
d2u
= 6o a,
dx By
2.
and as xyz
is
fr
(1)
c-
a2
maximum when
numerically a
a3
t + vl + t
a2
is
x^yh 2
is
maximum,
we put
2 2 \
2a.-
50a52/
From
(2),
=
dx
and
=
dy
0,
we
find, as
Art. 123,
x=
V3
which give
V3
'
'
fy
'
da%
.,;
Art. 123,
(3),
it
159
is
maximum when
,
V3
a 3
V3
of xyz is
3v3
3.
+ y + + x 2 z xy
2
ar
that render
x, y, z
minimum.
#= 2 y=-,1
A
Ans.
-,
3
4.
= 1.
Ans.
(a
jut
5.
x2
6.
of x
sin
maximum
or
xy
+ y ax by.
Ans. - (ab
o
a b
2
+ sin y + cos (x + y)
minimum.
A
.
A
Ans.
-,
3tt
25
maximum, when
x=y = -.
6
7.
+ 6w +
(cu;
v
^+
8.
2
z/
c)y
+i
+ &- 4.
<r.
2x + 3y-t-4z = a
9.
^Ins. or
= abc.
Ans.
to the condition
Ans.
3.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
160
10.
may
continued product
x, y,
and a
x y.
u = xy (a x y), to be a maximum.
Then
= ay-2xy-y =
dx
2
= ax-x*-2xy =
oy
0,
0.
Hence a
Note.
a
is
maximum
or
minimum,
it is
it is
is
derivatives.
11.
x, y, z,
may
be a
maximum.
Ans. *
12.
the
= Z = *-=^
n p m + n+p
first,
may
be a
maximum.
Ans.
13.
when
is
An
find
a minimum.
When
Ans.
14.
3, 6, 9, 12.
open vessel
is
to be
the parallelopiped
is
a cube.
What must
be
its
construction ?
Ans.
in.
height, 3 in.
0*i> 2/i,)>
(x2
2/2),
(a*
2/s),
a minimum.
|<*,
+ *, + **),
161
<* + *+*>,
16.
a, b, c of
minimum
P on the sides
+y +z
value of x2
Ans.
a2
17.
+ &2 + c
+ S-1
+S
^
a
c
b
2
18.
The
electric
3V3
mx^z
ax + by + cz
Ans.
coil of
wire
is
minimum
value of
u.
Ans.
ax=by=cz=Jj^\
?i
'
u = j[jEL
3 Vabctf
CHAPTER XIV
CURVES FOR REFERENCE
We
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
Y
125.
The
Cissoid,
f
This curve
the circle
may
ORA
any oblique
2a
line
be constructed from
(radius a)
by drawing
PM= OR,
The equation above may be
obtained from this construction.
line
AM parallel to T
is
easily
The
an asymp-
tote.
The
162
is
126.
of Agnesi,
163
8 a3
a2 4-4 a 2
The Folium
127.
-f-
of Descartes,
3 axy = 0.
fSa
S_a\
\2>
The equation
tote
of
is
MN
2/
of the
asymp-
x + y + a = 0.
a o
is
is
3 a tan 6 sec 6
l
+ tan
of
the
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
164
128.
This
The Catenary,
is
2/
= 7jV + e
points.
129.
The Parabola,
l
Latus Rectum, x 2
JL
y^
=a
2
.
OL=OL' = a.
Y
The
OFM,
line
LL'
is
its
165
n
y = .v where one coordinate is proportional
nth
power
of
the
other,
is sometimes called the parabola of
to the
The curve
130.
an
~l
If n
= 3,
we have the
Cubical Parabola, a 2y
=x
If
n=
-,
5
.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
166
131.
= -cos -cos 3
4>
-sm<--sm3<.
y=
The Hypocycloid
132.
2.
a;
This
scribed
+y
is
2.
a3
by a point
in the circumference of
the circle
PR, as it rolls
within the
circumfer-
ABA', whose
is
radius a
the former.
may
be
</>,
given in the
form
of
The equation
is
exponent of
second term
changed from 2
the
the
tof.
134.
The Curve,
<ry-
on?
a:'
POLAR COORDINATES
135. The
The
a)
circle
is
OPA
tangent to the
OX at
= a sin
Circle, r
the origin 0.
$.
(diameter,
initial
line
167
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
168
136.
The Spiral
"
In
of Archimedes, r
= aO.
this
curve
is
proportional
to
Lay-
6.
ing off
r
OA,
when
= 2tt,
then
to negative values of
In this curve r
varies inversely as
0.
The
MN
line
an asymptote,
which the curve
is
approaches,
as
approaches
zero.
Since
when
r=0
= oo
only
it fol-
lows that an
finite
number
revolutions
in-
of
are
a.
6.
138.
Spiral
169
=e
Starting from A,
where
r increases
but
with 6
we suppose
if
negative,
decreases
as 6 numerically in-
Since
creases.
only
it
that
an
number
of
follows
infinite
revolu-
retrograde
tions
r=0
when 0=x:,
from
is
re-
The
initial line
the parabola;
focus
OP, OPj,
OP
OX
the
is
cos 0) = 2 a.
the axis of
origin
is
the
The
initial line is
sin $ tan 6
the axis
AX;
= 4a.
the origin
is
the vertex A.
2,
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
170
This
is
by a point
in the circum-
ference of a circle
ameter, a) as
it
PA
(di-
upon
OA.
rolls
OB
the circle
in
OA,
OR to Q and
BQ=RQ'=OA.
and producing
making
The given equation
Q',
fol-
The
origin
is
the
centre, of the
hyperbola,
and the initial line
is
OX
the trans-
verse axis.
If
Or
is
taken as the
initial
line,
the equation
of the hyper-
bola
2
is
r sin 2
6=
2
.
r cos 2
143.
r=a
This
It
is a
may
OA
referred to
2
171
cos 2
0.
on PQ, any
The loops
are limited
two
points,
F and
OF=
that
on the
axis,
such
OF'
V2
then the product of the distances P'F, P'F', of any point of the
curve from these fixed points, is constant, and equal to the square
of OF.
If
J"
is
taken as the
initial line,
r2
=a
sin 2
r=a sin
6.
0.
is
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
172
145.
The Curve,
= a sin
CHAPTER XV
DIRECTION OF CURVES.
We have
plane curve
146.
the
sider
ordinate
PX
is
will
now
con-
Let
PT
called the
and
subnormal,
MN
corre-
To
find expressions
Let
angle
<f>
clination
gent to
By
donote
PTX,
of
the
the
the
in-
tan-
OX.
tan
Art. 17,
Subtangent
<
dx
=^ =y
dx
Subnormal
dx
Intercept of tangent on
Intercept of tangent on
But as OT'
is
be
PM.
==
is
MT
subtangent,
the
We
of differentiation to curves.
tangent, and
Then
negative,
Intercept of tangent on
OX= OT = OM TM=x y dx
dy
OY= OT' PS - PM= x tan
<f>
we have
Y= y x tan = y x
cf>
dx
y.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
174
147. Angle
of Intersection of
Two
Curves.
intersect at P.
Let
PT
PT
and
be the
tangents at P.
PTX=<j>, PT'X=cf>',
and
let
I be
the
angle
I=<f>'-<]> and
tan<fr
tan/=
- tan<
ft-.
(i)
v
l+tan<'tan<
From
the
'
equations of
P; then using
<f>
^
= dy
dx
and tan
for the point P.
Substituting in (1) gives tan
For example find the angle at which the circle
<j>'
a*
+ 3^ 13,
(2)
2y 2 = 9x.
The
intersection
found to be
(3)
P of
(2)
and
(3) is
(2, 3).
Differentiating (2),
^
= -- = -?
dx
y
3
From
forP, tan<
(3),
Substituting in (1),
dy
dx
tan/
=
9
2
3*
=?forP,
4cy
17
1=70 33',
tan
<f>'
/.
<
TANGENTS AND NORMALS
DIRECTION OF CURVES.
175
EXAMPLES
1.
What must
parallel to
2.
b )y = x (x - a) - b x.
i
OX at the
b,
so that it
=2 a?
point x
may be
3a = b
2
Arts.
= 2 X + 9 x - 12 + 2,
s
6y
aj
the curve,
3.
+ ay = 2 ax.
= 4tax,
Ans.
Subtangents,
= -1
-V
f 1,
4, 11)-
Show
that the
Show
2a?, -;
subnormals, 2
a,
Ans.
-,
a.
Li
iii
+ =
sum
4:<iy.
Li (X
6.
and x2 =
5.
Ans.
4.
a2
is
equal to a.
2 xy
7.
Show that
2
8.
2
3
,
=a
2
,
is
equal to a2
parabolas, y 2
An s. At
= ax
is
equal to
a,
and x2 = 8 ay intersect?
3
-1 -
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
176
9.
3y=7x
10.
1,
Show
at their
x2 + y2
circle,
common
point
(1, 2) ?
45.
'
'
2~
'
11.
12.
Show
x2
of the circles,
+ if-2y = 9.
Ans.
tan" 1
= ax,
2 x2
+y =6
2
2
,
13.
Show
y
intersect at
14.
an angle
= 2 ax + a
2
,
and #2 = 2
%+6
= -8
^bis.
15.
of 45.
tan- 1 3=7134'.
= 4 a#,
-4ns.
tan
-1
V2
Equations of the Tangent and Normal. Having given the
148.
equation of a curve y=f(x), let it be required to find the equation
of a straight line tangent to it at a given point.
DIRECTION OF CURVES.
Then
y-y'
177
the equation of a
= m{x-x'),
(1)
straight line
m = tan
(f>
dx'
(
-^ being derived
and applied
If we denote
ii
m\
equation (1),
by
this
(', ?/').
we
have,
substituting
dx'
m = -^-
in
dx'
y-y'=%(*-*),
(2)
we have
is
a line through
(a?',
y')
perpendicular to the
r-f^C 0 g<
>
(3)
dx'
For example, find the equations of the tangent and normal to the
x2 + if = a 2 at the point (x', y').
Here, by differentiating ar + ?/ 2 = cr, we find
circle
Substituting in
(2),
we have
y-y' =
x ~ x%
--X
y
x'
y'
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
178
It
may be
simplified as follows
yy'-y' 2 = -xx'
xx' -\-yy'=x'
The equation
of the
+ x'
2
,
+ y' = a
normal to the
2
.
found from
circle is
(3) to
be
y-y'=-,(x-x'),
which reduces
to
x'y
= y'x.
EXAMPLES
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to each of the three
following curves at the point
The
parabola,
= 4 ax.
Ans. yy'
2.
The
ellipse,
=2 a{x + x'),
The
y')+y'(x x ) = 0.
r
^ + WL =
equilateral hyperbola,
yx'
1, b x'(y
2xy = a 2
Ans. xy'
4.
2a(y
= 1.
+^
^
b
a
Ans.
3.
(x'} y')
- y')= a y'(x 2
a?').
=a
2
,
y'(y
ellipse,
Ans. 3 xx'
5.
to the curve,
of tangent
y')
Ans.
=
^-^
x
y
3,
2xx'
2
.
DIRECTION OF CURVES.
6.
ar
2a x
(a,
a),
So
Ans. x
8.
+ xy = a
Xs y
-f-
= 3 a.
2y x 3a.
4r + x-
find
the equations of
curve,
2y
7.
is a.
= 2 x a,
y + 2x = a,
(a, a),
At
179
is
a.
= 2 x 3 a.
+ 2y = ka,
at the point
(x', y')
to the
3
.
Ans.
3
.
x'+f =3
9.
+ y = 2e
x-y
10.
:c
11.
fjY + (llX= 2,
\aj
Ans.
at (1, 1).
at (a, b).
\bj
Ans.
/^, 2^).
Ans. a
x+y=3a, x=y.
3y = x-{-2, 3^ + y = 4.
+ = 2,
U.
12.
+ y 3y =
2
14:,
=a -b
ax -by
2
.
circle,
7y = 4:X + l.
= 4# + 43, ly = 4 x 22.
Ans. 7
2/
13.
4 x2
- 9 y + 36 = 0,
2
Asymptotes.*
149.
+ 5 x = 0.
8y
+ 20 =65.
a;
to a curve approaches a
is
The
limits of this
is
called an
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
180
asymptote.
within a
at
an
We
finite distance of
is
its
point of contact
is
infinite distance.
have found in Art. 146, for the intercepts of the tangent on the
coordinate axes,
Intercept on
OX=x y
OY= y x -^-.
c
Intercept on
dy
dx
= oo,
or y
= oo,
the cor-
The equation
intercepts, or
of this asymptote
may
be obtained from
its
two
dx
Let us investigate the conic sections with reference to asymptotes.
(1)
The
parabola, y 2
Intercept on
^ = ^.
y
= 4 ax,
dx
dx
x
OX x y
dy
x.
Intercept on
^
Tr =
OT
a=
dy
x
=y
ii~
^
2
2 ax
'
dx
x,
= ^y
2
infinite.
= l,
The hyperbola, .^-j
2
2
a
Intercept on
OX =
&=.$.
a 2y
dx
OY =
Intercept on
dy
dx
_bx_
2
bx
a 2y
a V^2 _-2
- -b
when x
1
\/i-
a2
X2
when x =oo.
Hence
dx
a'
oo.
DIRECTION OF CURVES.
181
=
,
The
(3)
ellipse,
no
having
-x.
a
infinite
branches,
can
have no
asymptote.
Asymptotes Parallel
150.
is
And when
to
= oo
= oo
gives x
a,
then x
= a is
When,
y, as y
in the
= a,
then
OX.
an asymptote parallel
OY.
Asymptotes by Expansion.
151.
may
Frequently an asymptote
y,
and
As x
y
V - ^=
increases
*?(l - f)i=
a\
arj
indefinitely,
the
*(l*-.
2x
a\
curve
approaches the
lines
the asymptotes.
EXAMPLES
Investigate the following curves with reference to asymptotes
1.
= 32
x3
= 6x
2.
3.
The
Asymptote, ?/=
3 a
Asymptote,
or
a;
Asymptote,
z.
+ y = 2.
a;
= 2a.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
182
4.
5.
6.
Asymptote, x + y = 0.
+ =a
2 a)?/ = x a
Asymptotes, # = 2 a, x + a =
Asymptote, x + + a = 0.
X -f = 3 cm/ (Art. 127).
= vx in the given equation and in the expressions
(Substitute
3
a?
?/
(a?
?/.
?/
2/
?/
152. Direction
Polar Coordinates.
of Curve.
the
coordinates
PR
Draw
to
of
Q.
perpendicular
OQ.
Then tanPQP
= |^ =
RQ
+ A> rcos A0
Ar
+ 2rsin
A0
A0
sin
sin
Ar
-f r
A0
-
Now
angle
let
PQR
A0 approach
approaches
Hence
tan
zero
its
if/
sin
A0
the point
limit
A0
A6
if/.
Lim A
=o tan
PQR =
(1)
d0
The
inclination
<f>
of the tangent to
<f>
OX
= t+0
may be found by
(2)
DIRECTION OF CURVES.
183
If through O,
NT
pendicular to OP,
be drawn per-
OT
is
called the
ON
the polar
corresponding
the
to
point P.
that
is,
2
Polar subtangent
r
= r tan =
\b
a>
dO
that
is,
= r cot Y = dr
xb
dO
154. Angle
OPT=xj/
OPT' =
and
tan
I-
By
this
PT and PT\
x\,'.
of intersection,
tan ^-tani/r
1
section
of Intersection.
+ tan
i//
tan ^
a)
may
nates, in the
= asin20,
r = a cos 20.
r
and
From
(2)
and
(3)
we have
tan20 =
l.
(2)
(3)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
184
From
tan
(2),
if/'
= - tan 2 = -,
From
tan
(3),
if/
= - cot 2 = -,
Z
Substituting in
The curves
-i
Z
tan I o
(1),
EXAMPLES
1.
In the
a sin 6,
find
if/
and
Ans.
2.
<.
= 6,
if/
= e ad
and $
show that
= 20.
is
\J/
constant.
3.
when
^,
=2
= ad,
and 4
-k
show that
-k.
The equation
2
at its center is r
5.
27'.
constant.
=a
Arvs.
is
if/
sin 2
Find
0.
= 2 6;
if/,
= 30;
<
<f>,
subtangent
= a tan 2
= a (1 cos 0),
find
<,
Vsin 2 0.
^,
and the
polar subtangent.
Ans.
6.
<f>
if/
subtangent
= 2 a tan - sin
2
27
cardioid,
AnS
'
2
f^ + V3)a
2
.
DIRECTION OF CURVES.
7.
185
r= 3atan ^ sec ^
= tan - 2 tail 6
4
show that
8.
tan
<
2tan 3 0-l
Ans. 2 a/2 a2
9.
Show
10.
Show
= a,
= a (1 cos 0),
= b (1 + sin 6),
11.
Show
m sec- -,
2'
= n cosec- 2'
12.
r
At
Ans.
13.
r
= a sin 0,
origin 0
at
two other
tan -1 3 V3
points,
= 2 a cos 6,
tan
0.
Ans.
14.
At
v%
Show
/-cos 26 = b
= 5 a sin 6 ?
= 79 6'.
tan -1
tan
15.
2
,
2.
_,
=a
2
,
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
186
16.
= a sin + b cos 0,
circles
= acos$-\-b sin 0.
Ans. tan"
2ab
17.
r2
=a
sin 2
Ans.
Derivative of an Arc.
155.
Rectangular Coordinates.
Let
2 sin
-1
denote
the length of the arc of the curve measured from any fixed point of
Then
arc
We have
Now
AP,
sec
Ax
suppose
it.
As = arc PQ.
QPR
PQ
PR
to approach zero,
to approach P.
Then
Lim
sec
<.
'
since
Lim _p_e_ =1
arcPQ
Lim^=l4m^
P#
PR
T
Hence
As
c?s
Ax
dx
sec<
ds
dx'
therefore
|= VH^-V^g)'
(1)
DIRECTION OF CURVES.
187
SlU(i
= -,
COS
6=
It
may
(2)
ds
ds
relations
(1)
and
(2)
are cor-
by a right
whose hypothennse is
dx and dy, and angle
rectly represented
triangle,
ds, sides
at the base
<j>.
ds= ^(dxf+(dyy,
Here
or
dx
156. Derivative
Art. 152,
we
sec \b
r
of
have, as
an Arc.
[dxj
Polar Coordinates.
A0 approaches
From
the figure of
zero,
ar
RQ
RQ
^ = Lim
RQ
J.
As
As
A0
*' + '-
A,,.^ sm A.
A0
AF T
As
ds
.
sec ^
Y
T
= Lim
As
RQ
ds
==
d9
dr
(i)
dr
dO
Hence
-^
= Vl+tan
<l_'l*<]r_
V' + <|J,
2
i/>
(2)
/'*'
.
(3)
Vctf
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
188
It
may
(1), (2), and (3), are corby a right triangle, whose hypothenuse is ds, sides
and angle between dr and ds, \p.
rectly represented
dr and rdd,
Here
and thence
ds
V (drf +
(r
ddf,
^ = Ji + WY,
or
=V
r2
I I)-
CHAPTER XVI
DIRECTION OF CURVATURE.
157.
POINTS OF INFLEXION
it lies
when
in the
curve
is
said to be con-
immediate neighborhood of
Similarly,
neighborhood of
it lies
now
when
be shown that
is
in
Suppose
-^ >
0,
that
oar
of the slope
Then by
is
is,
dx\dxj
(
positive.
This case
is
to
2.
The curve
is
then con-
upwards.
But
if --
<
0, it
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
190
We
then have the case of the second figure, where the slope dewe pass from 1 to 2 The curve is then concave down-
creases as
wards.
158.
Point of Inflexion
a point
is
where
^2
changes sign,
dx
the curve being concave upwards on one side of this point, and concave downwards on the other.
dx2
when
^=
(1)
dx2
But
if
J=
when
X*
oc
dx2
Here
= 2.
If
'
we have
o
2
'
a>>2,^<0.
dx2
left,
DIRECTION OF CURVATURE.
POINTS OF INFLEXION
191
EXAM PLES
Find
five
1.
of the
following curves
y=(r-iy.
x= -;
Ans.
V3
2.
^Lns.
= x* - 16 x" + 42 x - 28 x.
= 1 and x= 7; concave
2
05
points,
3.
= x (x a) + a x.
a 4y
a
x=^;
r>
Ans.
4.
The witch
Ans.
*-,
(Art. 126), y
concave
downwards
5.
The
Ans.
curve, y
[3a,
a?
a?
+ 3 a*
-j,
(0,0),
(3
a,
);
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
192
= a4:Xx a
x> +
4t
7.
y=
8.i/
9.
10
11.
'
x=
Ans.
*.
T
(x a)
Ans.
= (#
-f
a?)
-x
Ans.
= e-~-e-K
gy
and
Ans.
(Art. 134).
Ans.
2 V3.
x = -2a.
and
a;
= 3.
= ^2S^zMH.
ab
+ g)U.
aV = a -
. -.
CHAPTER XVII
CURVATURE. RADIUS OF CURVATURE. EVOLUTE AND
INVOLUTE
159.
If a point
Curvature.
moves
its
curvature.
The
direction at
the tangent.
The curvature
is
point moves over equal arcs, the tangent turns through equal angles.
uniform curvature is the circle. Here the measthe ratio between the angle described by the tangent and the arc described by the point of contact.
In other words,
it is the angle described by the tangent while the point describes a unit
of
ure of curvature
is
of arc.
