INTEGRAL CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIATION UNDER THE INTEGRAL SIGN:

Consider an integral involving one parameter
and denote it as




   ,




where a and b may be constants or functions of
. To find the derivative of


 when it exists it is not possible to first evaluate this integral and then to
find the derivative, such problems are solved by using the following rules.
(A)

Leibnitzs Rule for Constant limits of Integration:

Let ,
 

 
 ,









,
 be continuous functions of x and
then

 

,

,

 



where a, b are constants and independent of parameter

If in the integral  
 
 ,



(B)

Leibnitzs Rule for Variable Limits of Integration:




,
 satisfies the same conditions, and are functions of the

parameter
, then
 

,







 



 



,

  ,




 ,




***********************************************************
**
Example 1: Evaluate 

!
"

    


 and hence show that 

  

by using differentiation under integral sign.

Solution: Let #  

    


Differentiate w.r.t
by Leibnitzs Rule under integral sign.



' ( ) sin 
$


% #&  

#
'#



  ( ) sin 

  -( ) 

).  )/01
.2 34

5 then

#  6)4 #  7 . . 1

;< =
6>( ?<@66 7 , AB6 #  = =

 

D
D
$   6)4  7    7
$7
2
2

!
 
!
$ #   6)4 #
AB6 #  0 G( H(6 

 
"

"
*****************************************************
Example 2: using differentiation under the integral sign, evaluate

4   )4
IJK 

 , # L 0

Solution: Let #  

6>(
4

43.

.

% #&  

4   )4

IJK 
4    )4


IJK 

 . . 1

  

4   IJK 
IJK 

Integrating both sides w.r.t #

$ #  log1  #  Y . . 2
From 1 when #  0 0  0
From 2 when I0log 1C $ Y  0
The solution is _`  abcd  `

    
 
4

*****************************************************
Example 3: Evaluate 
under integral sign.
Solution: Let I = 

 jkl 
43 2 

 jk l 
43 2 

 using the method of differentiation

Differentiate w.r.t a by Leibnitzs rule under integral sign



'
1
6)4 
$


% &  


'
1   " 


Let



432  2 43 2 


1
.


1  "  "  1   " 

 432

Solving, z  0, { 

s3t

2 )4

 2

 43 2  by partial fractions

u3v

, Y  0, | 

)4

2 )4

1
"
1
D
$
}

% &  "
~
 
"
"
"
1     1   


 1
2  1

Integrating w.r.t  $    

  log  1  C
" 34
"
Then C 0 by putting 0

Example 4: Evaluate  <H1  # ?<@

 using the method of
!

*****************************************************

differentiation under integral sign

****************************************************************

Reduction formulae
formulae:
ormulae:
I
II
III

 Sin d
 cos  d
 sin cos 

And to evaluate
I

II

III
(a )

sin

 2 sin d

 cos  d


/"

sin cos  d

x dx = sin n 1 x. sin x dx

With = x

= sin n 1 x.( cos x) ( n 1) sin n 2 x. cos x( cos x) dx

= sin n 1 x. cos x + ( n 1) sin n 2 x.(1 sin 2 x)dx
= sin n1 x. cos x + ( n 1) sin n 2 xdx ( n 1) sin n x dx
n sin n x dx = sin n 1 x. cos x + (n 1) sin n 2 x dx

Or

Similarly,

n
sin x dx =

(b)

n
cos x dx =

sin n 1 x. cos x n 1
+
sin n 2 x dx ........... (1)

n
n

sin x. cos n1 x n 1
+
cos n 2 x dx ........... ( 2)
n
n

Thus (1) and (2) are the required reduction formulae

TO Evaluate

Then

etc

i)

ii)

( put x = a sin, so that dx = a cos d

Also when x = 0, = 0, when x = a, = /2)

=
=

iii)

Evaluate 

% 3 &

( put x = a tan , so that dx = a sec2 d

Also when x = 0, = 0, when x = , =

/2)

=
=
=
iv)

d

Evaluate  sin x cos " x dx

=

-

=
4

dx 

- 

dx

"

4
"

 sin" 2x  cos2x. 2dx5

- dx   cos 4x dx 
4

"

"
4

cos sin 6 d

(Put 3 = x ; so that 3d = dx. Also

4)J" " "

sin" 2x  sin" 2x cos2x dx


.