AP
<j>
and
PT
Then
and
<f>
As
as the point
by the angle
moves from
to Q, s is increased
by
PQ = As,
QRK= A<.
the point describes the arc As, the tangent turns through the
angle A(.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
194
The
form,
'
is
then equal
to
^
As
angle
But
arc
that
PQ = CP (angle PCQ)
is,
As = rA<f>,
^ =
As
Hence
Then
its
curvature
1
=
~ 50'
A<j>
is
As
in circular measure = 1
is
8' 45".
50
*
As
is
the
For
all
we move along
the curve.
we take As.
Hence the curvature
is
shorter
at
-L<ini As=o
-7-
As
as
is
equal to
The
to
curva-
*,
the
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
CURVATURE.
Circle of Curvature.
162.
having
its
A circle
concavity turned in
195
the same
direction,
same curvature as that of the curve at that point, is called the circle
of curvature ; its radius, the radius of curvature; and its centre, the
centre of curvature.
The
figure
ellipse.
It
is
C is
shows the
circle of curvature
radius of curvature.
to be noticed
n>\
i!
VL
This can be
easily proved.
At P the circle and
ellipse have the same
at
P.
curvature, but as
go
towards
p!v
AJ \
we
_j^C^
the
So in general
contact.
the circle
ellipse.
decreases, and
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
196
hence the
circle of curvature at
without the
163.
A lies
lies entirely
ellipse.
Radius
The curvature
of Curvature.
is
-^
equal to
(Art. 161).
If
we
p,
ds
p=
(1)
ds
To
y,
we may
write
(1),
= = dcf>
d<f>
dx
From
Also,
= Jl + fY
^
dx
\ ^ \dx)
tand>
= ^,
<f>
= tan-
dx
Differentiating,
dcf>
^>
=
dx
^\
\dxj
dx'
^-
(2)
1+ (^y
\dxj
Hence
P=
Mm
^
d 2y
dx2
3
2
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
CURVATURE.
It is to be uoticed that p is
the sign of
|~1
+ f^t
197
is
that
dor
By
interchanging x and
we have
y,
Kf)t
dtf
which
is
As an example,
parabola ay 2
=x
(Art. 130).
Substituting in
^ = _J
*_**,
Differentiating,
(3),
we
find
a(4 a
P==
164. Radius
Art. 163,
of
p = q,
+9x)i
Wa
us express p in terms of
ds_
We mayJ
write
d*
do
d<f>
p
H
dO
From
(3),
Art. 156,
ds
= J?
I
From
(2),
o
,
fdr^
0.6
Art. 152,
*'
06
dO
and
Eesuming
6.
(1),
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
198
From
(1),
Art. 152,
T
tan \b-=,
T
dr r
il/
= tan _1
dr
dO
ld$)
'dr\
_ rd r
2
d&
d&__ \dd)
Differentiating,
d$J
.2,2^Y-r
\d0)__
dcf>
Substituting,
dO
dO 2
dr
dO
.2,[dr
Hence
\dO.
(1)
^y
d0
EXAMPLES
Find the radius of curvature of the following curves
1.
= (x-l)
(x-2), at
(1, 0)
and
=\
Ana. p
(2, 0).
-L
and
Y2
= log x,
2.
?/
3.
The
4.
The
when
a;
=f
Ans. p
parabola, y 2
ct
The
3
.
Ans. p
= 4ax.
=#
= 2||.
equilateral hyperbola,
= 54 a.
2xy = a 2
Ans. x
= 8a.
2 -4-
Ans. p
= (x
y2 )
CURVATURE.
6.
The
t.
ellipse,
+ 1 = 1.
Am.
199
W+
**)*
.
a 464
b-
ar
What
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
Ans.
- and
a
7.
Show
L .
b
+ y + 10 x 4 y + 20 =
2
x*
is
constant,
and equal
to 3.
sH-log(l-x*)
9.
sin y
=e
= 0.
XT
The catenary
11.
The hypocycloid
12.
The curve aY = aV a?
(Art. 128), y
(Art. 132),
a?
^%s. p
+ y* = a*.
^^-
Ans. p
cycloid, x
= a(0 sm0),
=-
14.
Show
15.
Show
= a sin 6 416.
The
= .
= 3 (aa;y)*0)
and
and p
= a.
(0,
= a(l cos0).
Ans. p
(Art. 138), r
= e~x
= *(e + e~").
(a, 0).
The
<}+%
Ans. p
10.
13.
Ans. P
= 4asin -'
= e ae
is
proportional to
= r Vl +
r.
a1
0, is
spiral of
constant.
= - Va + 6
2
= aO.
Ans. p
(r^-Mry
r
+2a
2
.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
200
17.
The
18.
The
curve, r
19
The parabola
= a sin
165.
- cos 6).
(1
a sec
(Art, 143), r
Ans. p
cos2
CP
curvature.
= 2a sec
^4ws. o
=
3r
Let
of
= - ar.
2 -'
Ans. p=-c&sin
H
4
3
=a
AB, and C
Ans. p 2
(Art. 145).
(Art. 139), r
The lemniscate
20.
=a
x,
y be the co-
the corresponding
is
and
is
Draw
CP =
Then
angle
Let
a,
PCR = PTX=
/?,
<f>.
be the coordinates
OM- RP,
LC=MP+RC;
OL =
of C.
that
PT.
is,
=x p sin
P=y+P
<,
cos'<f>.
To
and
express and
(1)
in terms of x
/?
and
y,
we
have, by
dy
ds dy
p sin</>
dcf>
ds
dy
d<j>
_dy dx _ cto
dx
d<fi
dys
dx
d 2y
dx2
pCOS
dx
dx
cji
\dxj
d 2y~
dx 2
Hence
dy
dx
~y
dx
=2/ +
d*y
dx
(2)
CURVATURE.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
Every point
respective
centres
Thus,
of a curve
201
AB
x,
has a
have for
of
C C C etc, The
UK, which is the locus
curvature
curve
1}
2,
3,
AB.
To
AB
is
the
called
involute
HK.
of
167.
To
find
the Equation
of the Evolute of a
By
(2),
Given Curve.
/?,
the
x and
y,
may
be expressed
These two equations, together with that of the given curve, furnish
three equations between a, /3, x, and y, from which, if x and y are
eliminated, we obtain a relation between a and /3, which is the
equation of the required evolute.
Here
a?x
-J-
dx
Substituting in
(2),
'
Art. 165,
a
Eliminating
x,
?,
4 ax.
-^ =
'
we have
= 3 x + 2 a,
we have
crx
dx2
j3
/3
= i(-2)
3
.
shows
F
OC=2a = 2 0F.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
202
As another example,
let
us
Y
of the ellipse,
-+2- =1.
a2
dy
dx
= _b
d 2y
ay
dx2
__&*_ #
a 2y
(Art. 66)
Substituting in
Art. 165,
(2),
x3
a3
a2
we
find
M-
aa
- b*
a2
b2
'
x2
"
A\
for
'
In the figure
168.
ellipse,
= x p sin
= y -h p cos
a
<f>,
<f>.
but
fall
if
the eccentric-
CURVATURE.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
203
Differentiating with
respect to
sin
s,
da
_ dx
dp
ds
ds
ds
(p
p cos
a)
<f>
ds
ds
ds
ds
coscp-psincp^-.
Substituting in
P
= ^-
(2)
(1),
d<f>
two terms
(Art. 155),
cancel
each
other,
giving
Similarly in (2),
p=
and sin
d<p
Dividing
But JS
(4)
by
(3),
dy
<f>
ds
d^
dp
ds
ds
3=
(4)
L_
da
tan
(5)
<
</>
Pv
is
C^,
the
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
204
169.
daV
dsj
where
(4),
+ M?Y
\dsj
Art. 168,
fdp\*
\dsj
0T
Hence,
Hence,
s'
since, if a derivative is
is
from
ds\
ds
ds
p=a
always
3,
170.
(1)
constant.
(1) that
As'
= Ap.
PC
CC
is,
is
constant,
A 0' p) = 0,
That
\dsj'
a fixed point.
P (7
(d*y = (dp
fdp\
\ds J
'
From
the involute
X,
Z.
AB
UK.
From
this property
is
derived.
It will
EXAMPLES
1.
= x\
a<
lg x<
2
6ax
2.
^_9^
2 a4
= x\
Ans.
= --!
^(* + |)^i
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
CURVATURE.
3.
205
(Art. 128), y
=|
+ <T).
^ins.
Ans.
= xx-^^/
2_ a
y
a
4.
Show
relation a
5.
+ 3
/3
(as
p == 2y.
+ y).
Ans.
a=a +3x*y*
(
-j-y 1
(3
=d
(y+ a?)3
+ j8=
g
a-
s
.
= y + 3 xf y
s
,
+ j8)* + ( - P)*=2a\.
show that
+ y* = a we have the
6.
-P=
(y
2
,
~^\
ar
of the evolute,
(+/^-(a-/?)3 = 2al
7.
f = _ - x
(X
Ans.
4096 asa
+ 1152 a + 27 ^ = 0.
2
CHAPTER
XVIII
y=
and
<f>(x)
= if/(x).
curves, that
the
same
for both
is, if
common
have 'a
curves
point P.
If,
moreover, for x
value of
also
dx
is
= a,
the
and
if/(a)
is, if
<'(a)
The curves
common
tangent at P.
If besides, for
curves, that
= ^'(a),
x=
a,
the values of
are
the
same
for both
is, if
<(a) =ip(a),
<'(a)
= i//(),
and
<f>"(a)
if/"
(a),
*(a)
and
= a,
= ^(a),
n+1
<
are
<'(a)
= f(a),
*"(a)
(a)9^w+1 <>)206
(a),
<(a)
^(a),
ORDER OF CONTACT.
OSCULATING CIRCLE
207
= a,
dny
dx
must
daf
dx*'
all
of both curves
and
must have
different values.
dx"
When
172.
of
Contact
but
when
is
Let us
dis-
Yy
= if/(x).
side of
In the figures
If
and
OM=a,
Let
MM =
1
Yy is
positive on one
h.
Y-y==4>(a + h) -
AQi=
Then
if
if/(a
+ K).
R^rT
>
p^
^^
_
.
or
^y^
//
//
rs
/
'
y%~
s
//
Qs
QyY
/
// p
7
J
M9
Mj
M.
Mi
\o
^(a)-^'(a)-|V"(a)-|V"()
13
(1)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
208
(a)
= ^ (a),
^=|
For
order
first
<j>'(a)
^'(a)
*(a)-f'(a)
then
and
becomes
(1)
+ |T*'"()-f "()] + -
power
de-
PQ
will
PQ
the
(2)
2,
as in
first figure.
is of
the
first order,
=i V
Now
= //"(a),
"'()
and
- *"'()]
(2)
+ jj
J\,
then
becomes
[+"()
so that
- r ()] +
PQ
2
and
PQ
X
will
have
is
By similar reasoning
may be of service
points,
consecutive
order
common
as having
established.
to think of
ciple,
is
It
contact of the
first
points,
+1
An
curves, but
173.
and
Osculating Curves.
its first
This implies n
+1
conditions.
ORDER OF COXTACT.
OSCULATING CIRCLE
209
may have
circle
Such a
Hence the
may have
174.
first order, it
may
at exceptional points
curve,
Hence
even.
at a point of inflexion
The
mum
maximum
It is
its ver-
or mini-
is
175.
lating Circle at
Any
of the Centre,
and Radius,
of the Oscu-
y =/()
The
(x-a?+(ij-by-=^
r, is
(1)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
210
we have
(2)
HW
From
(3),
+(y - b)d
A=-
(3)
-b=
(4)
dx 2
From
(2),
x a =
dy
1
dx
+ f^V"
dx
1
(5)
c^y
dx
(1),
iff
dx
(6)
dx )
2
Hence
dy
dx
x\_
\dx
dx
and
d*y
Wt
C#
>
= y+
.
\dx)
^f-'
dx
fTs
()
(8)
ORDER OF CONTACT.
In these expressions,
x, y,
OSCULATING CIRCLE
211
By comparing
Arts. 163, 165,
and
and
a,
ft,
is
the same as
(7)
it is
(8)
p,
in
At a Point
176.
of
Maximum
If
we regard equation
(8) in
minimum
value of
Minimum
or
we have
as a condition for a
maximum
r,
^
=
dx
We
Third Order.
(8),
M2'
dx\da?)
3
tlL
dx*
from which
0.
dx*
dyfdy
* x[
']
f\
im(<&\*
\dx)
Again,
if
we regard
(8) as referring to
(x-af+(y-by=r\
we
shall also
since r
is
=
dx
have
constant for
all
0,
or
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
212
Thus we
have, at
follows that
circle,
J,
and the
d3 v
t
dx3
is
dx3
of the third order.
EXAMPLES
Find the order of contact
1.
and
x?,
of the
two curves,
= 3 x 3 x + 1.
2
the point x
1,
= 1,
is
found
to be
=x
dx>-
^=
da?
when
but
dx3
6aj--3,
dx
bX
d2y_
=
dx2
6,
6,
d3y_
dx?~
0.
'
dy
=
^
dx
= 1,
3,
in both curves
= 1 ^4 = 6,
in both curves
dx2
= 3 x 3 x + 1,
=
'
dx
When
is
Find the order of contact- of the parabola, 4?/= a?2 and the
= x 1.
Ans. First order.
straight line, y
ORDER OF CONTACT.
OSCULATING CIRCLE
3.
9y = a*-3x* + 27 and
)
9//
+ 3.r = 2S.
Second order.
Ans.
4.
at the
5.
= log(x 1),
common
point
- 6a; + 2y + 8 = 0,
2 y = 3.
What must
may have
Second order.
^ls.
(2, 0).
4,y
= x~ 4,
Ans.
be the value of
y
a, in
and the
Third order.
= x + l + a(x l)
2
,
xy
7.
and x2
circle, or -f y-
6.-
213
3x 1?
Ans.
1.
xy
=a
2
.
^4?is.
Third order.
CHAPTER XIX
ENVELOPES
177.
When,
Series of Curves.
its
kind or family.
For example,
if
we
the parabola y 2
ax, we obtain a series of parabolas,
common vertex and axis, but different focal distances.
we have
a,
a)
having a
all
b) = c
-f (y
By-
b.
The quantity a which remains constant for any one curve of the
series, but varies as we pass from one curve to another, is called the
parameter of the
series.
tf
We
+ b = tf
2
circles,
The
fc.
two curves
two curves approach
we suppose the parameter to vary by infinitesi-
Definition of Envelope.
intersection of any
coincidence.
Now,
if
is
214
ENVELOPES
The Envelope
179.
of a Series of
Curves
215
is
of
the Series.
P
Suppose L. My
intersection of
to be
series.
its
is
the
intersection
180. To
find the
Equation
cf the
Envelope
of a
Given Series
let
special example.
series
m
= ax -f
.
and
= ax + m
= (a +
From
(1)
equations,
tion of the
and
(1)
(2)
we can
two
+h
as
find
lines.
(2)
simultaneous
the inters
Subtracting (1) from
(2),
of Curves.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
216
hm
= to-
+ A)
a(a
or
From
(3)
and
(1),
if
(2a
we suppose h
to
(4 )
of the intersection.
approach zero in
(4),
we have
of consecutive lines
ar
By
+ h)m
Now
(3)
we have
x=
mate intersection
we have
= 4 ma?,
a, is
is,
required envelope.
The
figure
lines,
is
parabola.
f(x,y,a)
= 0,
To
a,
series,
we com-
bine
f(x,y,a)
and
f{x, y,a
= Q,
+ h) =
(1)
(2)
ENVELOPES
From
(1)
and
217
we have
(2),
f{x,
a + h)-f(x,
?/,
y, a)
_n
and
(1)
it
is
and
^x
(;
'
may
be found by combining
(3),
When
|-/(.r,2/,)
Thus equations
(1)
approaches zero,
and
(4)
(4)
By
curves.
which
is
= ax + m
we
differentiate
with reference to
a,
= x --a2
This
is
4:
of a
mx,
Given Curve
is
may
Art. 148,
x -x! +
as follows
&(S -y = 0,
by
(1)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
218
in
is
x',
dn'
the quantities
y',
-~, being
dx'
functions of
From
x'.
and
(1)
(2)
we
we have
for
find
x',
normals,
\dx'
y=y +
,
dx' 2
dy'
HSf\
dx'
x = x'
d 2y'
dx' 2
As
it
EXAMPLES
1.
2 mx
-f-
4
,
by
= 2^ + 4m
Eliminating
2.
= a (x a),
ky2 = x2
Ans.
from the
origin.
Ans. y 2
=m
(x2
+y
).
ENVELOPES
219
5.
= ni (x 2 a) a
Ans. 21aif
+ ^=1,
ellipse
= 4 (x 2 a)
3
.
of the
by
where
<
is
= ax tan
<j>
(a
b)
2
<j>,
Ans.
6.
sin
(ax)*
+ (by)* = (a b
2
lines represented
by
x cos 3
Ans.
(x
The equation
+y =a
2
y ),
(x2
series of ellipses,
the lemniscate.
of the ellipses is
,+=i
a-
a and
a)
cr
-n-k
=k
2
,
(2),
+ &-1,
K
ak
4
in
which a
is
reference to
a,
we have
(2)
-^+^ =
a8
4 xhf
Jr
(4),
k\
(3)
we have
(4)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
220
Differentiate
Second Solution.
(1),
variable.
x?da
a3
From
(5)
and
(6),
da
2
y db
=^
+ a db =
(6)
we have
9
(7)
and
W
(7)
(1),
t=t=\
a2
Substituting (8) in
(8)
&4
circles
2
9.
(2),
4 x 2y 2
8.
= 4 ax.
Ans. y 2
lines
when
10.
an
+ bn = kn
ellipses
+b=
= 4 a (a + x).
+ ^ = 1,
b
_^
JL_
X2
a2
when
we have
=
From
\-b-
-4ns.
fc.
#3
2
3
2/
Ans.
(x
_n_
2a)y 2
=&
2
3
.
origin,
x?
= 0.
ENVELOPES
12.
an
circles described
221
on the central radii of
a~
o-
13. Pind the envelope of the ellipses whose axes coincide, and
such that the distance between the extremities of the major and
minor axes
is
Ans.
k.
y)
k2
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
:>**c
CHAPTER XX
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
184. Definition
entiation
is
of Integration.
By
called integration.
to differ-
This function
is
called the
For instance;
2xdx
since
x2
therefore
The symbol
following
the differential of
is
2
,
is
is
it.
relations
d{x2 )
would be written,
2xdx,
p2xdx
x\
It is evidently the
as the function
derivative
As
is
2x.
2zdx
:c
it is
customary to write
and not
223
2x
xr.
/d
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
224
In other words,
is
the inverse of
definition of
differential is <^{x)dx
dx
<1>(x)dx is
the symbol
and not of
d,'
Integration
sists in
known
is
recognizing the
function, or in reducing
it
to a
is possible.
185.
Elementary Principles.
we may write
= x* + 2,
2 x dx
or
=x
2 x dx
as well as
x2
-f-
2,
where
C denotes
x2
as well as of
2 x dx
In general
= x 5,
2 x dx
=x +
2 x dx.
is
(7,
tion.
Every integral
(6)
it
in
its
this
0.
d(u v w)
Since
= du
dv
div,
follows that
I
(du
dv
dw)
du
dv
div.
term,
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
That
we
is,
integrate a polynomial
225
it
d(au)
Since
follows that
That
is,
symbol
aclu
may
a constant factor
= adu,
=a
dw.
to the other,
J
Fundamental Integrals.
186.
differentiation, to integrate
Since integration
is
the inverse of
it
to
one or more of the differentials of the elementary functions, expressed by the fundamental formulas of the Differential Calculus.
may
write a
if possible,
in this chapter
be ultimately reduced.
II.
III.
frcfe-Jf-L.
n-f-1
Jy = logu.
Ca*du=
,
log a
u
/e"du = e
[
r
V.
VI.
We
list
of integrals,
which
all integrals
I.
to
I
j
cos u du
sin u
du
= sin u.
cos u.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
226
VII.
sec 2
VIII.
cosec 2 w
IX.
sec
X.
= tan u.
die
du
= cot w.
u tan udu
= sec w.
= cosec w.
= log sec u.
XI.
tan
XII.
cot
udu = log
XIII.
sec
u du
XIV.
it
du
sin u.
cosec u du
7T
<S
^t-xt
XV.
S XVI.
vvt
\X
,
XVII.
XVII.
XVIII.
1
C du = -tan
-1 u
-,
a
J vr + a a
XIX.
XX.
or
f
I
Vcr u2
= sin
,_i1
cot
ua
C -^ du = 1-log-
u-\- a
J vr a? 2 a
or
or
u
-a
1
a
= log,
2 a
= cos
+u
du_
r_J?^=
log (u+v^tf)
/
ATT AT
VV a
WU
Vw _ a
2
-sec _1 -,
2
J-
'<*.
"
f V2 aw w =
r/
vers
'
or
cosec
tfc
+2
,
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
INTEGRALS BY
187.
To
Proof of
derive
I.
and
I.
AND
227
II.
II.
I.,
since
-f-
n
1) u du,
therefore
n+1
= f(n + l)u n du = (n + 1)
/
Formula
du,
by
(c),
Art. 185.
u n+l
du
Cu n
+1
from
,j
log u
d
i
= du
u
It is to be noticed that
it
/
Formula
II.
I.
n = 1.
gives
du
u
=
=oo
I.
EXAMPLES
Integrate the following expressions
1.
CaHkx.
If we apply L,
we have
(a),
<hr
'
Art. 185.
C,
calling u
= x,
and
n=4;
then du dx.
Then
C, according to
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
228
C(x 2
2.
+ l)hdx.
we apply
If
We
I.,
=x
calling
-j-
and n
1,
=-
quently
its reciprocal
(<e*
- on the left of
(a;
and conse-
icda?,
by
Art. 185.
(c),
+ l)f _0g_+l}j
3
3
'
a;
C.
By
4.
we make
3,
f(2x-3x+12x -3)dx = 3
%s
5.
f(f_l- +
c/
^f
2_2V
5
ct-
f(aj 2
3
5
-2)Vcto=- -^- +
*/
7.
f(a^-2) 3a?da; =
y
10
^~ 2
8
-|-0.
differ-
II.
?jl
+ 3x*-3x +
C.
3t_
a;y
6.
^_
1 _
2
2x*
-2* +
4
<7.
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
CI
}\
9ctiv$
9oU
x-
229
2a
10
(7 *F
4 /
v *a
11.
Y.
4a#
12 a
13a*
7a*
^ + i^+
fcil ^ = ^^ +
jyi + aJ-lY(to =
5^
6 + 12**-3ar* +
12.
14.
JV +
15.
j%.x~
+ 6)Wi\
17.
C(aa?
+ b)*a?dx.
21.
x2 da;
Ju-i-l/"^'.
a?3
xi
1)
32,-log y+
7/
11,4a*',
+ 1 ) + C.
16.
C(ax
18.
22.
-\-b) dx.
J(a + logOy-
0.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
230
23.
25
-
f.
-\-xe
$\J^zf + *-
27.
f(e +
28.
f(sinm
31.
f(sec
10
<>
-1
A rational
-f cos 0)
+ tan 0)
("(sin
sin
34
sin 20)(e 2
2x
da.
log
10
/
(
sin5
29.
sec 5 a tan
cos
x)
dx
x
(9
^6>.
cos 20)d0.
x dx.
cos 6 dO.
sin
sec <9d0.
2
<f>
- cos
a fa
C(a x
33.
<)d<.
&)
a x da.
da
35
'
fraction,
j (a
26.
30.
32.
24.
-dx.
e
whose denominator
J(l + x~)
is
tan -1 a
may
36
-
37
33
2x-l
3>
+c
1(
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
on
39.
(- r
42.
.17
log
C.
+ a)\ + r\
,
(&as
b~
2 -
+a
log (
'
- a) +
&)'9
G.
log (x
+ 6) +
<7.
-}-
+ ^
J xa
f
C^LtJ^ civ = - 4-
40
41
dte
bx
ax
6 a
=
+
s
Cost -f b
231
<*b
= - + 2 oas + 7 a * + 8 a
2
log (x
INTEGRALS BY
III.
AND
- a) +
C.
IV.
188. Proof of III. and IV. These are evidently obtained directly
from the corresponding formulae of differentiation.
EXAMPLES
.
f(^ + a* + 3b-*ydx=^.+ i^
5 log a
2.
-l^-f
2 log b
*J
&e
4.
/2a 2
4x
7a
9a 3
18a 6
fa
%&*
cto =
6 e3
+ 0.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
232
5.
C(e x+a
- eax+h ) dx.
6.
8.
fte
acos2x sm2x)dx.
C(e
7.
\ + -\dx.
tan
2*
sec
6>
log(6 2 )
log (a m b p )
21og6
2 log a
log (a&)
INTEGRALS BY V. XIV.
X. are obtained
XIV. It is evident that V.
of V.
from the corresponding formulas of differentiation.
To derive XI. and XII.,
189. Proof
directly
tan
udu =
/, udu= J
,
cot
= log cos u
cos
(* cos
I
log sec
u.
u
i
u.
sinw
/'
-j
udu=
-
,7
Tcosec w (
cot
i
I
cosec
z*
4- cosec w)
u cotu
aw
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
By
Trigonometry,
cosec u
sm
substitute in this,
we have
sec u
2 sirr -
cos u
cot u = 1
we
If
^+u
1.
it
2,
2 sin -cos-
for u,
+ tan w = tan
Cf sm 3o x + cos o- x
= tan u-
233
sb\
sin -
+-
of XIII.
7
ax
and XIV.
cos 3
aj
sin 5
-\
+ 2cos^+C.
J
o
3.
sm -*m
1-
n!
cos
cto
= m cos ^ + n sm ^ +
m
n
1
CI 4-sin mx dx =
(tan mx
J COS' 0KC
,,
-\-
mx)x
sec
AT
4- C.
??i
4.
(sec 5 x
J
c>
8.
9.
f*
a?)
sec 5 x dx.
(sec 2
4-
tan 2
C^pdx.
10.
da;
5.
smdj
\cos-6
tan 5
seorf
a sin
+ & cos
=1
<
,,,
tan
4>
'.fl?!***
sin-x
+ b) + a
6) dO.
C.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
234
cot# + l)
12.
(tan x
13.
a?
dsc
cc
a;
cot 2
a?)
c?#
= tan 2x
log tan 4 x
I
(sec
<f>
+ cosec I)
cot 2
a;
<
4>
dcf>
<f>
2x -
sec
-j- (7.
ce
14.
-\-
s
+ 2Iog*1 + csin
+ f+a
<
tion.
sin2 a?
=
Csin*xdx
15.
\.
a
lb.
1
17.
in
19.
Ccos^
J
.
= -
a;
*-^+a
4
cfe
sin 2 x
1-
18.
oi
21.
t> a?
+ C.
=
x
16
sin(m
+ %)0
J
^
+
2 (m -f w)
,
n
C.
?i)0
sin(m + w)d
+ -ttt
r~ + ^"
2(m-j-w)
2{m n)
cos
(m
w)0
sin 1 x
14
2(m w)
sin 3 x
j
o (&:=
cos 2
6
(m w)0
f-)
2 (m+n)
cos
'-
x cos 2 x dx
Tcos K
'-
sin(m
7/1
sin
(m n)0
)
2 (m n)
on
22.
sin
-,
C.
20.
nr\
-\
\-
n
C.
'
-f C\
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
fsin (3 x + 2)
23.
nA
24.
25.
27.
Tsm
J
I
sm 3o
.->
sin 2 x
.r
C^MdO.
.r
7
=
dx
246
cos
<
cos 4
a;
fl
^ = tan0-sec0 +
-dx
rfg
cosec
vers x
VI + sm x
30
31.
dx
fVveraada?.
= C
I
f-^-.
J vers
log vers + C.
a;
a;
+ cos
To
XX.
Proof of XV.
derive XV.,
r^^ = i f_W
a
c_!_ = i
J + a a .7
2
it
?L
cr
To
(-]
\aj
derive XVII.,
du
I
Va
2
<-
SID-1-.
}_'_!!
a2
C.
= J- log tan (^ + ^+
87
V2
V2
.x*
sin
-f C.
2 VI sin +
a; cfce
f-
32.
cos
V 1 sin
sc
= 2si n g + 2gin3fl + C.
28.
O.
cot x
a?
cos 2
sin
Jf 1 + sm
a;
- C os( ^+^ + C.
10
rg?i-
26.
sin
29
**(* + *)
+ 3) dx =
cos (4
235
= i taa -i
a
C.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
236
To
"
derive XIX.,
/du
uJ u ly?_
1
a^a
To
derive
1 SeC _ ,u
'
XX.,
du
/du
C
a
J \u
^/2au u 2
\2
* a
tan-1 ^
a
Since
it is
3;:;:
wVw -a
du
a
evident that
d tan-1 -
7r
vers"
u2
2
or
-cot-
^,
= d ( cot -1 -
To derive XVI.,
u2
2 a\u a
+ aj
hence
du
u2
1 Cf du
2aJ \u a
[log (w
du \
u
+ a)
- a) ~ log (M + a)] =
hi
log
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
237
r (hi _ \_ r r -du _
J ir~ a 2 a J \a u
2
=
To
[log (
(7?/
+u
- u) - log (a + )] =
log
j a
+U
derive XVIII.
-\vFa- =
assume
u2
Then
z,
a = z
2
new
variable.
2
,
2udu = 2zdz;
therefore
du
dz
du
f^ =
(
Hence
1 1S '
J v^^'
+ dz
u+z
EXAM PLES
J4.r + 9
3.
4.
5.
====== = -sm
J VT-25^
f
^
dj;
J4a; 2 -9
\-
V5 a^ + 1
C.
= I log (5 + V25 ar - 4) +
a;
r? 'r
Vo
12
log (ars/5
C.
+ Voa?+l) + 0.
2a; + 3
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
238
J3-12x
&
12
2a?-l^
dy
12
dx
^V9ar 4
/:V ma?
15.
16.
vers -lx
a?
J&VaV-16
a?
=-sec-
1
l
17.
18
a?
da;
= sin"
20.
a;
da?
2
h C.
g2 + g
-8
log
l0g(^ +9)
~2
Jf V9-a?
J V3~a^T2
Vx + C.
-/SS^ = i
J4a?2 -5
C dx
J 3^-5*
'
dx
_,
^ = -1 vers
f _====r
vers"
2
V7 4
a?
'
-3
= lsec-^+G
dec
J V2 - 3 a
'
dw
'Jm<;
^ V3* -2
13.
3*
f+
^i
"1 +a
tatl
2x+V5
4V5
= - 3 V9 - x -2sm- ^+C.
2
STANDARD FORMS
INTEGRATION.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
_ ___
JfV .r + 4
1
dx
J V3.r-9
Jf1 +
rf
y2
<#>
si
1'
f e_!l^!
same
/j
.1-
formulae
or
**
r7x
may
(x
+ J_ tan -i
2a;-4) + (7.
be
applied
__
to
+c
integrals
+ 3/ + 4
_-
= f
J
a 9
= Jl.
a7+ 2
"
involving
with,
Thus,
x.
Jf v/8 + 4 a; 4 .r
-'a
2x
Ja* + 6a?+13
30.
(e
= -^Iog(3cos2s+V9cos
x + ax + b,
terms containing
29.
4 sin- 2 i
= 1 log
tfa.
2J_^1
Vo cos
C.
fl
- ax
V3 + V3 ^ - 9) +
=CO gV*JUft
V3
The
log (a
V2
27.
2
A/Sp.ns
cos- fl4-a.siTi
4 sin-2
f
*^
(7.
= -Ltaii-'gg4 + C.
cos-
V3
= 5 V3 X - 9 -
+ 6- cos-
cr siu-
26.
5x
c?.r
239
V3
**
(2
(3
a?
jc
- l)
^sin-'g^
+ C.
3
2
- 2 + V9ar>- 12 + 6) + C.
a;
the
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
240
31.
32.
x2
2 ar
/'
or
33.
*5
3 +5
dx
ax + 9
O/i
35.-
(a;
when a = 4
+ 6)
eos2ecW
when a = 6
^ ^= =
===
V31
V31
A
/si
V31
-*?
Jf-(a> + a) +
2
34.
= -4,tan-i^4?+C.
a;
a?
Va + &
2
sm -1
JB
37.
8.
b'
C.
+n
.
sin2e
= log
Jfsin 20+msin20 2m & m + sin2
+a
- =sm-i 2x a b +C.
dx
JfV(a-a)(&-
when a =
tan-^^^J + a
Vet +
36.
a-&
a-)
2
a
&)V3 +a
*L
=
tan-i(^ + +
Jf(x + af-(x
a) (a? + by
/q
b
6V
a
_
(
a
m*
V3(a-6)
(a?
CHAPTER XXI
CONSTANT OF IN-
we
will consider
of integration
may
be
determined.
191. Derivative
curve
OPv
and
let x,
an Area.
of
Suppose a point
y, be the coordi-
to
nate
P^lf,,,
and
generates
When
sweeps over or
a
certain
area.
moved
PqMqMP.
to P, this area is
is
equal to
y.
Then
-r->y>
Ax
Hence
rl_A
= Lim
<
Ax
(y
+ Ay) Ax,
y + Ay.
AA
.'/
dx
above inequalities
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
242
Pallet
0M = a, and 0M =
From
b.
dA =
y.
dx
A=
Hence
Let
ydx=
f(x)dx.
Cf(x)dx=F(x)
0}
A = F(x) + G
then
To determine C, we have
when x = a.
is, A
(1)
A begins
when x = a
.that
C=- F(a).
(1), A = F(x) - F (a) = P M MP
= F(a) + C,
Hence
Substituting in
It is to be noticed that
corresponding to the
If
now we
let
C is
determined by the
initial ordinate
=b
(2)
initial
value a of
x,
PoM
Q.
we have
in (2),
let
A=
Then
To determine
G,
A=
Cydx= fxidx=
when x
= a.
3
G.
= x.
...
(3)
248
(3),
A=Z^-^ = P<>M MR
(4)
To
find
PJUfP..
let
s=
b in (4).
"
EXAM PLES
In the curve of Ex.
1.
OJIP,
= cr.
2xy
3.
Find the area included between the witch of Agnesi (Art. 126),
Ans. ircr.
and I", and the ordinate x = 2 a.
the axes of
4.
= a, x = 2a.
An
s.
5.
6.
(Art. 129),
7.
".
= ~'
P M M P = ^-
Also
2.
show that
1, p. 24,
of one arch of y
= sin
2
(ft
e + e _1 e~
x.
X and
Y.
128),
Ans.
2.
+ y- = a*
Ans.
<r
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
244
may
we
it
Va~ x
Find
8.
about 0, radius
dx,
Va x
2
2
,
circle
a.
<}>=
2 *
-x-y
2
a~
xr
Hence
A=
9.
Find
10.
Find
ydx
(3
Ans.
a?
Va
+ 2) eta,
V2 ax x
OB,
we should
ordinate,
A = - Va - x + - sin- - + C,
2
sin
-\
sc
where
cZas
= Va
*|
by means
CV2ax-x* dx=
J
independent of
by means of the
dx,
is
a,*
+ ^- sin -1 - +
line y
V2aa-a
-^
2
-f
(7.
= 3x + 2.
of the curve y
x.
= V2 ax x'
sin"
^^
+
a
C.
193. Other Illustrations. In order to further illustrate the determination of the constant of integration, we will work three examples,
involving geometrical or physical properties.
Ex.
1.
at every point of
(4, 3),
recip-
dy_
the hypothesis
from which
dx
2y
2ydy
= dx.
Integrating,
y-
245
=x+ a
(1)
2=
-8
now we impose
giving
9
The equation
=4+
C,
0=5.
is
therefore
= x -h 5.
'
2.
rest,
dv
dt
Here
rj
}
dv==gdt.
dt
Integrating,
From
= gt+C.
= 0+C,
=v
C=Vq.
when
therefore
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
246
Hence
= gt-\- v
Since
= ds
(Art. 18),
= gtdt-\- % dt.
ds
tit
Integrating,
From
= - gt + v$ + C.
2
O=0, and
= - # + v
2
is
when
therefore
^=
and
0,
dt
Integrating,
L=C,
When t = 0,
vx
Hence
vx
at
dx
-r-
is,
=v
=v
=
i<
vy
cos
a,
vy
cos
a,
vy
cos a,
-^-
dt
=v
When t 0,
x and
Hence
= -gt+0.
= v sin a.
= -gt + v sina-,
l)
= gt + v
sin
a.
(*5
Integrating,
Eliminating
dt
=v
cos a
?/,
+ C,
2/
and therefore
cos
a,
and
=-
C and
y
gtf
+v
C, are
= -gf-\- v
sin a
C".
zero.
sin a.
?/=#tan a
qxr
2 v? cos 2 a
is
parallel to the
247
EXAMPLES
Find the equation of the curve whose subnormal (Art. 146)
has the constant value 4, and which passes through the point (1, 4).
4.
= 8x + 8.
Ans. y 2
is
the point
6.
The
Ans
(2, 1).
(3, 2).
any point
Find
its
is
7.
8.
of the curve
(2, 0).
Ans. r
balloon
Ans.
(Art.
(3,
is
j,
is
= 2 ew
in
which
half the
is
dropped,
Ans.
11.
of
10.
(Art.
Ans. r = 2e s
(2, 0).
vectorial angle.
and
9.
+ 9?/ = 72.
153)
equation.
Ans. 4ar
153)
= 2y
If a particle
X and Y
moves
400
equilateral hyperbola.
ft.
an
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
248
its
body
starts
(c)
Ans.
(a)
(b)
= 3f; = f-3t.
s =
+3
=
xfr-$y.
27tf
x
tj
(c)
t.
tower
14.
(gi
its
height
= 32).
When
Ans. 200
stant retardation.
its
if
the train
is
ft.
how
CHAPTER XXII
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS
194. Formulae for Integration
of
On examin-
Rational Functions.
it
It will be
shown
II.,
The
I., II.,
integration of a rational
XX.
We
will
now
con-
195.
equal
Preliminary Operation.
to,
numerator
is
or
by the denominator.
For example,
a*-2o* =
x'
+l
4
2a5 -3tf
+l
'
The degree
X*
+ X~
of the
2.t
a^
Qx
z
oo
+1
'
+l
.
_2ar3 + 3a 2
-\
X*
+l
XT
less
than
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
250
196.
Partial Fractions.
composing
into
it
partial fractions,
The complete
We
discussion of
It is
of
x)
(x
first
Equa-
may
be
degree,
a ) (x a )
2
(x
an
).
whose product
a + &V 1,
is (x
a) + b
2
2
,
and x a
b V 1,
It follows that
of the first
Where
degree, each of
197.
Case
I.
all
of the
First
Degree,
x2
+6x8
Xs 4 x
,
m
where
^1.
.r
5.
-8=
are
x2
AB
+6 -8
.v
unknown
251
constants.
...
(2)
Equating the
Coefficients,
two memUndetermined
coefficients
method
to the
of
we have
4 = 1, B = -2,
whence
+ 6a>-8 =
and
x3
4:X
r x* + 6x-S dx =
1()g
2,2
aj*
Hence
C=2.
(--?
(flj
x-i-2
^ 2) _ 2 log
(flJ
+ 2) + 2 log
2 ).
= log^^8
(a
+ 2)*
The following
fix)
(x
Hence
a)
<f>
(a?)
= A
x a
tfx)
|
<f>(x)
&* = A + (x - a) ^M
is
x.
fac-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
252
not vanish
'
x
in the given fraction, omitting the factor x
=2
ing x
x-2.
(1),
itself.
we
find
A by
substitut-
(x-2)(x + 2)x
This gives
4
+ 12-8^
4(2)
To
find B, substitute x
= 2,
4-12-8 = _ 2
-4(-2)
To
find C, substitute x
= 0,
x.
EXAMPLES
of integration C will be omitted in the examples in
and the following chapters on the integration of func-'
The constant
this chapter,
tions.
J
2
x-
3#-j-2
(x*+x+l)dx = l
1
f
*Ja?-4a? + + 6 12
a;
#1
(x
*
+ l)(x-3r
(o;-2) 28
+ i)(2^-i)
+ 5)
l)(.i-+3)(.c
(.c
+ l)(x + 5)
_1,
"
(2as-l)(3ir-l)(3*-.2)
as + ta
(CKB
r
y
0)(OSE
Cv
+ aYclr
.,
'
12.
2
ft
(6\r
C2
a2)
2 a6
fa + i)dx
_ l
r
J (a? - 19/ - i (x + 8f 360
(2.i--l) a
0-
b-a
=
J (oV
GO
= 1 lQ
J (x+d)(x + b)
(8a-l)(8-8)
18
_ ) +*_,log (ax-6).
CIO
(T
+ <Q (s- y
oV
log
fr+io'fr-i)- 1
(ax
(,-
&v
a-b
'
(a;
b)(bx
-j-
a)
+ 5)%,---y
+ 3) - 1)
8
(a;
"
>^m:L_
J1j;>-17a-
4.;
= jLlog^|
-1
253
:^:,:.<.,-
l)(2a.-l)']
+ ilog*.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
251
198. Case
II.
all of
the
first degree,
and
some repeated.
of decomposition of Case
a3
+l
(x-iy
J x(x
If
we
a?
since the
member
+l =A
I) X
3
tion,
B
1
common denominator
we should
write
C
x
requires modifica-
7
ax.
x(x
But
I.
we have
tion.
To meet
3
.
this objec-
we assume
x?
+l
_A
x(x-Xf
(x-iy
G
(x-iy
x-1
Clearing of fractions,
+ 1 = A(x -l) + Bx +
3
Cx(x
- 1) + Dx(x - 1)
A + D = l,
(1)
= SA+C-2D = 0,
(2)
Hence
3A + B-C+D = 0,
-4=1.
WhenceTherefore
A= -1,
= 2,
(7=1,
D = 2.
+ *) = - - +
(x-iy
x
1)
(f -
x(x
23
(x
- 1)
x-1
+*
Hence
f
Jfjc(a;
1)8
-logs-
dte==
(.x-
i_
1)-
1+
255
21g>(--l)
(x-1)*2
=The numerators
given for Case
I.,
.r
+ log*
.
~rr2
'
ar
ar
2x'-
a;
r
a*dx
aftfc;
2-3
1
.It
= 2-3a;
lQ
(a
J + l)(aJ l) 4(a? 1)- 8
+1
a?
a;
a;
3.
*^=_1
h
_
+
-44
r
J
)-'
ar
x
4)2
4
x\ ar
(19
-fa
7.
'
'* =
J
4(2
a;
-3)
ar-
a2 3
aas
4)
216
a;
4.i-
-3
+l
3 x
+2
a?
a;
".':/
3
j
18(9
*
-4
1
2
g
=
f
J(9ar-4/-'
ar9
x-S2)dx
+ l;(2a;-3)
(4;/-
W**l - -J*
+ 8 log (, _ 1).
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
256
9
"
10
J\x+b)
+ a + &)
J (a+a) (x + 6)
_(_V_ + J*\
(*
(a-6) 2 V + a
"
3 a& 2
W\_2-W
3
/
-,
Denominator containing
a3
+ b)
3a6
Factors
of
the
Second
The form
of
decomposition
'5cc
appear
will
example,
+ 12 dx.