 "

/"

sin cos 3 d

sin x cos x d x

..

d....

When = /6, x = /2
/"

=
=




!/"
!/"

dx5

cos 2sin3cos3 d

when = 0, x = 0

Evaluate   1   "
4

 sin" x sinx cosx" dx

vi)

)).d

4)J

. )). . .

Evaluate 

 2 cos ")" d
d
d

v)

@= 6?<@ " /" ?<@ 6

6 =
@= 6 ?<@ 6
6

. 

d .d
. .

(put x = sint so that dx = cost dt, when x = 0, t = 0 when x = 1, t = /2 )

************************************************************************

Tracing of Curves:

For the evaluation of Mathematical quantities such as Area, Length,

Volume and Surface area we need the rough graph of the equation in either
Cartesian or parametric or polar form depending on the statement of the
problem. We use the following theoretical steps to draw the rough graph.

A) Cartesian Curves: y = f (x)

a) Symmetry:
i)
If the power of y in the equation is even, the curve is symmetric
about x- axis
ii)
If the power of x in the equation is even, the curve is symmetric
about y- axis
If both the powers x and y are even then the curve is symmetric
iii)
about both the axis.
iv)
If the interchange of x and y leaves the equation unaltered then the
curve is symmetric about the line y = x
v)
Replacing x by x and y by y leaves the equation unchanged the
curve has a symmetry in opposite quadrants.
b) Curve through the origin:
The curve passes through the origin, if the equation does not contain
constant term.
c) Find the origin, is on the curve. If it is, find the tangents at 0, by equating
the lowest degree terms to zero.
i) Find the points of intersections with the coordinate axes and the tangents
at these points.
For, put x = 0 find y; and put y = 0,
find x. At these points, find


If








 , then the tangent is parallel to y axis.

 0, then the tangent is parallel to x axis.

d) Asymptotes: express the equation of the curve in the form y = f (x). Equate
the denominator to zero. If the denominator contains x, then there is an
asymptote.

e) Find the region in which the curve lies.

f) Find the interval in which the curve is increasing or decreasing.

B) Parametric Form: x=f(t), y=g(t)

In this case we try to convert the parametric form into Cartesian form by
eliminating the parameter (if possible). Otherwise we observe the following
I)
Find dy/dt and dx/dt and hence dy/dx.
Assign a few values for t and find the corresponding value for x, y ,y.
II)
III) Mark the corresponding points, observing the slope at these points.

C) Polar curves: r = f()

a) Symmetry: 1. If the substitution of - for in the equation , leaves the
equation unaltered, the curve symmetrical about the initial line.
2. If the power of r are even, the curve is symmetrical
about the pole.

b) Form the table, the value of r, for both positive and negative values of
and hence note how r varies with . Find in particular the value of which gives
r = 0 and r = .

c) Find tan . This will indicate the direction of the tangent.

d) Sometimes by the nature of the equation it is possible to ascertain the value of r and
that are contained between certain limits.
e) Transform into Cartesian, if necessary and adopt the method given before.
f) Sketch the figure.
PROBLEMS FOR TRACING THE CURVES

1. Astroid :  ,     )

It is symmetrical about the x-axis

Limits
and

|| 
|| 

The curve lies entirely within the square bounded by the lines    ,  

Points: we have

when t = 0 or
, when t 
As t increases
From 0 to

From

to

x
+ve
and
decreases from
a to 0
-ve
ve
and
increases
numerically
from 0 to -a

Y
+ve
and
increases from From 0 to
0 to a
+
ve
and
decreases
From to 0
from a to 0

Portion traced
A to B

B to C

As t increases from to 2,
,, we get the reflection of the curve ABC in the x - axis.
The values of t > 2 give no new points.
Hence the shape of the curve is as shown in the fig.