,
f-x(x2 + 4)
w
We assume
5x
Bx+C
+ 12 = A
^+ 4) - + +y 4
/-,
a?(ar
(1)
a;-
a;
and in general for every partial fraction in this case, whose denomiis of the second degree, we must assume a numerator of the
form Bx + O.
nator
5 x
Whence
therefore
a;
x(x 2
+ 12
+ 4)
3,-3^+5
03
x2
+4
f-3+s fe= _ 3
a2 + 4
r^. +6 r
x'
+i
Ja? + 4
-|log(^ + 4) + ?tan-^.
'
Hence
Take
'*'/"
Vn dx
= 3 log
r,
tan_1 %
r
J
This fraction
(a
(2x2 -3x-3)dx
(x-l)(.r--2.i'
is
+ 5)'
decomposed as follows
2a?-3x-3
l)(jr 2# + 5)
3.v-2
1
a?
x2 2x + 5
dx
C
J x*-2x + 5
r *3x-2)dx = r (3x-3)dx
J g*-2x + 5 J x*-2x + 5
= |log(^-2 + 5) + |tana;
(*-2s+5)t
r <2*>-3x-S)dx =1
J _ l) (^ _ 2 2 + 5)
(.-,
The
257
a?
^i
-i
+
^2 tan =
2
l
l,
the *
preceding.
'
'
J x*-2x + 5'
may
J
r
.
in the
form
as follows
(a;
+a +
2
r (g pa)dx
+ g)dx __ C p(x + a)dx
+ o.f + b ~J {x + ay + W J (x + a) + b
px
(x
shown
be
2
,
we have
=
J
log [(x
+ a)^ + &*] + *=
b
tan- 25
b
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
258
EXAMPLES
+3
+ 3a?
32 x>
r32_
"
x4 +ar
'
a;
1,
4^ + 3
-2
+ rf
x3
J^I=3 + I
When
l0g
V3
+ 2V2 tan J
V2
(^-l)(^ + 2)
(+iy
^l l0 &.
- + 3V2tan-
2rf
+ 3V3tan-
'4^-30 + 1, t _6-l +
* ""2^"
r rfdx
(2s-aQ(to
/
'
ar
(a-V2).
a?
x-1,1,tan _i *
^Tl + 2
functions of x2 and
,
we may assume A, B,
may
be regarded as
C, etc., as the
numerators
may
x-
a2
x2
be assumed as
B
+ b-
x dx
C
=x+
J (x + cr)
(x- + &-)
a )(x
or b~ V
2
3
ft
tan -1
a3 tan
(per
- x )do
3x
- = - tan"
= - tan-1 2 x tan -1i^l^-i
2J
2+ 2
6
+ l)(a? + 4) 6 V
2
(1
(4a>
Zr>
J (a+5 )(5 + a )
2
a6
'
a&(l
-a)
2
a;(ar
a?
+ 13)
26
jc
13
_i
-3
2
a,-
10.
11.
12.
ly- 1/
AlAJlna
=*
*
s* + 3^-4-1
Jf^g^
- =
J ^ +
4
1Q
13.
r
|-
- 2 tan-
V3
V3
y.+
log
Jtf-^ + ^-l
+ w^2+l
6(* +
;
(2
^
a?
- 3).
;
V3
iv
.r-
dx
tan- 1 ^-
4V2
V3
,-i2yl
_u_l,t.
a
-j
tan
-A3
V+
losj
f
Jt?-1
259
- a?
-tan
I-
2V2
ay-1
*x+l
,1^
r-+Tlog
l)
W3.
1
tan
_!2aj-l
1
'3
V3
gree,
For
illustration take
s
We
2*+*+*^
O-s
+ l)
assume
2s 3 + s 2
+ 3 _ Ax + B
(a^-f-l)
(a?+l)*
+3=
-4*-2,
/*
Oc8
Cx +
x*
+ A* +
= 2, C=2,
M+
==1.
C)a>
+ B + Z>.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
260
Therefore
-2a + 2
(x'
+ iy
2
a:
To
(a;
2a?da?
(^ +
"*"
+l
vf
+ i)
(o^
'
J <V+1)
we use
dx
2_r 2
i)
reduction,
CISC
(x2
U/
J-
+ ) w ~ 2 (n - 1) a
2
[_(o5
+a
)'
"1
/(y
^*
q\
'
/die
depend upon
integral
tt~~~^
made
is
(ar-f-cr)'
-By successive
'
-!
by making
the given
which
2
x~ -\-d
itan- -.
a
a
1
* This formula
j^ r
[
dx
may be
+a
2
|_(x
_,
d
2
= A[x(x
+
1
2
MJ
%a 2 f
a 2 )"
*5
J(x2
+a ) w+i
2 (w
v
(1
+a 2 )" w -
nx2 (a?
a 2 )-"- 1
=
(x2
f
J (x 2
after multiplying
(?X
J (x 2
to,
1)J a 2
(x 2
to
= (l-2n)f
y
v
Substituting for
(x2
members
Integrating both
a 2 )-"]
dx
=
=
(x 2
derived as follows
x_^
+a ) w
2
a2) n
n_
x)y
dx,
+2na 2
Jf
(x 2
f_dx
**,
a2 ) n + l
J (x 2 +a 2 ) M
we have
1,
^
-f
v2
by
a 2 )"
(x2
+ a2 ) "-
(2 to
v
3)
it
&.
applications
to
CltC
+ a )-^
(a2
(-J**J (x 2
a 2 )"- 1
is
J ur + 1)-
A
4. a
[_.r
= 2 and a = 1,
2
r 4- 9
partial fraction
h
+ l)^2
2(.r
the form
of
we have
- tan -1 sc
s2 +
+1 J
^x + ^
+
|> a) + 6 ]'
becomes P
z,
been explained.
For example,
^9a
";
C^ +
ft
x-3 =
if
>
z,
2
}'
=J
2
(*
__*,
f?2
4<V 4-3V
By
by
y substituting
2G1
+ 16 f
J (^ + 3y
i
+ 3)
12L(z
12(^ 2
+ 3)
+ 3)
12(z 2 4-3) 2
+ J
+ 3) J
(*
Jz + 3j
4 6[_z 2 + 3
V31
+ 24(z
4-3)
tan
(a
Jf-
(*
+ 2)tfa
6a?4-12) 8
tan -i
'
V3
24
162-15
2z
/5z
5z + 16
dz = tt
+ 3(z
4-'
(z
12(z
4-3)
+ 3)
(2
2
_i*
"
3V3
160,-63
12 (a2
6a?4-12)
2
+ 3(s*-6a 3)
+ 12)
(a?
3V3
tan
Un -i
a?-3
V3
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
262
EXAMPLES
4^ + 3
(4a;2
+ 3)
+3)
+ 5x~-2^_
,_4
= x*,.
^r^
t
"'
d%
8(4a;2
.,2*
= tan"
16 V3
V3
r 36s(s? + l) + 25a,*
J (4a + 9) (9a; + 4)
a
4
'
x*
2(4a?+9)(9aj 8
156
r ^ + Sx-21
J (^ + 4x + 9)
6x
2(3
'
+ 7)
+44+ 9)
^
(a^
a;
xS
-2
_|_i)(aj2
clx
+ a,_h 2)
+ l)
[( X
+ 2) -
a;
+l
da;
4
(a?
+ l)
=
~"
V5
+4
+ + 2)
a^
7(ar*
tan-
7V7
(a^
+ 4)
3(q;
,
2
Case III.
+x
5,
a; 2
a;
21 _ _2_
V7
V3
2xt
-a; + l
V3
+ 36a; + 29
+ 3) (2 a + 6 x + 5)
Stan" (2 + 3).
12a;2
2 (2 a;
a;
V3
CHAPTER
XXIII
of
We
shall
202.
radicals
now
may
Some
them
by Rationalization.
Integration
be integrated, by reducing
by a change of
limited number
variable.
This
of cases.
This process
integrals
involving
to rational integrals
is
is
sometimes called
integra-
tion by rationalization.
p
203.
containing
Integrals
rationalized
(ax
+ b)
by the substitution ax
q
.
-{-b
=z
q.
x 2clx
(2x + sy
Assume
Then
2x
+3=z
x= -
dx =
:rax
/ (2x +
(1 . _i_ 3)*
=l(t-
<
SJ
+9s
203
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
264
Another example
,J
is
Assume
C_^x_ =
Then
J Vx + i
=z
'
_
Va? + i
J
2
dx
= 2zdz.
= 2 C,U^
f2^
J \
+i
+ 1 _J_\ dz
+v
is
the least
common
(aaj
+ &)%
multiple of
q, s,
In this case
where
the denominators of the
by the substitution ax
rationalized
is
+ 6)%
(ax
Integrals containing
the integral
+ b = zn
fractional exponents.
j
'
Assume
(
(x
- 2)* +
2=z
2 )i
=z
(x
- 2f
dx = 6z 5 dz,
(x-2)i = z\
f
^
^+
xVx
5
'
(V*
+*
80
f.r Vrt7+6
10.
11.
-6?/ 2
24(4y + l)*
2
=
A 2
M>
1+1
= 2 (q Y + 6
-
da;
9.
civ
^-
J W+V
8.
+-1
f !?cbf = 4?/
J (4y + l)*
(15 a *.
105 a3
_ 12 a&a + g &2\
.
= 2(3a; + l)*-4tan-^+i)L
2
Jf (3* + l)* + 4(3a; + l)*
fA
-'
(as
+ 3) - 2 V2 tan" J^^.
1
3)l
fa ~ 2 fe
f
= g(2s-3)Mlog (2 *- + 3
8
^ (2z-3)* + 6a;-9 4
a
(2 -3)*
)
V3
4
12
265
V'2:/:
+ l+Vo;-l
^^
- oc-il=*Y
x+2
x
+ 2J
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
266
=2xMlog(2**-l)+!log(** + 2)
;^-5
f
9
9
J (2aj*-l)(a>*+2)
13.
16 V2,
tan
9
-1,
(a?
V2
+ l)* + l
--log(l + V^+l).
205.
Roots
of
the
first
Here
we now
In the rationaliza-
is
206.
ized
+ ax -f b.
may
This
be rational-
by the substitution
yx + ax + b = z x.
2
dx
I
x -y/x
If,
x+2
^x -x + 2 = z, x?-x + 2 = z
2
x,
This difficulty
Vx x-\- 2 = z x,
2
is
we assume
2
,
dx, in
x-\-2 = z 2zx,
2
-2
2z-l'
V^^x~T~2 = z-x =
= 2(z -z + 2)dz
2
dx
-z +
2z-l
(2z-iy
z2
terms of
avoided by assuming
z,
267
Hence,
-z + 2)c7z
2(z 2
(2z-l)
-I)
(2*
dx
rw
-_ x +2
-*/rf_*j.9
.
_o
2
z--^
s*-2
2
I
<-/
x-Vx
z-V2
2z- -1
2z-l
= Va,- x + 2
2
c&
2
-1
2z-l
2z
Substituting
r<2dz
g
+ 2^ Jz
z -z
y-2
-2~A>
Jz--Z
V2 z + V2
Z
x+2
Var
V2
V x
-f- a?,
- x + 2 -f x - V2
+ 2 + + V2
Var'
a#
-f
a;
+ b.
a?
This
may
be rational-
Vx + ax+ b = V(
2
where
and
/?
a;
values of
z? + ax-{-
V + a#
unless
real,
or
ar*
-f-
= (/? + #)z,
b.
6 is
imaginary for
x.
dx
Assume
+ ) = ( #)z
a;) (/?
a;V2
+xx
V2 + x x = V(2 x) (1 + x) = (2 aj)z.
2
+ z = (2-a0z
V2 + a?
a;
2
,
= (2 - z)z =
3z
j^
Therefore,
da;
W2 + X-.X
a;
1
dx
**
V2 + 2a;-V2-a;
= -J-log
^f a^
aj-ar
^/2 + x-x
V2 + 2a; + V2-*
V2
,
22
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
268
EXAMPLES
/
f
2.
a;V'ar
_ x + Va; + 4 x 4
__,
_
tan
2
dx
+4x4
/
J
+V +4
T)
(2 aa? _
2
2\
a 2 V2
a;
asc
+ 2 + Va;
-f
a;).
2
a;
2(n
^A)^=_ =
Va;2
3a?
ft
+ 4a
= z + a
2
-f
dx
62
4a
Integrable
Cases.
2(-l)
tl-x
3
The
rt
tan"
V3
+2
,
+x
1
l
_ia;
x
r
log 2 H
= x + Va^ + a
where
+ l)
COS
208.
(a;
a;
x a
da;
.
a;
/;(3-a;)V3-2a;-a;
+ log
a;
cos
COS
5o,
log
a;
_i
yS
ij3-3c
* 3+
a;
3-x
a
z + 3a'
3
2!
2
.
preceding
articles
include
those
functions.
269
It has
tion of
Xj
f(x)dx
is
a function of
x,
CHAPTER XXIV
TRIGONOMETRIC FORMS READILY INTEGRABLE
any power
It is to be noticed that
209.
tion
may
be integrated by Formula
I.,
of a trigonometric func-
when accompanied by
its
differential.
Thus,
/,tanw_ x sec
+1
w+1
7
x dx
cos n+1 x
^ =
C cos' x sin x ax
J
x dx
7i+l
cot w+1 x
Ti
71
+1
'
secw+1 x
dx
71+1
'
M+1
/
Having
in
mind these
cosec w
a?
cosec x cot
a;
da?
= cosec
+1
71
210. To
&vnn
find
xdxov
eos n xdx.
When
is
an odd
posi-
tive integer,
sin5
J
we may
xdx=
sin 4 x sin x
dx
(1
cos
2
a,*)
sin
x dx
//h
(1
Io cos^ x + cos
2
ax =
7
x) sin
a?
cos
a?
,2
COS 3 X
3
270
COS 5 X
cos G 2 x dx
271
is
cos 2 2
cos 2 x dx
as
=-
sin
(1
2 x) cos 2 # 2 dx
= -1/ sin 2 x
sin 3
2aA
211. To
When
find
either
or
an odd
is
sin 4
.r
cos 5 x dx
dx
/,
(sin
2o sm + sm
sin3 x cos - x
aj
Another example
I
6
b
dx
sin 4 x (1
sin x
2 sin 7 x
\
a;)
7
cos x dx ==
sin
is
c7ru
cos*
as
(1
EXAMPLES
1
o
2.
Csm'
3.
x dx
C COS
J
C sin
J
-
= cos x -f cos
.r r/.v;
= sm X
COS 5 a;
3 cos
25
4 sin 3 x
a;
-,
''
7
- das
23
a;
.
,
6 sin 5 a?
4 sin 7
.
.
sin 9 a;
252
11
a;
a?
= 2o cos - + 4- cos o2
cos
as
cos 7
.
,
(-
3
5
snr a;
x) cos x dx
55
#
-
13
15
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
272
5.
sin 5 2
cos 3 2
= sin
+ cos
(cos 3
<
sin3
<)
(cos 2
= sin
cos
rsm _
ydy = _
-JL
?/
C <x**te = fa m + _2
J sin x
sm
/~ cos 3
^Q
Vsin
11.
a;
(sin
dx
3
a;
dx
4 cos 5
_ _ 2 sin
sin 2
4>
<f>)
_ 6 cos
a;
2
</>
sin <
+ -2 (sin
iq
13.
/*
I
(sin 2
sin 4
cos 3
a;
cos w
+ cos 2
sm3
a?
<j>
+ cos
5
<f>)
3Vsina?
a?
a?
-,
a;
sin3 x)
dx
a?
a;
cto
a?)
cos 3 x dx
= 4 sin
5
= - (sin
8 sin 7 a?
..
+ cos TO+3
m+3
sin+ 3 x
m+1
"3"
3 cos 2 y
^.j-iogsec?/.
J
12
cos 9 x
d<f>
+ cos
1
3 sin3 x
a;
-f-
a?
_-*h
4
cos y
cos
<
./
<
3 cos 4 ?/
8.
16
x) sin3 x cos 2 x
x
_ cos
~3~
7.
sin 8 2 6
12
(sin6 x
<9d<9
x cos 5 a;)
+ sin x cos
a;
2
a;.
( tan"
find
x dx, or
( cot"
x dx.
.i-
dx
tan"
x (sec 2 x
is
any integer.
1) dx
tan"
tan
Thus
-2
273
tan" a; da;
.i'
sec
made
is
-2
ado;
tan'
1-2
x dx
tan" -##.
depend upon
to
tan
tan n2 a*
a;
da;
or
cZa;,
and
ulti-
dx.
For example,
tan5 x dx
tan 3 x (sec 2 x
J
= tan
/*,
o
tan-*
I
4
tan3 as dx
tan
= tan
Hence
a;
a;
(sec
log sec
./*
= cot
a;
log sec
cot2 a;(cosec2 aj
<N
l)dx=s
,
-^^cot5 a;
cot3 a;
C (cosecnnat%eAtm
x
I
%J
1)
dx
feot 4 x dx
cot 3
a;
\-
\-
x.
is
x.
f-
cot 5
xl)dx
x dx.
tan5 x dx
*s
Another example
1) da;
Do
= - cot
a;
cot8 a;
/
|
i9
cot 2
a;
dx
cot x
- x.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
274
To
213.
find
positive integer,
sec 6
xdx=
sec" x
dx
we may
(teLn
or
When n
cosec" x dx.
+ 2 tan + 1) sec
(tan 4 a?
2 tan 3 x
= tan x H
.
cosec 4 x dx
x+1)
da;
htana;.
cosec 2 x dx
co
cot x.
To
214.
(cot 2
a;
a;
is
an even
integrate as follows
Another example
is
find
When n
is
manner
(tan8 x
When m
is
tan6 x sec 4 x dx
+ tan
tan 6 x (tan 2 x
x) sec 2 x
tan 5 x sec 3 x dx =
a?
integrate as follows
l)
(sec 6
x2 sec
a;
sec 2 x sec
a;
aj
tan x dx
+sec 2 x)
sec3
2 sec5 x
cfcc
sec
a;
tan
a;
dx
a;
is
cot3 $e
# cosec 5 x dx
(cosec6
may
dx
(sec 2
Another example
sec 2 x
sec 7
dx
+ 1)
cosec
(
j
cot
c
x) cosec
x cosec 4 x cosec
a?
cot x dx
a;
cot a? dx
cosec'
a;
cosec x
275
EXAMPLES
tan s x
^_t^ + tan^_
da.
2.
3.
fse c"ya'
i/
*/
4.
5.
= -|
Jcotf 5 dx
=^ +
= 1-
(tan 9 x
4tau ^
a;)
f(sec 3
tan 3
<)
<
Q
o.
9.
10-
/"tan 7
I
tan
se+l
'
a-
rsec 5
;/*
sec x
Tsec 6 x
I
*/
4tan
3
+1
dx
tan
=
sec
+
-7
tan
a;
nnn5D
sec
,v
tan3 -*<f>
<)
-\
+ cot 3
+ 1-
(tan 5 x
sec
2sec 3
= tan
aJ
<f>
-*-
<f>
2 sec 3 a;
Hsecar+a;.
,
4
,
dx
tan
2
cot a? 4- 3 log tan x.
-,
.,.
cosec-<9cot
J
x).
2 tan
+ .
,
h tan x -f log cos x.
.
a;
tan 4 a;
a;
a;
a;
2/.
cte
|.
^ + tan
00 V 3 x
+ tan
+ tan
sin 2
dx
- log
^1* +
7.
cty
- (tanB
= 2/.
+
<
5
4
sec # tan x
- cot
S^ +
sec
6.
cot*
= - (*?? +
tan x)
(sec
| +|
Jcosec* 3 x dx
catf
taua;
#0
r,
f tan-
- sin
0)
-+-
0).
y
<fi.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
276
H-
=-
(sec
12.
m x* tan 5 x
tanm_1
(tan 2
"
a?
^ sec* x )
-f-
9
3
^ (tan*
a;
+ sec"
#).
sec 6 x) dx
m+4
A
term
even,
sec m
a;
a;
m+2
m
sec x cosec M
may
x dx
cosec a
by substituting
be integrated,
when
tan
m
TO
a;
m+n
is
-.
tan x
13.
14.
cosec 3 x dx
fsec 5
= *^^ + 3tan ^ - ^^ +
4
(sec4
a;
cosec
x) 2
215. To find
tion of this form,
211.
3 tan5 a;
tan3 x
sin x cos n x dx
when
3 log
5 tan x.
dx
too
tan
^
=
either
is
cot
3 tan x
\-
cot x.
The
by Multiple Angles.
integra-
applicable
when
positive integers.
By
x,
when
and n are
first|
for the double angle will be sufficient for the transformation of the|
x*
= - (1 cos 2
cos 2 x
= - (1 -f cos 2 #).
Csm
Hence
sin 4
aj
cos 2 a
s
tt
=- sm A x,
sin 2 x
sin 4 x cos
x cos x
sb
4
.i'
cos- x
efo.
= - sin
cos 2 x-\
(1
.t(1
cos 2
cos 4 x).
sin
sm 3 22a;
7
ax
__
o __
sin2 2
a?),
a:
,.
sin 4
oj
16
48
64
EXAMPLES
i
rsnr x ax = 1- /3 x
2.
fcos
3.
sin 2
.'.-
dr.
x-\
si n
4x
= - f^ + sin 2 x + sin 4 x
cos 2
.'-
dx=*
fsinaj(ia?=
sm 2o
f
7>
16^
.,-
sin 4
- 4 sin 2x + sm
,7 ?