-X

-Y

Here ox = oy = a

It is symmetrical about the y axis. As such we may consider the curve only for
positive values of x or .
Limits: The greatest value of y is 2a and the least value is zero. Therefore the curve
lies entirely between the lines y = 0 and y = 2a.
Points: We have

As increases
From 0 to
From to 2

x
increases from
0 to a
increases from
a to 2a

Y
increases from
From to 0
0 to 2
decreases
From 0 to
from 2a to 0

Portion traced
0 to A
A to B

As decreases from 0 to - 2,, we get the reflection of the arch OAB in the yyaxis. Hence the shape of the curve is as in the fig.

X
2. Cardioid: r
Fig.,
Initial Line

A cardioids is symmetrical about the initial line and lies entirely within the circle r
= 2a. Its name has been derived from the Latin word KardiaKardia meaning heart.
Because it is a heart shaped curve.
*********************************************************************
***

APPLICATIONS OF CURVE TRACING

I)
II)
III)
IV)

Length
Area
Volume
Surface area

Table to find the values:

Quantity
Coordinate
system

Cartesian
form y = f (x)

Parametric
form x= x(t)
y= y(t)

Polar form
r = f ()

3.

Area, Length ,VolumeThe surface area

Area (A)

Length (S)

 1  4"


 




 
6   4 "   4 "
6

1
 "

"

4"

By revolving about the axis of

rotation to form solid
Volume (V)
Surface area (SA)


 D "




 D "

1





 D

"


Where
 1  4"

 2D

6
Where

 2D
1
j

  4 "   4 "


1
Where 


 2D

Find the entire length of the cardioid   1  ?<@ , Also show that the upper
!
half is bisected by  The cardioid is symmetrical about the initial line and for its

upper half, increases from 0 to

Also z@<,

 -a sin .

$ Length of the curve

 "

 2  "  - 5 d
!

= 2   1  ?<@ "   @="

= 2  21  ?<@

"  4"

= 4a  ?<@/2

= 4a

/"
4/"

= 8a (sin /2 - sin 0) = 8a

$ Length of upper half of the curve of the cruve is 4a. Also length of the arch AP
from 0 to /3

= 2  21  ?<@

= 2  cos .

"

= 4|sin /2|

= 4 -  05
4
"

!/

= 2a ( half the length of upper half of the cardioids )

Fig.

1.

 =

Find the entire length of the curve

Solution:

The equation to the curve is   = ), the curve is symmetrical about the axis and
it meets the x axis at x = a
2

Fig.
If S1 = the length of the curve AB
Then required length is 4S1
"



S = 4S1 =  1  


Now,



  =
2

S = 4  1  


"/

4


 2/ 3 2/
 2/




4/

 


4


 2/

4  4/  )4/
  4 4/


=
s

2/

6a units

 2/
"/

Fig.

2.

Find the perimeter of cardioid r = a (1+cos).

Solution:
The equation to the curve is symmetrical about the initial line.
Fig.
$ The required length of the curve is twice the length of the curve OPA
At O, = and at A = 0
Now, r = a(1+cos)
s=
s=
s=
s=

3.

"

!

 "  

 @=

 a" 1  cos"   " @="

2  2acos d
"

= 8a units

Find the area of the   =

2

Solution: The parametric equation to the curve   = is given by :

x  ?<@ ,   @=

Area = 4 



Put

$ dx = -3a cos2 sin d

A

=
=
=
=

4

!/"

12 " 
12 " 

!2

3"

x  ?<@ ,   @=

when x = 0, = /2 ; when x = a, = 0

@= -3a cos2 sin d

!/"

@= cos2 d
.

"3"

Sq. units

4 !
" "

4. Find the area of the cardioid r = a (1+cos).

Solution: The curve is symmetrical about the initial line.
$ Total area = 2 area above the line = 0
= 2

!4 "

is the formula
"
!4 "
2  a 1  cos"

"
"
! "
"

=   2?<@

"

for area in polar curves

= 4 "  ?<@

Put /2 = t $
 2
6
A

4 " 

"

!/"

!2
"

?<@ 6 2
6

Sq. units

5.
Find the area bounded by an arch of the cycloid
x  6  @=6,   1  ?<@6 , 0 6 2D and its base.
Solution:
x  6  @=6,   1  ?<@6  for this arch t varies from 0 to 2.