4;A
+ -sin 4
a?)
277
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
278
5.
6.
i?
7.
8.
fcos 6 xdx
16 \
fsin
x cos 4 x dx
-9-,
/~
I
6
cos b x snr #
aa,*
==
sin8 x
,
/,
8
\ox-\- -snr 2
3
,
sm 4a;
.
a;
128\
dx
16\ 8
4 sin 2
a?
4- - sin3 2
sin 8 aA
)
+ - sin 4 x
8
sin8aA
64 J'
CHAPTER XXV
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
From
Hence
= udv + v du,
uv =
we have
REDUCTION FORMULAE
u dv
udv=-uv
v du.
Ivdu
(1)
called
is
integration by x>^rts.
For example,
let
us apply
it
u = log a
Let
whence
'
du
j,
= dx
to
x log x dx
then
dv = = xdx;
and
v-
Substituting in (1)
Jbg;x
X?
2*
we have
x dx
= log5 x -/? dx
2
X
-
=-
X2
loga>- 4*
279
(2)
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
280
Thus
in (2), if in
we
dx we treat
2
x
log x
as if
it
were a con-
stant factor,
new
logx
|
.
obtain log x
= logX'--J *xdx
2
logx>xdx
Another example
= cos x,
Assuming u
As
the
is
x cos
if
we take u
= x,
I
x cos x dx.
cos x
( sin x dx).
by
But
be found useful.
we have
xdx
new integral
may
we
find
x cos x dx = x sin x
sinscefa;
= x sin x + cos
a?.
EXAMPLES
4
1.
a?
2.
logx dx = y flogcc
fa (e a* +
x (sin
3.
J
e~ ax ) dx
= - (e eax
cos 3x)dx=(
*)
i (e ax + e~
a2
(--) sin
3x
a:c
).
(- + -) cos
x.
..
REDUCTION FORMULAE
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
4.
5.
x log -
+ sm -
dx
= losr
fa;(e-l) 2 Qte=ete (-
Clog (ax
2)
w)-
+ 6) dx = fx -f -
log
10>
11
12
a?
14.
T"2
+
(oaj
+2
x.
ft)
fsec
log sin
<
rlog(.,
< d<f>
<
(?
ftan- - dx
a
]
= x tan" - - - log (x + a
2
= - tan"
3
sin
f (3
-1
x-
- dx
a
)-
-- + - log (x + 1).
6
6
2
= x sin -1 - + Va x
- 1) sin-
pc2 tan" 1 aj da
a;
+ 2) ^_log(. + 21 +
*1.
*x+2
x+1
+ l)
(.i'
a;
c/
13.
+ 4 sin -
7.
2 x cos 2
281
2
.
x dx
(x-
- x) sin"
a;
(*
~^
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
282
n
15.
C a?snrxaa; = x /cos
,1
tan
x (sec 6 x
16.
a;)
dx
= x tan
(^ +
/ 1o S
18.
flog (a
l)
(to
Var
sin 3
cosicJH
2 sin x
a; -f-
HL
= ,_gll l08(e + 1)
_j_ i
g sec Xt
+ a ) cte =
2
a;
log (a
-Vx2
+ a log
+a)
2
(a;
-f
Va^2
+ a )
2
a?.
19.
20.
21
CaPe-^dx =
-^!(4ar + 6a; +
2
JV - xfdx = - ^(4
Car- 1 (log a;) 2 da;
6a;
+ 3^
- 1) + ^(2x> - 2 x + 1) -
= - [(log xf - ?iS + -1
n
n 2J
|_
22.
23.
Tartan- 1 a;) 2 dx
x log
(a;
= ^^(tan"
+ a) log
(a;
a) dx =
x) 2
a;
tan" 1 a;
log
(aj
+ 1 log (x + 1)
2
+ a) log (x a)
2
Q^!log(x + a)-^-^\og(x-a) + x
^
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
217. To
e sin nx
find
J
dx, and
ax
=e
We
ax
sin nx
required integrals,
the
ax
(a2
+ iv)
ax
sin
sin
ax
cos nxdx.
nx
by n 2 and
az
(2)
M sin nx dx = e (a
cos nx dx.
-,
(1)
(2)
/o\
sin
nx
w cos nx)
/0 \
(3)
'-
Eliminating
v
hence
nx dx and
(1)
= sinnic,
(2) are
by multiplying
latter,
nx dx.
cos
f--
dx
and
ax
ax
sm nxdx =
283
REDUCTION FORMULAE
a
-
'
I
hence
"
+a
+n
?ia;
cos
as -f a cos
a2 + ?i 2
sin
na;)
z-
wa;)
w
, AS
(4)
EXAMPLES
The student
1-4.
'
'
/e
3*
sin 5 x
cfcr
= (3 sin 5 5 cos 5
cos 5 x
dx
= (5 sin 5
aj
34
as
-f
3 cos 5
a;),
x).
/e~
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
284
e~
2.
2x
e~ 2x cos
ax
sin aa;
da;
a;
dx
2x
(2 sin x
sin x dx
(sin
2 cos
a?).
2a
hos^dx = ~^ Y2sin?
fe
5.
S
2 + cos 2 a;,
f*sin
sin 2
a;
-f-
13
(e
2x
+ sin 2
(e*
a?)
fe 2* cos 2 3 x dx
8.
a;e
sin 2
2x
cos
a;
(sin
7.
5 cos 2 a;
e
+ cos x)dx
H
a?),
4.
cos
-f-
e* /
(sin 2
a?
dx =
sin
a;
+ cos
5 sin 5 x 4- co s 5
2x
by which the
13
be
made
to
a?
4 sin x 3 cos
a;].
These
integral,
may
a?).
2 cos 3 a;
a;)
a;
2o cos 2o
a;)
a;
a?
+ 2 cos
= + (3 sin 6 + cos 6
sin 3
x m (a
+ bxn) p dx,
numerically diminished.
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
+ m + l)b
(i\p
Cx m (a
-f
(np
REDUCTION FORMULAE
+ m + l)bJ
285
'
bx n ) p dx
= ar(a + bary
*pa
UTarfr + toy^ifr
(B)
(c
(C )
np
m-\-l
np
+m+
+ bx ) p dx
n
Cx"\a
r.r
(a
+ ^)
^^^
=_
n(p + l)a
+ M+w + l ^
n(jp
+ l)a J
(
K
lfe
(
v
Formulae (A) and (5) are used when the exponent to be reduced,
or p, is positive, (^L) changing m into ?ti w, aud (B) changing p
intop 1.
m
m
Formulae (C) and (D) are used when the exponent to be reduced,
or p. is negative, ((7) changing m into ?/i + ?i, and (D) changing p
into
+ 1.
If, in
formula
zero, the
Formula (C)
fails,
when np
when
Formula (D)
fails,
when
In these exceptionable
case's
fail,
is
then inapplicable.
+ m + 1 = 0.
m + 1 = 0.
p 1 = 0.
-f-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
286
219. Derivation
Formula (A).
of
X = a + bx
n
,
dX = nbxn ~
Then
Cxm
= xm
dx
m-n+1
se
~ n+lXP+1
7ib(p
+ l)
dx.
X dX
p
nb
we have
_ m 7 + 1 Cxm ~ n X>+
nb(p + l)J
yi
dx.
(1)
K J
By
substituting
X ^ = (af bx X
n
may
nb(p
1)
Cxm Xp dx = xm
~ n+1
(m n + l)fa
Transposing the last integral to the
(iip
+ m + 1) b
Cx m
dx
Xp+1
Cxm ~ n Xp dx
first
+ bfx X
(A).
dx\
number,
Cxm ~ n
X dx, (2)
p
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
220.
Derivation
=X
we have
p
,
Formula
of
%-X* dx =
REDUCTION FORMULA
287
by parts
with
Integrating
(B).
X*^-m+1
Jm
pX^bnx"- dx
1
= ^^_m>brxm+nXP - ldx ^
m + 1 m + lJ
Comparing the
but that
To avoid
is
we
integrals,
increased by
(1)J
decreased by
1,
n.
=X-a.
+ 1)
(m
Cxm X p dx
Transposing to the
(np
+ m + 1)
= x m+l Xp - npf
Cx m
(m
dx
+ 1) a
dx).
Cx m Xp~1 dx,
...
(2)
(B).
((7).
by m.
dx-a Cx m Xp ~
= xm+l Xp + npa
Derivation of Formula
Art. 219,
mn
member
first
Cx m Xp
This
integrals,
This gives
Cx m Xp dx =
of
afl+1 X^p+1
(np + m + n + 1)
Cx m+n
X dx,
p
(C).
Formula (D).
two
This
may
integrals,
be obtained from
and replacing
p 1
(2),
by p.
This gives
cte
=-
(Z>).
n(p
+ l)a
f afX*
m+1
Xp+1 + (np + n + m + 1)
Cx m Xp+1 dx,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
288
EXAMPLES
Here
sc
Apply
(A),
making
m = 2,
= -,
n = 2, p
a
fx\a 2 - x 2y* dx = < *-f)*
=
2
2.
fV<* 2
+a
cte
(jB),
_ J^ f( a _ xyi dx
zu
2
x )* 4- sin-1 -.
2
sc
).
making
w
= 2, p = -,
z
JV + a0** = f (*'+af)* + f/
*( a2
/die
V# a
2
,
= 1.
x2y
V# a2
=a
da?
(a
'
m = 0,
ar
&= 1.
= | Vtf + a^ + ^logfc + V +
Apply
(a
V
a = a2
ax
"
^a
,0?
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
Apply
(C),
= 2, p = -, a= a
JV^ - tff**- ^~
2
,.
dz
Apply
(D),
rf >*
aW
1
-S6C
_,
?i
3
= 2, p = -,
=a
.see
a 2(^_
7.
-x
dx
VflS?
f(a
8.
2 x2 )
<fe
= 1.
_iiC
1
a3
1 1'
- a )* <fo = -(5 a -
(V-a?)$
*J
a 2)i
= -^a -x + - sin"
2
QT*J
= 1.
a*
CI
C^Ja 2
making
+ ^/^(^ - *>-*
2o8
m = 1,
5.
289
making
m = 3,
*j
REDUCTION FORMULAE
V^^ + ^
2
= *(2 x - 5 a )V?=7+^
2
sin_1 -
log
(a?
+ VaF+d).
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
290
9.
10.
fx
-x
^/a 2
fxWx^+ti
dx
= ^(2 x - a ) Va - x + - sin"
2
dx = ^(2x2
+a
^/xT~+a~2 -
^ log (a + V^T^"
).
C?iC
(a
12.
a2 Va 2 -aJ*
-a )t
2
IV
of Rational
Fractions.
OjX
J
1Q
is.
(x 2
+a
J.
2(n-l) a
da;
v
|"
(x3
+a
s'cfa
?
2
.
= ^* V2 ax - x + f sin" 5=
2
2
a
3
= - V2 a# # + vers -1
2
U'37
sec
J V2 a x
x\/2axa?dx
or
Q\
__ + 3^ ^^
aiC
az - x 2 dx
"~
V2 a# x
f
^ V2
/(~\
+ a )*-
dx
/*
*^
asc
^^
x V2
[_(x
3 x2
^jx_
17.
r_
=_
^ V 2 aa? or
Write
*g
n~1
REDUCTION FORMULA
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
V2 ax
Write
J
n Ex.
2
a*
d.r
o -
f*
1ft
19.
a)
vers
-1,3!
-.
a 2
r? ' 1
a.i-
"- 1
~-
'
'
a-
V2 aa
(2
it-
m l)a
.r
a;- 1 eta
^ V2 aa; - or
**
21.
f xm
*^
V2 ax x
V 2 ax x + m 1
m - l)ax m (2 m - l)a J
2
x m V2
aa;
-x
xm ~^2 ax
f i'-
aa:
- ar
dx
m+2
m+2
t
cfa
(2
23
a;
+ ax - 1 * V o^r^ + g
o
2
V2 ooj x2 dx = V2
/
ax x- + a vers -i#.
'"'
22
and substitute
rife,
...
20
(x
o.
fx V2^T? fe = _
18.
Va
291
dx
- x )*
(2 m - 3)aa;"
(2 aa;
m-3
(2 ra
r ^2ax-x
- 3)aJ
Formulae.
The
a;"
"1
dx
methods explained
By means
I
and
and
n>
by successive
292
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
sin" x cos" x dx = Jf
Psin"
a;
cos" x
= smm
dx
*/
sin TO
*2?^l1 fsin
+ ra
+ nJ
m+n
^ x cosW "
2
aj
m+n
a da;.
sin"
a?
JC sm
m-\-n-\-2
+1
J.
cos w x dx
x cos
a?
= sina;cos
M_1
a?
cotm a; cosec w
a?
1
n
T cos wn _
J
(3)
a;
da;
sa\
(4)
/KN
(5)
-.
xdx
/a
(o)
x dx
m~1
m+n
,T
("tan"
"2
x see" a? da;.
(7)
da?
m lC
n ,7
m x cosec
,>*
x dx.
cotm-2
m+n
secn_2 x tan
n1
a;
/q>
m+
sec n
/-, =
m x cos n+J
n+2
^
x dx.
~1
tan a? sec' x dx
m 1 C sinm _
m J
7i
71+1
sin m_1
sm m xdx =
/_
'
71
cos w x dx
Jf
(2)
x cos n x dx
JSJ3
ii-., M .,fc
+ Si!!f
m+1
m-\-l J
I
2 C w2
_
sec
1*/
7i
a;
da;
\6 J
(9
>
REDUCTION FORMULAE
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
cosec x dx
1
Ctmi"xdx =
Ccot n xdx
224.
tan "~ lx
= - Qotn
sin-
,v
by parts with
sin- x cos" x dx = Jf
-2
x cos"^ 2 as dx
cosec n ~- xdx.
U
I
(10)y
Cteti*-*xdx
Ceot n
xdx
(12)
To
derive
we
(1),
= sin m_1 x.
sm ""
-2
(11)
Preceding Formulae.
Derivation of the
integrate
293
x cos " +1 x
sin"
1-2
a;
+ Azil f sin
n-\-lJ
7
cos" x
dx
sin w x cos n
x cfa.
(m
we have
+ )
sin m
a;
cos'
a;
cto
= sin"m_1 cos" +1 # + (m 1)
sinTO_2 a? cos"
which gives
To
derive
a?
cfa,
(1).
(2),
integrate
by parts with u
= cos
71
"1
x,
and proceed
as
To
derive (5),
The derivation
make
ra
in (1);
(1)
by transposing the
integrals,
(2)
by transposing the
integrals,
and
and (10)
to derive (6),
is left
make
to the student.
m=
We
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
294
EXAMPLES
n
n
2.
3.
cos x /sin x
Ccosec xdx =
5
7
sec x dx
sin x
f-
3 \
2sin 2 xJ
5
2cos oA3cos #
5x
3i
+ 8 logB tan-2
.
t:
+ -5
1
xf -
\sm*x
cos
12 cos- a?
8,
5
log (sec x + tan x).
+
A
4.
5.
sina/
Ccos * #cta
a =
cos
8 \
J
8
/*
I
7.
1
-r-y-*8=
3cosa?
\
35a;
+
cos#+tt
16
128
y
#+
sin 3
24
- +
16
sinaA
ic
a;
12
^ 3
4 cos
-p-
snr x
+,7-cos
6
f cos*x
cos # /sin 5 x
^ f
^
=
sm4 x cos o2 x dx
c
6
3coscc
a;
sm x
A
4
3,
+ 8g log tan-2
,
8 sir2 a;
J-^^-^^+^-lsin;
sin 4
a;
cos 3 x
cos 2 # V 3 sin 3 x
3 sin a;
Atan
I
4
4
sc
sec 3 a cte
/tan 3 a;
\
tanaA
-
8
sec 3 aH
sec
a?
tan #
16
rcot^cosec5
-ilogtan|
12
CHAPTER XXVI
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
The
225.
XXIII,
new
substitution of a
We
of variable, a
We
of algebraic functions,
of trigonometric functions.
226.
Integrals of form
By
is
this,
Integrals containing (a
By
for
example
is
is
One
of
z.
ifix^xdx
p
2
6.x* )?
the substitution
This
applicable,
- \f{z)dz.
changed into
Take
when
+ bzr)q.
x =
x'dx
x3 dx
VI -x 2
x2
z,
l-z = v:\
295
zdz
and
is
rationalized
by putting
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
296
The two
Applying
2
.
x2
^ dx
Jf vi -
x = id
substitution
=1w
xdx
2
,
= w dw.
EXAMPLES
J V2s*+1
2.
3.
far* (a
dx
30
JaVa + a
2
=
2
log
2a
a2 + a
2a
1
g?
vx + 1 l
2
5.
f
^
a^
aj
Var
+a +a
2
xdx
+ 2V3 -
(yV + a + a)
* log
OJ
Va ar
V&*2 a 2
by a Trigonometric Substitution. Frequently the shortest method of
treating such integrals is to change the variable as follows
227. Integration
of
Expressions containing
or
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
For a
a*
.r
let
as
= a sin
or x
= a cos 0.
o-,
let
= a tail
or
a;
= a cot
let
= a sec
or
a*
= a cosec 0.
For
vr +
For
v .r a
2
,
Jdv-
297
0.
(a2
= a sin 0,
Let x
cr
/
Take
= a tan
dx
2
or = a- a
a?)% ^
+a
)*
dO,
= <r cos- 0.
smi
1
r
C
tan
cJO
a 2 J cos 2 6
a3 cos 3
Let x
/ x^/x
= a cos
do __
_ a, cos eOde
c7x
(a*
cfcc
2
a,-
(9
a2
a 2 Vd2
x^Jx2
0.
r a sec
^ a tan
/" sec
__ 1
dO
a sec
a J tan
n_l C
- cot 0) = 1 log Vx +a -a
2
- log (cosec
a
Again, find
Let x
a;
a sec
^- \te
'
0.
a sec
Vx a a sec -1 2
dO
a J sin
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
298
EXAMPLES
1.
Va x
2
dx
= - Va x
2
sin
-j
-1
C dx
_ _ Va^ + a
J Va?Ta
a;
3.
,2
f dx = \og(x4-VxT^~a1\
J ^Jx a2
2
5.
dx
(2a;
+ a )Va -^
8.
9.
1_
log (x
+ Var -h a
2
)-
rr.
x4
3a2xs
C_dx__ =z
~ (2x -l)Vx + l
2
^ dx -L
ctr
J x'Vx^+l
3x*
fv/^i da? = f
io.
11.
+1
da;
=\/^^x + 1
*?
=J5i.
g*
(a3
+ l)V^ -l
2
*<* g
^V3 + 2x-aj
==
2
_V 8 + 2cc-a; + sm-^
2
2
'
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
V3 4- 2 x - x* = V4 (x l)
For
r
J (j* + 2x + 3)*
"+1
2 Va 2 + 2 a;
<f.r
12.
0.
+3
let
+ 1 = V2 tan 0.
a;
r v
xa
C
J (2ax-x*)% aW2ax-x*
*'
13
UC
.
ja
J \i
V
x cfo = waxx/
= Ca^=r
+ ,
da;
J V2^"T~'~
sin
_i2.T-ffl
l
(3a-\-x) V2
'
'
^ Vaaj-ai
*
a 2 ^x
(*
15
3a 2
Sm_! ; a
2
a
aa;
x 1 = 2 sin
let
= V(<e+ 1) + %
Var>+2 x + 3
For
299
"
Trigonometric Functions.
of
it,
229. Substitution,
x=z,
sin
cos x
sin x cos x
sin
x = z,
then x
= sin -1
z,
dx
z.
dx
J 1 sin x + cos
Let
tan x =
or
z,
dz
VI -z
sin x cos x
dx
sin x + cos
zdz
C
=
J (2 + z)(l-z)
= - ? log
o
(2
+ 2) - I
J
2
Vl z
_ C
dz
z + lz
r dz
J 2 +2
log (1
^/\
_2
r_dz_
J 1-2
- 2) = - |
o
log [(2
zdz
+ sin
a;)
zz
(l
- sin )].
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
300
EXAMPLES
1.
Ja +bft3in
2
3.
,
2
=-1
r^-^taii-^tan^l
a
\a
a -b
a?
= lio
f^^^
4
sin
)]
[_
r dx
=x
J 1 + tanx 2
cos
in
>
Let sin a; =
sinaj
/ sin
5.
dx
4.
sin
+
cos x
+ 2 cos
a?
dx
log
5
7
=
dx
sin
= x-\
x
.
,
-\
(1
a;
cos x)'-.
oj
log (sin x
,
i
log
= loj
^3
tan x
tan x
= z.
T
Let
cos
Let
tan x =
(l+2cosa;) 2
tan x
7.
a;
/'tan
'tan 3 x
a;-,,
6.
= -1
sin2x
a;
2.
+l02 cos x)
\
z.
V -.
+ ^J
where
/Vtana?d!a;= Cxi!*?,
2
J Vsina?daj= J
I
= tana;.
+z
Vl-z
=
2
J Vz-z
where
sin x.
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
230.
By
z.
301
this substitution,
siu x
z.
For
22
+ tan--
1-tan 2 *
2
COS X-
1+tan
1-Z
~1+Z
2
2
2 tan 9
tana;
i-*
1-tan *
2
From
= tan-
dx
2,
= ^-
9.
may
z,
of elementary functions of
231. To
preceding
find
Applying
J s the substitution of the
tan -
in terms
x.
C dx
J a + bsmx
article,
x,
z,
/i
z riz
2dz
i
&
+*
2bz
~r z
+2
'
2
2dz
r
J a (l + *) + 2ki
2fttfe
a 2z 2
+ 2abz + a*
/"
(az
r/rfc
+ b) + a - b
2
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
302
If
a>
by
numerically,
r_dx__ =
+ 6 sin
< 6,
If a
6 sin
Va -6
2
a;
^_
az
+b =
Va -6
^^
Va -6
2
2a&
_ r
cc
aZ
(i
+ 6 V& a
2
find
atan| +
&
+ V& -a
2
dx
Jfa
-j-
b COS
2^2
6(1 z 2 ) ~~J ( a
/"
b) z
+ a -f &
dz_
&''
+
ab
> b,
numerically,
dx
Jfa + b COS
b
t
-6-V6
a2 + &+ V & 2_ a;
a^
2 dz
log
V& - a
If
Va -6
log
y 6 2_ a 2
+ &)2_(52_ a2)
a tan -
232. To
a tan -
numerically,
da?
a-6^a+6
_2
tan-'f
Va+6
JL^ tan
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
If a
<
b,
303
numerically,
dz
2
r az
2_
b
aJ a _ b + a
b a
dx
r
=
J a + b cos x
gv6-g-V& + a
sV&-a+V& + a
1
1
V& - a
2
.r
a tan h + V b + a
Vfr
V& a
2
log
2
V 6 a tan # V & + a
/
EXAMPLES
Integrate the following functions by means of the rational substitution.
1.
2
"
3.
= W^2tan*
3cosa?
2
J,-^2
V
*
= 1 j
f
J l + 2sin2a 2V3
+ 2-V3
tana; + 2 + V3
tanaj
(?
&
3tan^
in^ + 2
=i
Jf 5 sin x + 12 cos a 13 log&
I
,
2 tan
x
^-3
&tan-a + Va +
2
J a sin* + 6 cob*
5.
sin
./,*
*vers
-f-
V^+6
tan
= logas
g
6 taD
x
2
H- tan
*_a_
&
V^+6
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
304
tan--l
6.
'
Jf 3
*
sm x + 2 cos a?
1=
a;
(1
= ^log
cos x
/dx
3tan| + l
^
Jo
+ sm
I
= tan-_J?
+ sina + cosaj)
tan^ + 2
= -1.x
tan
2
reciprocal substitution, x
1+tan
log
A1 + tan
by experience.
The
= ~, may
be mentioned as simplify-
many
ing
integrals.
EXAMPLES
Apply
trie
reciprocal substitution x
3aV
x4
r___dx__
2
'
_ _ Va?-|-a
fvV + a
r V2 ax x
J
a;
"
^=
(2
ax
- x )?
2
g
**
=ii og
r
J j;VV x a
+ Va
r ^-f)* ^
Sax3
a^
4.
=-
3JX-Xill,
)
3
,4
8tf
x1
to Exs. 1-6.
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
r
J \
7.
*b
2
8x
+2x-1
"***
305
x-1
= snr
3x
_ + _6_ +
g(a
+ 2).
Let
^f
r ix+a)(x+brdx=
-\-
+(a _
b)
a;
+ 2=
(^i
+
1
91
Let x-\-b
x (a
+ &a?)
+ &a>)
a3 _2(a
+ bx
- dx =
tan
11
(a;
+ a)
f-
sin
a;
"T
Let
= - - - + log Ve & + e* + 1
+ 6a; =
a;
-dx = V(a -
Substitute b
+x=z
a)(&
2.
1 ^.,2^ + 1
tan
a?
Jf\^ b +
4-x
a;z.
+a=
V3
V3
Let
12.
z.
Let a
10.
2.
z.
+b
+ a) + (a + 6) sin" J*
1
2
,
5,
Art. 222.
13.
+6=z
2
,
2,
CHAPTER XXVII
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION.
An
234.
DEFINITE INTEGRAL
integral
may
be regarded
Area
235.
PABQ
sum
of rectangles.
Let
it
be
nate s
Let
AP and
y=x?
BQ.
be the equa-
A\A2
AA
1}
Then
At A
AB = b a = n Ax.
lf
Ac,,
draw the
, and complete the rectangles
2
2
PA P A
= x?,
QB= b?.
PA = a\ P A =(a + Ax% P A = (a + 2 Ax)?,
Area of rectangle PA PA x AA = a? Ax.
Area of rectangle PA = P^A x A A = (a + Ax)? Ax.
Area of rectangle P A = P A x A A = (a + 2 Ax)? Ax.
ordinates
From
AP AP
X
X,
Area
of rectangle
PB=PA
5
re-
A B = (b Ax) ? Ax.
306
X,
2,
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION.
The sum
a - A.r -f (a
^
which may be represented by >
.r-'
+ A.r, a + 2 A.r,
evident that the area PABQ
a
a,
rectangles, as n increases,
That
and
is
series,
V x*
A.r
The
.r-
x-
From
Ax.
is,
by
of the
h (6
sum
A.r decreases.
'
Definite Integral.
x taking in succes-
A.r.
Area
is,
236.
As)* Aa?,
A.r,
A.r represents
h (&
where x-
307
Ax) i A.r.
denoted by
definition,
dx
a
h
a
1
x-
is calleji
f?.r
It is to
bol
The
be noticed that a
237.
new
sym-
anti-differential.
fol-
article.
Evaluation
dx\ 3
By
of a^da?.
6,
relation
lowing
x% dx.
This
is a?*
da\
f
3 J
= Lim
- (a
-f
Ax) 2
= s*.
A,;
is effected
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
308
= X* +
Ax
where
e is
2x*
^
-(x4-Ax) 2
Hence
=x Ax + eAx.
2
Ax,
a-\-
| (a + Ax)*
o
^ (a
o
(a
|
o
26f
C,
+ 2 Ax,
^=
,&
a* Ace
x,
Ax,
<a
Ax,
Ax,
_ o|
Ax,
(ft
in the first
members,
e1
Ax + e 2 Ax 4
e3
Ax
-f eM
1-
(6
- Ax)?Ax
Ax
= ^^
V^Ax + Y^Ax
a
the
sum
(1)
sum
Xx
of the rectangles,
Ax, as
and 2j
we have
e
a
Ax
before
represents
and
the curve.
The
latter
sum approaches
Ax approaches
zero.
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION
For
if e A is
.
V
1
that
As
>,
is,
et
Xv
<
e,T
&x
<
e /t(^
^^ a
c1} u, , it
809
follows that
Ax,
)-
Lim
Taking the
^^
eAaj
= 0.
limit of (1),
a?s
of
da;
dac is
S xldx = 4>
by substituting for
a;,
and a
(Mo.-**
Ja
This
is
6
I
2b%
J
3
variable being the lower limit, and the final value b the upper limit.
In contradistinction
fx
is
dx
= 2-^+C,
xMx.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
310
/ (x)dx = Lim Aa = o
/(a)Aa>
If
f(x) dx
= F(x),
2 Ax)Ax
f(x)dx = F(b)-F(a)
--.(I)
may
This
235,
by supposing yf(x)
ing /( for
a?*,
~-
varies
Area
239. Constant
constant
of Integration.
in the
indefinite
It is to
integral
integral.
Thus,
if in
evaluating
x* dx,
/
wefind
Or
if
we
'
C,
+ G- IF (a) + C]=F.(b)-F(a).
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION
EXAMPLES
.0
1.
Compute
When Ax =
X/ Ax =
(l
+ L2 + 1A + D?
+ r8 )(.2) = 2.01.
When Ax = .1,
+ L9 )(.1) = 2.18.
2
When
A.?
= .05,
Ax
Lirn Ax=0 5j a~
= 2 26
Jj'asPAa
x2
c?x
=
2.33.
2.
Compute
x
V 'Ax
*"*1
When Ax =
4
Ax
(\
Y |R
1,
s.T-e+i+i^- 1 ".
When Ax = .5,
When Ax
^A Ax
1XX _
AT"
Ax
^1
1.593.
1.426.
311
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
312
= Jl X =
0A = 1, 0B = .
= ->
Curve RQ, y
log x
**l X
PABQ = 1.386
Area
square
units.
3.
Y x Ax, when Ax = 1
Compute
when Ax = .5
when Ax = .2.
^Ins.
4.
Computed
Ax =.05.
Find Lim Ax=0
5.
Compute
Am
when Ax =
log 10 xAx,
V
^^
log 10 xAx.
tan< A<,
when Ax =
l;
Ans.
'
>
.5;
.316;
Ans. log e
A<
.328;
(ic
-4) 2x<!x =
/* 9
125
Va
Jo
2*
-2/
+l
_9
J Vx + 144
2
r
2
x dx
'
-;
.785.
when
Ji x2
dx
-x + l
.340.
V2 = .346.
7.
oU
.4ns.
180
<f>
when
ou
tan
IT
20
= -^-.
.l;
Ans.
4
10
Compute
when Ax =
Ax =.2;
A<
V
when
+x
Y* -**L.
^o 1 + x
Ax =.3.
6.
^ns
-,
ol
3V3
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION
13.
15.
flv
jTsin^
<
313
rf
ff .
M = ^_|.
16
r vers22e ^ = ^_7V3.
/o
is
,;
cos 20
"f.
cos
18.
Jo
(aj
cos 2 a dO
1A
= 1 + - cos a.
cos a
-,
+ 2)
f
Jo
2.
19.
6 log
&
+ 2x + 2x + 2x + x*
2
tt
= -log& (2 e).
;
7T
20.
.i*-
sin
.r
dx
2a
21.
a log (x
f
%J a
(5)
and
(6),
= - log 4.
tt
Art. 223,
sin"
;/:
we
dx
find
= ~
?/
~2
a;
cfo,
7T
sin n
Jo
7T
Jo
/o
By
7r
+ a) cfc = ^log (3 a) - 1.
f'tan- 1 -dx
22.
= 2.
cos x ax
Jo
cos n-_ x ax
16
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
814
n
If
24.
even,
is
1 S b '"( n
'
Jo
If
25.
J"
sin"
x dx =
/ (x) dx, we
a series
Jf
cos M # d#
(x)
dx
is
sum
of
x a
negative
to
terms,
6,
= b,
is
inte-
and
/ (x)
/(a?) A#,
and
consequently
negative,
to be positive be-
negative.
algebraic
= 2 4. 6 (71 D
3 5 7
2-4-6.--H
c/o
gral
~V
odd,
is
240.
'
of a positive
1 = area ^4 0J5.
cos x dx
cos x dx ==
2 = area
JBCZ).
/(#)
cto
is
the
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION
315
3ir
cos x dx
i
f
The change
= 1 = 1 2.
dx=0 = l 2 + 1.
"""
cos x
of sign resulting
from a
<
b is
Infinite Limits.
In the definition of a definite integral the
have been, assumed to be finite. When one of the limits is
infinite, the expression may be thus defined
241.
limits
A ^,,tan _ b\ = 2tt a
dx
fix) dx.
= TLi m 5= r Sa dx = TLnn
ar + 4cr
Jo or + 4 a
r~8a
Jo
= Lim 6=w
fix) dx
we
o
2
4
\
6=ao
2
.
2a
this result.
ordinate
2-n-a
2
,
and Y, and a
indefinitely increased.
is
J^dx
we
find
dx
= Lim^^ log
J" x
oo
00
Jr
1
meaning.
242.
is
Infinite
assumed
/(#)
is
Values of f(x).
to be a continuous function
continuous for
is infinite,
In the definition of
all
from x
to
fix) dx
may
be defined thus
= Lim A=0
/ (x) dx.
has no
25
f(x)dx, f(x)
=a
dx
= a,
= b.
where
If
it
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
316
If f(b)
Xbf(x) dx = Lim^
For example, consider Ex.
9,
x,
S*b-h
f(x) dx.
dy
r Va -/
2
Here
= oo
Va y
2
when y = a.
Hence
J* ^/a 2
-y
-Va2
_
Another example
is
6J
IT
7T
r
Here
V
7T
y/(x-2)(3-x)
= oo,
when x = 2, and
also
when # = 3.
V(a>-2)(3-a;)
Hence
= Lim
J2 yj(x_2)(3-x)
Lim^o sin -1 (2 x
'"*=
5)
ft=0
j2 + h V(s
some value
between a and
6,
and
is
con-
definite integrals
may
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION
317
EXAMPLES
dx
=l0 g(2+V3).
4.
^- = -log2.
varies from a to
a,
the sign of
may
definite integral
by the
and
Ax
also
is
from the
and
definition.
f(x)dx =
integrals
f(fi) dx.
Hence the
b.
changed
f f(?) dx = -
This is evident from
For if x varies from b to
is
]x f(x) Ax
b are transposed.
f(x) dx.
relation,
f 7(a)
dx =
f /(*) dx + f /(a)
(to.
Change
is
new
variable.
p_* _
L
Jo 1
-f-
V#
assume
y/x
z.
INTEGKAL CALCULUS
318
Now when
1+Vz
=
4, z
+z
and when
f^p = C
Hence
2zdz
dx
Then we have
=4-
= 0,
2 [* -
2 log
og
2!
(1
= 0.
+ *)]
3.
EXAMPLES
1.
CxVx~T2dx = ^.
J2
2.
f(
a;
-2)" !K ca; =
*/2
f s ^
J o(x -\-iy
2
2 ax
6-
- 3m + 5
+ 3^ + 2
+ ^g).
dx =
7rcr
r v3 + 2^-^ &=V3 _T
c/2
(a;
l)
V(x
Let
x2
Let
a2 +
Let
Let
a)(b
Let
= a cos
Let
= a sin
x)dx = ^
(b
a)
Let
= asin0
2.
l=z
3
.
a = a sin 6.
=sl+ 2sinft
j^V-^) f ^ = 3^
32
a-f2 = z3
n2
3 (3
5.
Let
15
V64
48
2
.
<
0.
+ 6 sin
<.
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION
245.
it is
Definite Integral as a
Sum.
319
dx as the sum of an
infinite
number
of the
From
may
+/(&)
dx.
CHAPTER XXVIII
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION TO PLANE CURVES.
APPLICATION TO CERTAIN VOLUMES
246. Areas of Curves. Rectangular Coordinates. We have alreadyused this problem as an illustration of a definite integral. We will
now
consider
it
in rectangular coordinates.
To
247.
AP and BQ
moving from AP
given ordinates
ordinate
that
is,
of
X, and two
by the
to
BQ.
Let OA = a, OB = b.
Let x and y be the coordinates of any point P2 of the
curve then
;
+ Ax,
+ Ay,
The area
3.
the rectangle
of
P A A is
P A x A A = y Ax*
2
The sum
PAA U P A^A P A A
X
2,
3,
maybe
represented by 2\ a y &v*
as
=
*
By
of the
of the rectangles,
y dx,
320
sum
is
is
an element of area.
= OB,
initial
value of
x,
x.
given abscissas,
GP and
IIQ,
321
Y,
and two
is
=J
vdij,
g=OG,
and
h=
y,
OH.
EXAMPLES
Find the area between the parabola y 2 = kax and the axis of
X, from the origin to the ordinate at the point (h, k).
1.
A = f ydx= f 2a^dx
Here
4a^i*
4a*7i-
Since k 2 =lah, k = 2
aw,
which
gives
ellipse
* + t = l.
a2 ^b 2
Area
|
BOA
y dx = -
Va-
x- (he
aJo
bV x /-=
'= -\
-V -ar + a-sin _iX~\
2
a\_2
t,
aj
Trb
* In finding areas, after the element of area and the limits of integration are
chosen, the problem becomes purely mechanical.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
322
The
entire area
-n-ab.
Or we may integrate by
letting x
= a sin
<.
f Va*-a?dx = a* C\m
Then
4>d<t>=^
(1
-cos 2 <l>)d<f>=
Areai^^.^^
4
a 4
3.
Find the area included between the parabola x 2 = 4 ay, and the
witch y
8<r
=
#2
+4d
^Ins.
2
of intersection P, (2 a, a),
(2,r-*V.
we proceed
as
follows
Area
2a
cc
+ 4a
4.
r 2a a?dx =
$a?dx
2
2v
4a
Jo
2 a2
)a 2
(y-5)* = 8(2-x),
on the right of the axis of Y.
Length
of element of area
is
Arts.
104.
Show
x2 y 2
= a*
X and a diameter
6.
323
Find the
log
is
i'
through
= 1.
f-Y + f\
Ans.
- wab.
4
7.
Find the
Let x = a
ft + y$= a\
8.
9.
sin3
within
hypocycloid
the
132)
(Art.
^?is.
<.
Find the
and the
area
entire
line x
entire area
= 2 a,
asymptote.
its
2a
3
Arts.
?ra
=ax
4
Ans.
2
.
6
jc
TO
??.
8
Also from x
=-
to
a;
= a.
^3
10.
(*r)^
of
the
evolute
of
the
+ (6y)*= (a - b )K
11.
ellipse
What
and
is
its
6,
when the
167)
?ffe 8 \b
areas of the
12.
(Art.
ellipse
Ans.
8 ;4
V3
= ox
and
x*
= by.
Ans.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
324
13.
y
14.
=2x
and the
circle
=4xx
Ans. 0.475.
==
and
4 ax
= 4 (x 2 a)
its
3
.
Ans 352V?2
.
15
Parametric Equations. Instead of a single equation between x and y
for the equation of a curve, the relation between x and y may be expressed by means of a third variable. Thus the equations
x = a sin
represent a circle; for
x
Equations
if
we
+y = a
2
<f>
(sin
from
<
+ cos
2
</>
(1)
<j>,
<)
we have
(1)
=a
2
.
circle,
and
is
A=
The formula
= a cos
eliminate
2
<,
clx is
= a cos
dx
<}>,
= a cos
</>
d<j>.
circle
n
A=
15.
ydx=
a 2 cos 2
cf>
d$ =
7T(T
16.
sin 6),
= a (1
cos
Ans. 3
6).
a,
which
ira
2
.
by a point
upon a
rolls
= a6 b sin 0,
= a b cos
0.
Ans.
it
(2
+ b) b,
when
<a
or b
> a.
is,
To
Polar Coordinates.
Areas of Curves.
248.
PQ
Two
find the
POQ
Area
that
by the
OP
and
325
to
OQ.
Let
Let
POX=a, QOX =
r
and
any point
P of the curve,
r + Ar,
+ A0,
The area
P2 OR, is'
of
"
"
The sum
3.
- OPo x P.Mo = -r -r A0
"
then
f3.
be the coordinates of
= Ir
POP, PxOR^
of the sectors
resented by
as
A<9.
P OR
2
2,
may
be rep-
-i
limit of the
sum
of the sectors,
-IX'"*
the initial value
final
value of
6,
of
= POX,
6,
limit.
EXAMPLES
1.
= a sin 2
A = lC
,*dO
-V/Q
= l fa
J/o
sin 2 2
-IT-
'
0d$ =
0.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
326
The
which
2.
7rd
Find the
= a sin
0.
Ans.
4
In the two following curves find the area described by the radius
vector in
moving from
=-.
to
3.
= sec0 + tan0.
4.
= a(l-tan
5.
Ans. 1
+ V2 - ^
8
Ans.
fc-*\<A
0).
(Art. 141) r
"*
Ans.
=-
to
6.
Ans. (Sir
v
2)
;
8.
= a sec
-, from
=5
to $
Find the
= -.
Ans.
= ^.
to
^4ns.
7.
9V3*
=a
cos 2
^.fts.
8.
Show
9.
0.
a2
=a
is
radii.
Ans.
= 0.
Also find the area of the strip added by the nth revolution.
Ans. 8 (w
1)
3
ir
a2
10.
=a
sin
+ b cos 6,
circle
from
to 6
= -.
Ans. ('+*$
8
11.
3 a tan
Show
13.
r=
sec
+ tan
3 a2
Ans.
+ tanfl'
divides the
x + y=2a),
J
J
(
V
2:1.
14.
(Art. 127)
2asec0
l
> 6.
where a
12.
^iws.
circles
= a cos + b sin 0.
+ 2 tan-_, b\ a + b a b
= a sin + b cos 0,
327
= a sin
a
3
-,
no
o
part being counted twice.
249. Lengths
Length
of the
of
Ans. (10tt
Rectangular
Curves.
PQ between Two
OB = b.
Arc
Coordinates.
Given Points
+ 9V3)
-.
To
the
find
and Q.
Let OA = a,
Denoting the required length of
arc by s, we have from (1), Art. 155,
ds
=nMS
dx.
\dx
P.
Hence
wi + aw.
and between the given limits
s>m
dx,
(1)
x.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
328
We may
-&+&
the limits being the initial and final values of
g=OG,
and
y,
h=OH.
EXAMPLES
1.
from the
4=ax,
4 = 2!.
Here
therefore $
This
may
=j[Yl + ~Y
<& =
f Y*V
<fo,.
rfax\l
j^Va +
dx
= 0.
(2),
*=jhr
_
2
?/
4a
dx
cfa/
M| V^HU + ^
2
= a[V2 + log(l+
V2)]
y
2a
log
+ V2/ + 4a )T
2
(2/
a.
..
Find the
(Art. 130) ay
3.
length of
=x
3
,
=-
to x
= 5a.
Ans.
Find the entire length of the arc of the hypocycloid (Art. 132)
2.
2.
x*+y = a
4.
semicubical parabola
from x
329
'
Ans. 6
a.
= a-( e + e -),
^
-
from x
5.
Ans. ^{e a
= log sec x,
from x
+ V3).
of the curve
= x* + 3,
from x
'
=1
to
a:
= 2.
12
17
^4ns.
8.
).
= -.
to x
Ans. log (2
7.
-x
6.
=(x-2 a) (x - 5 a)
Ans. 4 V3 a.
2
.
Ans.
9.
10.
4(3V3-l)a.
= log =
eZ
+l
from #
=1
to
x=
2.