$ z(

 j

"!

= j  1  ?<@6   1  ?<@6 
6
"!

=  j 1  ?<@6 "
6
"!

since dx =  1  ?<@6 
6

=4 " j @=

6
"!

"

= 8 " j @= 6
6
!

= 16 " j @= 6

6
!/"

= d . . .

= 3D " . B=6@

6. Find the volume generated by revolving the cardiod r = a (1+cos) about the
initial line.
Solution: For the curve, varies from 0 to

____________________________________________________________________
Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the Astroid

x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3

Solution: the equation of the asteroid is x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3

Volume is obtained by revolving the curve from x = 0 to x = a about x-axis and taking
two times the result.
 2  D "



 2  D@= " 3 ?<@2@=

!
"

_____________________________________________________________________
___
Problems for practice:
1. Find the surface area of r = a (1 - cos)
2. Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the cissoid " 2    
 about its asymptote.
3. Find the length between [0, 2D ] of the curve     sin ,  1 
cos .

____________________________________________________________________

Find the surface area of solid generated by revolving the astroid   =

about the axis.
2

Solution: The required surface area is equal to twice the surface area generated by
revolving the part of the astroid in the first quadrant about the axis.
Taking x  ?<@ 6 ,   @= 6 we have,

Surface area = 2 

!/"

=4 

2D
  4 

!/"

j

j

!/"

= 4 

j

4"



 "

asin t 3acos " t sint"  3acos " t sint" 1/2dt

/"

1

  
6

= 12a " 
=

/"

sin t cos t dt

D " . B=6@

Put z = sint

7. Find the surface area of the solid generated when the cardioid r = a (1+cos)
revolves about the initial line.

Solution: The equation to the curve is r = a (1+cos). For the upper part of the
curve, varies from 0 to
Put x = r cos, y = rsin
$ Surface area

=  2D
@
!

= 2D   @= 
!

1

"

!

= 2D   @= "  

= 2D  1  ?<@. @=  " 1  cos "   " @="

= 16
a2

UNIT IV:

VECTOR CALCULUS

Scalar and Vector point functions:

(I)

If to each point p(R) of a region E in space there corresponds a definite

scalar denoted by f(R), then f (R) is called a scalar point function in E. The
region E so defined is called a scalar field.
Ex: a) The temperature at any instant
b)The density of a body and potential due to gravitational matter.
(II) If to each point p(R) of a region E in space there corresponds a definite
vector denoted by F(R), then it is called the vector point function in E. the
region E so defined is called a vector field.
Ex:

a) The velocity of a moving fluid at any instant

b) The gravitational intensity of force.

Note: Differentiation of vector point functions follows the same rules as those
of ordinary calculus.
If F (x,y,z) be a vector point function then


' ' ' ' ' '




6 ' '6 ' '6 ' '6

'
 '
'





6 '
6 '
6 '
6

'
'
'

 

'
'
'

'
'
'


 



'
'
'

( 1)

Vector operator del ( )

The operator is of the form
 =



7

GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE, CURL (G D C)

Gradient of the scalar point function:
It is the vector point function f defined as the gradient of the scalar point
function f and is written as grad f, then
grad f = f = =
=



7

'
'
'

7
'
'
'

DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR POINT FUNCTION

The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F(div F)is
defined by the equation

=  .  =

'
'
'

7
'
'
'

   =   7 6>(


=  .  =

'
'
'

 7  =   7
'
'
'

' ' '



' ' '

CURL OF A VECTOR POINT FUNCTION

The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is defined by

the equation
curl F   =

curl F   =

'
'
'

7
'
'
'

'
'
'

 7 =   7
'
'
'

=
'
curl F  
'


 =

'
'

7
'

'

' '
' '
' '
   7 
' '
' '
' '
 


DEL APPLIED TWICE TO POINT FUNCTIONS

Le being vector point functions, we can form their divergence and curl,
whereas being a scalar point function, we can have its gradient only. Then we
have Five formulas:
'" '" '" 
div grad f    "  "  "
'
'
'
"

3.