Aiis. log(e
+ e _1
)
).
= 1.
2
Ans.
11.
to 6
jj.
40
e 9 sin 0,
-4n*.
^^&_
a+
y
=e
cos
0.
V2 (e*- 1).
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
330
12.
x = - (3 cos
<f}
4>
cos 3 $),
- (3 sin sin 3
<
circle,
<),
rolled.
Find the
Lengths
250.
of Curves.
Let
We
Ans. 12
To
Polar Coordinates.
Arc
of the
ds
Points
P and
find the
a.
Length
Q.
p + (1)72
rei ore
2
fdrVJA
\dB) _
(1)
q'
0.
Or we have
therefore
ds
Off
+r
dr
(2),
Art, 156,
dr
dr,
-f-r
(2)
dr
r.
That
is,
OP a, OQ =
b.
EXAMPLES
1.
(Art.
Here
=
d6
a,
and we have by
spiral of
Archimedes
(1),
s= C~\a
+ a )?d0 = a
2
C*"
331
(1+0 )"'dO
TtVI
Or
formula
dO
ar
= Jf2jra
(2)
+r h
Vl
\
a
2
=1
dr
p V?"^
"
2.
7rV47r 2
dr
a /o
)"].
'06
Jf \i
a
7T
+ l+^log(27r +
vW +
l)l.
= 2 a sin 0.
Ans. 2
3.
4.
= a sin +
& cos
0,
from
ira.
circle
to
(r, 0).
^Lns.
Va + b
2
0.
the point
O^Ml.
a
Ans.
Va2
+ 1 (r - ri
2
).
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
332
5.
Find the
=a (1 cos 0).
Ans. 8
Also show that the arc of the upper half of the curve
bisected by
is
6.
7.
to 6
12
8.
9.
Find the
to 6
10.
= a,
from
(~ + log-V
Ans.
V15
(Art. 139) r
= |.
= vers -1 -.
a sec
^4ns. (sec
- from
*Lz)a.
^ + log tan
Hence OA,
= ?.
r6
a.
^.
= a sin 1
3
AB is
one third of
OABG.
Find the
tive integer.
Ans.
2.4-6...
2
1.3.5...(?i-l)
1.3-5-w
2.4-6... (n-1)
a,
7ra,
when n
when n
is
is
even
odd.
of Surfaces of Revolution.
ated
To
find the
Volume
333
gener-
APQB.
curve.
It is evident that the rectan-
cylinder,
whose volume
is
TTlf A.i\
The sum
may
be represented by
Ai
A2
A3
A4
sum
of the cylinders, as
PGHQ about OF is
limit of the
V = ir\
y
where
OG = g,
and
OH =
x2
cbj,
It.
EXAMPLES
1.
a2
about
its
major
=ttI
axis,
2
y dx
7r
OX.
'
Z>
This
is
(a a?)dx = 2
ellipse
F=%a6
2
.
crx
arY
27ra^ 2
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
334
2.
minor
This
OY.
is
|_j^=^j>-^=
y=*
7ra?b
a 2 b.
7T
3
3.
volume from
to x = 4 a.
4.
If the parabola y 2
a?
to
Here
-?= tt
C\pN)
y-
"-"(
dy
r,
ir
C\a - x)
dy
t
P/
16
7rCT
2a
Ans.
32
a
irCT.
5.
about
OX
6.
about
Ans.
3
-n-a .
x*+y*
L'
35
7.
aAy 2 a2 xA xe
15
= a*.
Ans.
OX the
32
7r(r.
105
OY,
Ans.
V = ^irab
x
oo
b.
V = ^a
o
2
2
.
8.
dinate axes,
is
of the line
a
o
revolved about the line x
= 2 a.
Ans. -vefb,,
The segment
of the parabola, x2
10.
its
Show
circle is
is
8a '
+4a
is
(0,
2 a) to y
= a.
-.
OF the witch
[-
half,
-|-
3oJ
OX
ABA',
^-ffW
4
Ans.
13.
is
equal to that of a
81
from
or
Ans.
(Art. 126), y
above OX,
12.
3 x + 2 y = 0,
segment of a
chord.
11.
coor-
volume.
9.
335
the area
Ans.
irab
2
.
48
X
14.
= a log 2,
is
tum
-\-e
),
by a
15.
= ~{e
3nog2-^J7ra
rectum.
+ ^ = 1,
the
segment cut
Ans. 2ir{ab
off
3
.
rec-
by the latus
-- ab^/d 2
b sin"
-\
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
336
Revolution.
of
In order
to
Let
the arc
s,
Using
OX
AP.
for
abbreviation
expression "Surf
the
)" to denote
volving
S = Surf (s), AS =
This
AS
Now
may
Surf (As).
be written
Surf (As)
Surf (Chord
PQ)
PQ)
Surf (Chord
which
is
Surf (Chord
PQ)
=2
As,
is
(?EM\ chord PQ
tt
=2
^1^ Chord PQ
7r
by
PQ
midway between
Hence
(1)
(1),
we have
Ag =
As
Surf (A,)
Surf (Chord
PQ)
, (2
Lim As=0
+A)
9>
^
as
Chord PQ
As
As approaches
Surf (As)
Surf (Chord
PQ)
1,
zero, noticing
and
=>
ChOTdP(? =
ds
Y is the
if
we ha*
l,
As
f = Lim
Similarly
337
AS
irf
Try.
As
axis of revolution,
dS
2ttx.
ds
of Surfaces of Revolution.
To find the Area
by revolving about OX the Arc PQ.
the preceding article we have
253.
Areas
of the Sur-
face generated
By
dS =
27ry
ds
S=
hence
y,
I 2-rry ds.
ds
MSI
dx,
which gives
*{HWJ
>n*
If
Y is
B
dx.
(1)
Sy = 2 7T Cxds = 2 7T
Or we may use
and instead of
(1)
and instead of
(2)
rls
C x\l +
+
-^
)
dyYf dx.
dx)
(2)
dy,
we have
dy.
(20
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
338
EXAMPLES
1.
Here
(y
OX
+ y* = a*.
o$
^ = - (a* -x^x~\
= J - a,i)4,
ctx
2.
Using
Sx = 2ir(a}
(1)
a3
2._,1
~\~
s
x*
2
.{
/Y3
x*ydx = 2 7ra
/^ a
(a 3
) * a;
-1
cto
i3
Or we may use
Show
a3
from
3.
2 2/"
f*
I
= 6-n-a
y^dy
from
a?
to x
= 3 a,
is
one eighth of
(a 2/*)
y:2_1 dy = 2 ?ra
parabola y 2
that
12
#* =
-^ =
(1')
& = 2 -X'
2.
7ra
= x(3a xf.
Ans. 3
OX
tto
2
.
of the curve 6
Ans.
-tto
2
.
16
5.
The
about
6.
4y
Y.
What
is
=a
to
= 3 a, revolves
+ log 3)?ra
= x 2 log x,
2
Ans. (20
OF the curve
Ans. 24
tt,
ellipse
8.
OY the
preceding
9.
339
Am
ellipse.
(4
of the curve S
3 iog 3)i
OX
x*.
aV
J = a-x
the loop
ira?
Ans.
4
10.
An
arc.
revolves about
11.
to
The
x=2a,
subtending an angle 2
its
chord.
a,
revolves about
whose radius
of a circle
OT.
f = -le
+e
ci
-\
is a,
a cos a).
=a
from x
),
12.
=e
sin
6,
of a curve are
y=
ee
cos
0.
0=-,
about
2
13.
OX
to
Ans. i*(e-2).
5
AnSm
OT the
^ 7r
(2c
arc of
77
1
1).
o
14.
are
cos
<f>
cos
3$,
rolling circle
y=
sin
<
- (Ex.
12, p. 330)
- sm 3
<.
Find the entire surface generated by revolving the curve about OX.
Ans.
15.
- 7r 2 a 2
Ans.
drra 2
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
340
x,
dis-
be a function of
x,
by X.
Xdx,
will ultimately be
of the solid
V=
the limits being the
initial,
Cxdx,
and
final,
values of
x.
EXAM PLES
1. Find the volume of a pyramid or cone having any base.
Let A be the area of the base, and h the altitude.
Let x denote the perpendicular distance from the vertex of a section parallel to the base
Calling the area of this section X, we
X = tf
h2
X = Ax
'
2
'
Ji
Hence,
Xdx = -
/iVO
x 2 dx
Ah
Ah
'
h 3
OA = BO=2 a,
The
section
BTQ,
BO=CA =
h.
perpendicular to OA,
is
an
isosceles triangle.
Let x
341
OP; then
V=
Hence,
dx
This
3.
0~
(V
Let
us
area
the
find
of
....
C"
section
C'B'D' perpendicular
OX,
the
at
^^^fT
/
dis-
031= x.
This section
is
an
^y
ellipse
MC
To
z
find
>i
\
\
*~7
axes
is
* + + $=!
to
/o
"1sk\
yn
y/
MB', let
aud we
in (1),
7i
have
To
in (1),
z
and we have
= MC = -->/a
-x*.
The area
Hence,
and
2, p.
V= 2
PX
A>
da;
321)
is
(MB ) (MC).
1
it
(--.i~),
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
342
4.
distance from the point, and the other as the square of this distance.
At the distance
What
5.
The axes
radius
is
of
becomes a square of 3
Ans. 41 cubic
feet.
feet.
a,
the two.
Ans.
3
6.
torus
is
generated by a
circle,
radius
b,
revolving about an
axis in its plane, a being the distance of the centre of the circle
the axis.
Ans.
the axis.
from
of sections perpendicular to
7r
a2 b.
seam
football
is
of the cover is
9.
Two
for their
_ |\ %
common upper
each other.
base.
to the
two
cylinders.
Ans.
i^.
CHAPTER XXIX
SUCCESSIVE INTEGRATION
255. Definite Double Integral.
double integral
is
the integral
of an integral.
integral,
f(x,y)dxdy
&(P
- y)dx dy =
x-l
by
1j
dx =
is
x~~dx
indicated in the
Jo
order.
first
is
integration, instead
[( f(z,y)dy\<l.r.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
344
For example,
JP
xy dy dx = jTg
j dy = | jf
"(3 jf
+2
J"
V-
a*y)dy
As another example,
J J^^(x-\-y)dxdy=J f^ + |-)
When
may
integrations
Where
x2 (b
y)dxdy
*S0
x 2 (b
*^
is,
y)dy dx.
*/a
Triple Integrals.
cessive integrations.
III
A similar notation
is
x 2y 2zdxdydz
x y dxdy
2
V 0
- V) dx dy = a b
C Cr sin 6 dr dB =
2
Thus
EXAMPLES
2.
That
tions can be
257.
all constants, as in
^"^dx
o
a3
(a
- b).
~ 63
(cos
/3
- cos a).
SUCCESSIVE INTEGRATION
Jb Jo
dr d0
5.
r'sin^?^)-^.
Jo Jo
nlO
Vxy y
r^ear =
fT'
c/o c/acose
10.
dy dx
=6a
3
.
/0 A)
9-
--
8.
345
1
L- \^.
I5y 10
^
J^jTsin (2 +-)<** = 1.
/o
Jo
J^
2?
+^
&
12
-
13.
14.
X XX ^ +
(
'
C
J" f
J
+*
sin (xyz)
j
%/o
15
y2
2)
dx dy dz
dx dydz
f uvw du dvdw=
Ju-%
S*f*
VeX+y+zdxd
y dz
=f
18
=-
(a2
+ 52 + c2)
CHAPTER XXX
APPLICATIONS OF DOUBLE INTEGRATION
258.
Moment
of Inertia.
If r1} r 2
?*
,
m^ + m r + ?%r +
2
2)
1}
3,
m m m
-f
n rn
3,
mn
the
X (w?*
from
sum
is
inertia of the
for
the
-/- dM.
Moment
259.
of Inertia of a
The moment
Plane Area.
sum
may
of
inertia
be defined as the
infini-
This
may
be regarded as the
moment
per-
pendicular to the plane, the mass of a square unit of the sheet being
taken as unity.
We
OACB
Let OA
Suppose
the
into
elements
by
rectangle
M'
rectangular
parallel
lines
which are
to
be
N'
Let
find the
about 0.
= a. OB = b.
divided
sb,
To
Rectangular Coordinates.
Double Integration.
260.
moment
847
[Q
re-
i.
of the element
PQ
dxdy.
is
all
and y from
to
+ y )dx dy,
2
by varying x from
b.
we suppose x
If
of
to a,
b,
we
shall
Hence
Moment
of inertia of
MNN'M' = dx
(x2
dx[(.x2 ii
V
+y
dy
+ V3yo
of a vertical strip,
M+
we may sum
the
moment
of inertia of
1=
re
,2
_ a?b + ab
+ 'A dx
,
all
That
(pf
?)
to a.
OACB,
integral,
T=
^yiae.
+ f)dxdy.
by the double
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
348
If
sum
we
1=
(x 2
OAO about 0.
Let OA = a, AC=b.
equation of 00 is
we have
To
+ ab
+ y ) dy dx =
2
find the
moment
triangle
V
3
This
The
= b x.
a
differs
ceding problem
only in the
OM.
= -x.
a
Hence the
limits of y are
and
-x.
a
In collecting all the vertical strips by the second integration, x
to a, as in Art. 260.
varies from
Thus we have for the moment of inertia of OAO,
*/0
By
we
+ y*)dxdy = ab(?- +
shall find
'=
I-
12
(xP
+ y^dydx
G + 5>
HK,
262.
factor
(ar^
+y
),
we
If in Art.
349
moment
of inertia, the
That
Area =
is,
dx dy
dy dx,
EXAMPLES
1.
tri-
angle formed by the coordinate axes and the line joining the points
b(a-*)
),(0,6).
2.
r +>/- = -.
Ans.
j^-
\x*
circle
+ y^dxdy = ^.
the axis of
h\l x
Ans.
dx dy
dy dx
4.
5.
circle xr
10
>~a
/M0a
/Vl0ay-y2
dy dx
Ans.
/-Sa
/*10a-3z
dx dy
q-y
3
dy dx
= g-y3 +5
sin
gy
-
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
350
6.
tween the
f-*_
ellipse
ab-
=l
and the
+ " = 1.
line -
(jL-A-\ asb + ab 3J
Arts. .[-
\16
).
12/
7. Find the moment of inertia about the origin of the area between the parabola ay = 2 (x 2 a2), the circle x2 + y 2 = a 2 and the
,
axis of
.35
8.
parabolas y 2
9.
parabola y2
parabola.
= 4 ax,
= 4=a
Ans.
a\
35
10.
lines y
= 2x,
of the first
two
lines.
Ans.
between the
and the axis of X, about the intersection
125 a4
+ 2y = 5a
To
Polar Coordinates.
AOB, whose
radius
is
is
is
constant.
\M'
"'
l/0c^lxA"\'"\
N
N' A
PQ
is
and
+ d)\
coordinates of Q.
4- dO, the
ultimately
Then the
351
area
PBxPQ=rdO'dr.
to a.
*>l
Hence
Area
BOA = f
dO dr
we
to
6,
BOA =
Area
264. If the
the
moment
BOA
moment
XT'
of inertia about
of inertia of
dr dO.
is
PQ, r-rdOdr.
is
1=
C C r\Wdr=
OBA
To
f f
find
r*drdO
with radius
OC=a,
circumference.
/*
= 2 a cos 0.
of the circle
integrate
is
first
to
Area
OB
-IT
dOdr =
-<i-
from
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
352
In collecting
varies
By
about
from
all
to -
LK, we
find
Area
'()
/c
OBA X2a
r dr d6
= Tror
EXAMPLES
1.
= a sin
no
circles, r
and
sing
2.
inertia
b.
32
= asec
0X
sin G
and
4
'
i^-
Ans.
35
3.
4.
r2
=a
cos 2
0.
Ans.
irCC
(Art. 141)
Ans.
5. Find the moment of inertia about the origin of the area of the
preceding cardioid.
35 wa4
A
Ans.
-_-
144)J r
its
353
= a sin 2 0.
A
Ans.
wci*
16
7.
Find by
a double
integration the
2r = a
tt\ a
/ /
(V3T
Ans.
5)
preceding
8. Find the moment of inertia of the area of the
example about the centre of the lemniscate.
/V3 ir\ a 4
*
RS
+ 3)l6
'
V~2~
266. Volumes and Surfaces
of Revolution.
Polar Coordinates.
If
r sin
Hence
dO
dr.
volume
V=2tt f frsmedBdr,
the limits being determined as in Art. 263.
If the revolution
is
about OY,
The area
OX is
(Art. 253)
U
EXAMPLES
1.
=a
2.
cos 6)
Show
about OX.
circumscribed sphere.
Ans.
8
-
irflr,
.,
= a sin 2 6 about OX is
of the
four-
volume of the
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
354
3.
leaved rose r
Ans. fs
4.
V2 - 9
=a
cos 2
about
(Art,
vk
-^
OX
^4ns.
L log(V2 +1 )-|;
r=a(l
7.
105
^a
Y.
-4ns.
6.
2
143) r
5.
four-
-- cos 0)
about OX.
32 -n-a 2
diameter,
15
CHAPTER XXXI
SURFACE, VOLUME. AND
267.
To
find
the Area of
Any
Surface,
whose Equation
is
SOLID
given
y, z.
z=f(x,y).
XY
XY
Let
of
(>'.
x,
y,
+ dx,
+ dy, z + dz,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
356
Since
PQ
is
by the cosine
plane
is
Area
see
from the
PQ = Area P'Q'
(8),
dy
dx
the given surface
If
sec y
y,
sec
y.
dz
fdz
dx J
\dy
=f(x,
of
y).
Area P'Q' = [l
Hence
cos
PQ = dx dy.
Art. 110,
and are
where
= Area PQ
figure that
Area
Also from
equal to that
Area P'Q'
We
is
evidently that
XY
at P'
PQ
of P'Q' multiplied
+ (^Y + (^
dx dy.
V:
dz
-ff[ i+
dxdy,
(i)
\dy
plane
XY,
Here
dx
A2
+z =a
2/
dz
>
x
,
2
.
__
dy
-1
ABC
+f
a2
a2
x y
2
(1),
MOMENT OF INERTIA
357
we have
dx dy
J J Va
2
This
is
The equation
boundary
of the
Integrating
a strip
limits
we
y,
zero to
ABC,
Another example
centre
x,
that
we sum
between the
all
the strips, to
to a.
dx dy
Va x* y
is,
7r(r
l
the following
is
of
Jo Jo
ML,
x varying from
\/a'2x2
Hence
the projection of
a".
OB A,
XY.
with respect to
first
ir
AB is
The
is
on the surface of a
the
base
radius
is
surface
of
of
whose
Find the
the
sphere
by
the
the
equa-
intercepted
cylinder.
Take
for
and
cylinder,
and
xr
CPAQ
+ y = ax.
2
is
one fourth
is
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
358
ox
dy
partial derivatives
-f y
-f z
2
n^2 x
nt&
y2
-\a
*S
-\i
the plane
ORA,
the projection of
CPAQ
on
17.
The equation
of the curve
S =
Hence
ORA is
x2 + y2
f f^
#=(2ir-4)a2
= ax.
<*****
frA
Since this
is
+y
=ax, we
The formula
CPARO.
is
derivatives in (1)
2
which
=
ox
find
is,
(1)
=
oy
oo,
+y =
2
ax',
this equation.
the partial
But from
co-
It is also evident
be found from
is
the curve
The
its
ORA.
difficulty is
x2 + y 2 =
dy
dx~
Substituting in
(2),
ax,
2x
dy
dz
and simplifying,
1 o
C C adx dz
2
^Jaxx2
= 0.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
To
XZ of
CP'A
359
being the
CPA.
x2 + y 2
+z =a
2
=a
~li
giving,
and x 2
ax.
v/ qt:
Hence
+ y = ax,
dx dz
v ax ar
EXAMPLES
The axes of two equal right circular
of base, intersect at right
1.
radius
angles
Take
the
for
equations
the
of
cylinders,
x2
-\-z
=a
2
,
and x2
-{-7j
=a
Ans.
2
.
8 a2
2.
plane
a
in
the
cepted
first
octant,
inter-
by the
coordinate
^V^c-' +
c^ + a^.
planes.
An*-
3.
surface
x2
-f-
the
of
a2
be-
z=mx
and
IT.
cylinder
included
Ans ma?
.
ccvJ
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
360
4.
2
-\-z
= 4 ax,
parabolic cylinder
x=3
the plane
intercepted by the
a.
Ans.
and
ax,
^q
5.
area of
find the
the surface of
given plane.
(13VT3-1)
Ans.
V3
6.
z -f (x cos
which
is
The
surface
right
circular
inder,
whose
is
the
x cos
= a?
a + y sin a) 2
line
a+y
is
cyl-
axis
= 0,
sin
a=0,
a2
a
Ans.
sin a cos a
7.
diameter of
whose
sphere
radius is a
axis
of
is
the
right
the prism.
Ans.
8a[2bsmV
Va -6
2
a sin -1
2
-J.
a2 -b 2 J
MOMENT OF INERTIA
268.
Volume
of
Any
Solid bounded
by a Surface, whose
Equation
The
find the
361
is
is
rr r
v= jjj
dxdy^
bounding surface.
For example, let us find the volume of one
whose equation is
,
2
2
a-
<?
^H
vif
m'
/ 4.
<
P
/'k
'X
PQ
is
dx dy
If
we
column
dz.
MN\
z,
we
from
to
MM*\
that
= c x h_''"_ 'L
V
a1
lr
is,
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
362
KLN'H,
y,
we
KL
Vx
This value of y
which
is
that
columns in
is,
ALB,
is
^4-^ = 1
a ^b
2
Finally,
we
'
ABC.
Here x
x,
OA
that
is,
from
to a.
The y and x
at
a2
I
b2
dxdydz =
AOB.
abc
V= 4^?.
EXAMPLES
Find the volume of one of the wedges cut from the cylinder
+ y2 = a2 by the plane z = x tan a and the plane XY. (See Figure,
1.
x2
Ex.
3,
Art. 267.)
Ans.
2.
2)1
dxdydz =
'
abc
3.
abc
o
2
2
4 ax, the parabolic cylinder y 2
y -f z
(See Figure, Ex. 4, Art. 267.)
Ans. (6
tt
+ 9 V3)a
3
.
SURFACE, VOLUME,
4.
ar
-j-
363
5.
paraboloid of revolution y 2
6.
The
x'
+y
= ax, intercepted
+ z = 2 ax.
2
by the
2\
fir
is
whose base
-.
^267.)
2/ _4\.,
3
3V
7.
&
8.
Find the
entire
first octant,
tt+Pt-l.
Am-
269. Moment
+ y* + *<!#.
of Inertia of
Any
Solid.
Ans.
This
may
^f.
be expressed by a
triple integral.
Thus, the
of volume,
moment
of inertia about
OX,
is
I=mJJf(y + z )dxdydz,
2
with similar formulae for the moments of inertia about the axes
OY, OZ.
EXAMPLES
1.
Find the moment of inertia about OX of the rectangular paralbounded by the planes x = a, y = b, z = c, and the co-
lelepiped
ordinate planes.
,, 2
<
mabc
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
364
OZ
inertia about
Ans. (a 2
3.
cylinder x2 -f y 2
=a
of the tetrahedron
of inertia about
OX
=h
and
oj
= h.
fa
A
Ans.
irmarh
4.
-f b )
h
+ 2-=.
Ans. TrmaVi.
5.
diameter.
6.
inertia about
OZ of
- + - +- - 1
2
'
the ellipsoid
15
8 -n-ma5
CHAPTER XXXII
PRESSURE OF FLUIDS.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
FORCE OF ATTRACTION
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The
270. Definition.
body
centre of gravity of a
is
a point so
Coordinates
gravity. C, of
given body,
PQ' the
direction
of
and
MN
of
Centre
Gravity.
of
as
To
find
the centre of
line
gravity,
of
any horizontal
through C.
axis passing
Let
BD
be the
perpendicular
common
between
x,
spectively.
tance
The
Then
the dis-
BD = L'L = x x.
force exerted
by gravity on
is
fore
MN
365
is
equal to
(as
J
x)dm.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
366
(x x)dm
= 0,
xdm
J
and
a)
dm.
Similar formulae
-The
Note.
may
mass of a
p,
unit's
volume
is
z.
called density.
dm
is
If
we
equal to p
Ex.
circle.
Here dm
= p ds.
Substituting in
Pxds
x
Art. 271,
(1),
we have
aC^xia'-x )
2
^dx
=
i
9 a
wa
From
= 2a
2.
x=J
Jo
x dx dy
Jo
Jo
VI p
x 9-dx
Jo
V4 pJo
a
x 2 dx
_ 27
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
PRESSURE OF FLUIDS
307
Similarly,
*/
rx**
r(g *-
9p
4
3.
Find the centre of gravity of a circular disk of radius
whose density varies directly as the distance from the centre, and\
from which a circle described
upon a radius as a diameter
has been cut.
Let the equation of the
large circle be r = a
and
Ex.
a,
the equation
circle be r
The
of
= a cos
disk
is
small
the
0.
s}*mmetrical
=o.
Here
dm
= pr dd dr = kt
dd
dr,
(if p = Kr).
Also x =
OM= r cos
0.
Jo
cos
?*3
dd dr
yo
%Jtt_
%J
cos
dO dr
r2 cos
dd dr
cos 9
Therefore x
2
|
T
x
r2 cos d dd dr
%/0
c/o
+11J
/7r
f f cos
dd
4-
f * (cos
acos 9
cos 5 0) dB 1
[P*+
5(3tt-2)
= 0.1016
(1
+ cos 0)
3
c76>
]
a.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
368
Ex.
4.
The equation of OB is y = x.
Here dm = piry 2 dx, and substituting
|
xy-
6.
dx
.Jo
X
2
y dx
^^
On
.1
o^-
cl
comparing the
and volume,
/xds
4V
f
we
is
*Aj
xdA
J
*As
far
f dA
ds
5.
(Art.
6.
7.
= a vers"-iV V2 ay y
1
2
.
Ans.
-n-a,
= -a.
a,
the
Ans.
= -a.
5
8.
when the
of the surface
of a hemisphere
its
perpen-
_ 2_a
CEXTRE OF GRAVITY.
Find the centre of gravity
9.
PRESSURE OF FLUIDS
of a semiellipse.
Ans.
369
= -.
10.
y-
=
2 a
its
asvinptote.
= 8 x,
6 = 0,
= 2.48; y=lA.
13.
Ans
a sin 2
_
;
= (1-*<D-
128 a
105
'
y
J
lOOTT
7r'
of the cardioid
aj
_
y
14.
of
$.
128 a
= _5 a
rW
= - a.
Ans. x
Ans. a
12.
cissoid
11.
ola y-
and
7T
16 a
'
= =.57a.
rrr
the lemniscate
W *a-55a
xX
^cxllb.
Ans
LI
.OO
LI.
8
15.
of gravity of a hemisphere.
Ans. x = -a.
8
16.
Ans. '%
= 3- a.
8
17.
cone of height h
3
8
272.
Theorems
of
Pappus.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
370
its
273.
and let
have
XY
(ydxdy
dxcly
yj j dx dy=j \y dx dy.
Or
Then
Try
(*2
f Cdx dy = C Try dx dy
(1) is
it,
(1)
tig is
dxdy
is
the plane
area.
true,
EXAMPLES
1.
Find the volume and surface generated by revolving a recc units from the centre
2.
Am
^^ and 4 ^ +
triangle.
equi-
c units
r=
7rac
'
Am.
&)c
^6
and 6
fl-ac.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
3.
PRESSURE OF FLUIDS
371
circle
of radius a about
4.
-r^ab
a and
Ans. 2
7r
abc.
PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS
274. The pressure of a liquid on any given horizontal surface is
equal to the weight of a column of the liquid whose base is the
is
Suppose
1.
rectangular board
it
and the
by the following examples.
illustrated
required
is
OABC,
find
to
the edge
OC
the
pressure
on
the
water.
BC= a, and AB
Let
Suppose
the
b.
rectangle
which
HK.
OH=x,
Let
the strip
the
is dx.
on this strip
were uniform throughout and the
same as it is at the top of the strip,
the pressure on the strip would be
wbx dx, where iv is the weight of
If
pressure
water.
is
expression.
is,
Entire pressure
And
That
divided
-r- bx dx =
a-biv
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
372
2. Find the pressure on that part of the board in Examwhich is below tile diagonal.
In this case the area of
is y dx, and the entire pressure on the
Ex.
ple
1,
UK
triangular board
is
wyx
dx.
But
bw C a
bwa?
=
x~dx =
o 7
a Jo
Ex.
One
3.
face of a
is
vertical.
is
in the
The
form of
centre of the
is
SW
YV
AB
and
BO
respectively.
Then,
entire
if
P represents the
pressure
on
the
board,
P=2iv( C
(6-{-x)dydx
= 512 tv = 15872
lbs.
Ex. 4. Eind the pressure on a sphere 6 feet in diameter, immersed in water, the centre of the sphere being 10 feet below the
surface of the water.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
SWbe
Let
PRESSURE OF FLUIDS
373
the surface of
the water.
figure,
tary
surface
The
area of
be
a
zone.
zone at a
distance
is
-"vmIO
Then,
if
+
P
a?)efc.
represents
But
= V9
y (10
+ x)ds.
x 2 and ds
,
=-
civ.
Hence
P=farfl
= 360
5.
ttv:
(10
+ x)dx,
22320tt lbs.
the water,
is
is
in the surface of
Show
7.
It is
59.52.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
374
How
8.
pressure
far
Ans. 12
9.
How
10.
to double the
far
what
is
in
Ex. 5 reversed,
the pressure ?
Ans. 39.38 tons.
to double the
Ans. 8
pressure ?
A trough 2
11.
elliptical ends.
and 2
feet deep
12.
ft.
on one end.
Ans. 165^
closed
ft.
lbs.
reservoir.
its
centre
Ans.
is
30 feet
18607r lbs.
A water tank is in the form of a hemisphere 24 feet in diamesurmounted by a cylinder of the same diameter and 10 feet high.
Find the total pressure on the surface of the tank when the tank is
13.
ter
14.
is filled
to be half as
whose depth
cylindrical vessel,
20 inches diameter,
circle of
oil.
filled to
Assuming the
oil
275.
Centre of Pressure.
Ex.
1.
of the centre
of
liquid pressure on
and
a vertical surface bounded by the curve y
f(x), the axis of
Given that the origin is at a distance
the two ordinates yQ and y v
=
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
PRESSURE OF FLUIDS
X vertical,
375
and the
HP
axis of
MN
OH
031
and
x.
HK
x) dx,
this
strip
wy
is
pressure about
(h
MN
is
|%
+ x)(x I-)dx.
wy(h
moment
Therefore, the
the
integral
of
this
is
ex!
But
between
and
and
that
l}
must equal
this
x1
Pn
X
\x
zero,
therefore
wy
(Jt
+ x) (x - x) dx
0.
IS.
J
1
xy (h
Or
-f
a;)
dx
x=^
Jy(h + x)dac
How
far
down must
turn about
it ?
is
its
may
not tend to
Ans.
ft.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
376
One end
5.
by a
How
brace.
is
What
brace be put ?
pressure must
it
A water
is
be able to withstand ?
Ans. x
6.
which
= TF
9
7T ft.
P = 1116 lbs.
by a
The diameter
is
top.
closed
of the valve is
feet,
one at the bottom and the other one foot from the bottom of the
ditch.
How
high must the water rise to force a passage by upsetAns. To within 1 ft. of top of ditch.
ATTRACTION AT A POINT
276. A particle of mass m is situated at a perpendicular distance
and
from one end of a thin, straight, homogeneous wire of mass
length I. Required to find the attraction on the particle due to the
wire.
and
be the
Let
be the particle and AB the wire. Let
and ^respectively.
components of the attraction along the axes of
Divide AB into elements of length dy
and let PQ be one of these elements.
The mass
of
dy,
PQ is M
since
is
mass
PQ
were concendue
according to Newton's Law
of
PQ
is,
of Attraction,
KmJ(f(%
l(c
+ f)'
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
and the components along
PRESSURE OF FLUIDS
377
OX and OF are
"* d
and
J* cos 6,
*Md
l sin
fl,
respectively.
and sin
^ = KinMc C
X
d\j
-
JoQS + y*)?
TT-_
their values
KinM C
^
I
(c'
(c
= KinM sm
.
-_
cW^+T
+ yyrf
y
2
~|
V?+T
Vc + J
2
cl
6.
Cl
_ KinM f^
y dy
KinM
we have
_ KinM (1 cos
Denoting by
K=
VI +
2
Y = - V2(l - cos 0)
2
KmM sm-0.
1
.
cl
The
tangent
is
makes with
OA
an angle whose
J^l-cos^lg
X
The
sin
6.
Xote.
If we take as our unit of force the force of attraction between two unit masses concentrated at points which are at unit's
distance apart, k becomes unity.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
378
EXAMPLES
Find the attraction perpendicular to the wire in Example 1
1.
when the
particle
is
at a distance - above 0.
o
Ans.
21
SiM
c
[_V9
c-
+ <U
V9c-
+ >]
length
Ans.
of a
at
KinM
c(c
of
+ l).
in its axis
disk.
Ans.
2 Kirmpl 1
Vc + a J
2
where p
is
of length 2
Ans.
TTKinp [2
?+Va + c - Va + (c + 2
2
J) ].
CHAPTER XXXIII
INTEGRALS FOR REFERENCE
277.
We
preceding chapters.
/
2.
3.
x"
dx
r n+l
ra-fl
X = log
05.
C dx =-tan
I-
J xr -r cr a
-f- a."
4.
r dx = 1 log # a
J x a 2a
x-\-a
EXPONENTIAL INTEGRALS
5.
ax
Ca x dx =
log a
6.
dx
=e
x
.
TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS
7.
8.
dx =
I
j
sin x
cos dx
cos x.
= sin x.
379
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
380
9.
tan x dx
= log sec x.
10.
cot x dx
= log sin x.
11.
sec x
dx
= logtan(|+|).
12.
cosec x dx
dx = tan
13.
2
sec x
14.
cosec 2
15.
sec x tan x
16.
cosec
17.
sin 2 xd
18.
cc
a?
dx
=-
a?
cot
a?.
= sec x.
cot x dx
= cosec #.
--sin2a\
4
/<cos
x.
dx =
dx = - -f -
sin 2 #.
19.
C
I
dx
J Va
2
20.
sin _!#-
.
sc
227)
dx
22
24.
25.
26.
or
1
a a
'
cr
__
_a
a2
-.r
x*
(r>r
_ x'
2 a-.r
((-
ar
'
^^
(a
da?
2 a 3 a
= | Vtf^a? + - sin-
+ ya -^
2
ar
INTEGRALS CONTAINING
29.
^f a
Jdaj
x\
31
.- -
da;
2
Va?2
a 2 (CHAP.
sin" 1 ?
= log(a?4-VS*"+^).
a2
jrVj?
('
c/
**
.r
cr-x2
*/
28.
(Art. 227.)
2 a
(a*- a?2)*
27.
= -1,log
da?
2
a*
23
sca
381
=^A^T^-giog(.x-4-A^T^).
J
,,-
= 1 log
a
= 1- v
.x*
a -f Var' -f
= _ Vx + a
2
a?2
t
1
ct
2
a?
4-
a2
227)
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
382
33.
34
35.
or
Vx
2aV
a2
4-
3
2 a
Jo
fa^Va?
+a
/dec
(x
36.
f(x
dx
+a )*
aV^ + a
+a
= ^ (2 x + 5 a ) V^+"^ +
+ VV + a
1 da>
~
8
log (+ Va?+a*).
38.
oa
39.
Vec2
= log(a? + V^a).
2
dx
-= -1 sec -1 x-
{*
40
da;
xV#
2
a2
-\/x
^==== =
dec
x^x ~a
2
Vx a
c?
/:x
).
%/
37.
__
2
(jc
'
ax
V# or
2aV
2
3
2a
sec
_i
a
a
227)
43.
(\
faj
=|a
.r-crV.r
dg
45.
a--
^ -^
2
)^7.r
47.
= vers
-a*).
a.r
-x
= V 2 a.? a^+
a vers
'
V2oa? x
V2
a*
48
sr
+ Vtf
4rr
^).
)V^^ + ^log(a;+V^
8
INTEGRALS CONTAINING V2
I
log (
= ^(2^-5a
8
J V2 cub
).
Vr a
46.
cr)^
f^r-a
+ Vx - a
log (x
Z^T? <fe = 5 (2 or - a ) V^
44.
- - - |
.r
383
.i*
V2 aa x'
49
50.
51.
v 2 ax
a;
tfte
=-
V2 ax x + ^- vers -1 -a
2
2
2*
VU^rf + 2 vers-*.a
fv?^=7* = - 3a + <f6
'
Jf>^^-^^=
u;
aax-^ + avers-
*.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
384
W2ax x
53.
dx
_ (2 ax x
dx _
3 ax
a 2 V2 ax x2
(2 ax x-y
xdx
54.
f (2ax x y
aV2ax
C_J*
55
'
aar
6a;
or
56.
57.
I58.
V aar +
,
~-\og
V6 4ac
,
-y/ax2 -\-bx
= log
a
+ cdx =
62
+
- 6- V6 -4ac
2aa; + 6 + V6 4 etc
2
2aa;
=+ = V
6a;
V4ac-6
2^ + 6
tan-i
V4ac-6
(2 aa;
4a
4 ac log
Vax +
2
6a'
(2 aa;
c).
8 a*
59.
1
60.
f
I
V aa^ + 6a; + c
aa;
-\-bx
2aa;
4a
= sin
_ix
aaj
V6 +
Va
-i
ac
+ cdx
V ax *,bx
;
-{-
-\-
-{
+
4 ac sin _,
.
8a
6
z^=.
aa;
V6 + 4ac
2
385
OTHER INTEGRALS
61.
CJ^t^cU
J \6 4-a+
a {a
62.
.i-)
(b
a?
1
6) sin"
J^|-
INDEX
Acceleration
Angles, between two curves
with coordinate planes
Arc, derivative of
Area, any surface
derivative of
of curve
242, 306, 320,
surface of revolution
.
18
Asymptotes
Attraction at a point
Change
of gravity
of pressure
of variable
Curves, direction of
174, 183
133
186, 187
355
241
325, 349
337, 353
179
375
82
200
365
373
as a
convergence
Computation, by logarithms
of n
Constant, definition of
test for
...
double
sign of
Differential coefficient
Differentials, definition of
...
lae
order of
partial
successive
....
....
51
39
137
130
61
trigonometric formu45
lae
Derivative, definition
general expression of
307
319
310
343
314
12
68, 70
71
26, 29
26
.
....
...
....
....
definition of
formulae
Differentiation, algebraic formulae
209
80
94
96
derivative of
26
notation of
1
of integration
224, 315
Contact, order of
206, 207, 209
Convergence, absolute and conditional
78
interval of
86
tests for
79
Curvature, centre of
200
circle of
195, 200
direction of
189
radius of
193, 196, 197
uniform
193
variable
194
Curves, angle of intersection of
197
area of
242, 306, 320, 325, 349
continuous and discontinuous
22
sum
definition of
195, 200
osculating
Comparison
208
Definite integrals
....
osculating
Circle, of curvature
illustrations of
meanings
of an arc
386
...
.
....
241,336
of area
of function of a func58
tion
130
partial
partial, of higher order
136, 137
relation
of
11
12
13
16, 17, 18
186, 187
.
between
dv
ax
and *L
total
......
57
140
INDEX
TACK
320
319
Element, of area
of an integral
Envelopes, definition of
214, 215
equation of
of normals
Equation, of envelopes
21S
217
215
ofevolute
of
201
133
133
324
201
217
201
202, 204
normal
of tangent
parametric
Evolute
an envelope
equation of
properties of
...
387
PAGE
P
263
264
containing
r
(ax+b)v, (ax
+ b)*
containing
V x + ax + b ...
2
266
307
definition of
223
double
343, 347, 349, 350
evaluation of
307
for reference
378
fundamental
225
indefinite
309
of see" x dx, cosec" x dx
274
of sin" x dx, cos' x dx
270
of sin m x cos n x dx
271, 276, 291, 293
of tan" x dx, cot" x dx
273
of tan" x sec" x dx,
cot" x cot" x dx 274, 291, 293
of e^ sin nx dx,
e ax cos nx dx
283
of x m (a
bx n )Pdx
284
2
of f(x )xdx
295
of rational fractions
249
proofs of formulae
227
successive
343
triple
344, 361, 363
Intercepts of tangent
173
Involute
201
properties of
202, 204
definite
....
....
Function, algebraic
continuous
2
22, 315
definition
discontinuous
expansion of
22
88
implicit) differentiation of
75, 144
21
51
39
15G
2
45
....
.....
Gravity, centre of
365
162
arc
...
...
93
Leibnitz's theorem
65
11 Length of curves
93, 327, 330
309 Limit, change of
317
Indeterminant forms
106
definition of
8
Inertia, moment of
340, 363
infinite
315
Infinite, limits
315
Napierian base
10
variables
315
notation of
8
Infinitesimals, order of
73
relation of arc to chord
9
Inflexion
190
variable
343, 348, 351
Integration and derivative of integral 270 Liquids, pressure of
370
as a summation
306 Logarithmic functions
2, 39
between limits
309 Logarithms, computation by
94
by algebraic substitution 299
Napierian
41
by parts
279
substitution
218-22*;
by
constant of .
224, 310 Maclaurin's theorem
89
containing
Maxima and minima
114, 155
Va* x*,
296 Moment of inertia
346, 363
....
Increment
Indefinite integral
....
....
....
.
....
INDEX
388
Napierian base
Normals
Order, of contact
....
PAGE
8
133
.......
of differentiation
of integration
Osculating curves
order of contact of
Osculating circle, coordinates of centre
.
209
209
radius of
Pappus, theorems of
Parameter
Parametric equations
Power
series
Rates
Reduction formulae
Remainder, Taylor's theorem
324
85
373
370
70
173
133
97, 103, 145
65
89
84, 86
369
83
97, 103, 145
152, 153
2, 45
intercept of
Tangent planes
Taylor's theorem
Theorem, Leibnitz's
....
Maclaurin's
mean value
Pappus's
Rolle's
...
...
Taylor's
Transformation
Trigonometric functions
18
284, 291
...
computation by
convergence of power
convergent and divergent
of positive and negative
terms
...
power
Slope of a curve
of a line
of a plane
Subtangent
Subnormal
Tangent
369
.....
214, 324
Pressure, centre of
of liquids
Series,
206
137
343
208
209
PAGE
Surfaces, area of any
355
Surfaces of revolution, areas of
337, 353
derivative of
area of
336
volumes of . 333
105
94
85
78
78
85
16
16
133
173, 183
173. 183
Uniform curvature
Unit of force
.
...
193
376
Variable, change of
curvature
......
194
definition of
dependent
independent
2
2
notation of
1
17, 18
Velocity
by area
of section
surfaces of revolution
361
340
333, 353
.