?B H
    0

= ?B   0
= ?B   0
?B ?B  H

=  " F

       " F

H

=  ?B ?B  " F
      " F

PROOF:
(I) To prove that

  
 =

 curl grad f  f  =

'
'
'

7
'
'
'

'
'
'
'
'
'

 7 =

7
'
'
'
'
'
'

'" '" '" 

 " " "
'
'
'

'"
'"
'"
 "  "  " 
'
'
'

G>(( " 

 " f

'"
'"
'"


=@ ?(
A?= <A6<
' " ' " ' "


" f  0 =@ ?(
A?( @ (B6=<

(II) To prove that 

curl grad f  f  =

'
'
'
'
'
'

 7 =

7
'
'
'
'
'
'

=
'

 '
'
'

'
'
'
'

7
'

'
'
'

'"
'"
'"
'"
'"
'"
 i

j

 k


' ' ' '

' ' ' '
' ' ' '
f  0

(III) To prove that  

 = =

 = =
 7
0


2

2


  

2

 

2

 

(IV) To prove that  

 = =

 

=
2

2


2

7

2

 

2

 

=7

2

 

  

'"
'"
'"



7

' "
' '
' '

'"
'"
'"
'"
 = " =  = = "  =
 = 

'
'
' '
' '
'"
'"
 =
7  = 7

' '
' '
'"
'"
'"
'"
 = " =  =
 =
7 "
'
' '
' '
'
'
'
'
'
'"
 = =

7  "
'
'
'
'
'
  F  " F

curl curl F   F  " F

(V) To prove that

We have by (IV) which implies  F  ?B ?B  " F

 F     " F

  6  1,  6 " ,  6  5
=327

: ><G 6>6 " r   nn  1r )"

bab: " r    r  

R
 n r )4  n r )" R  nr )" . R  r )"  R
r
R
 n n  2r ) R  r )" 3
r
 nn  2r ) r "   3r )"
 nn  1r )"

Otherwise: " r   
Now




 nr )4

2 


2 

2

2 

2

 nr )4  nr )" x

^2 r^n /x^2   nr^n  2  n  2 r^n  3 r/

x x  nr^n  2  n  2 r^n  3 x/r x

 nr )"  n  2r ) x " . 1

SImilarly,

2 

2

2 

2

 nr )"  n  2r ) y " . . 2

 nr )"  n  2r ) z " 3

Adding equations 1, 2and 3, gives

" r    n3r )"  n  2r ) x "  y "  z " 

 n3r )"  n  2r ) r "  nn  1r )"

In particular "   0
4

Ex: A particle moves along the curve   6  1,  6 " ,  6  5 find the

components of velocity and acceleration at t=2 in the direction of =  3  2 7

Solution: ;>( A<@=6=< (?6< < 6>( A6=?( 6 6=( 6 =@,

   =   7

  6  1=  6 "  6  5 7

 
;>( (<?=6




j

=@ H=( 

  
 36 " =  2 6  7

j

;>( ??((6=<  
 


2

j 2



j


2

j 2

=@ H=( 

66=2

 
 ( H=( 
;>( 6 6=( 6  2,
  
 12 =  4  7

 

j


2

j 2

 12 =  2

(<?=6 (?6< = 6>(

=(?6=< < =  3  27 =@

 3 3"   12 =  4  7 3 3"  


4

z??((6=< = 6>(
=(?6=< < =  3  27 =@
  

3 3" 
4

 12 =  2  

3 3" 
4

"

: =
6>( B=6 (?6< < 6< 6>( @B?(  " 
4 6 6>( A<=6 1, 1,2

: (?6< < 6< 6>( H=( @B?( =@  " 

 "   =



7

 " 

 " =  3 " "  2 7

z6 1, 1,2

 4 =  12  4 7

(?( 6>(
(@=(
B=6 < 6< 6>( @B?( =@


)4" 3

43434

4=  12  47

: =
6>(
=(?6=<
(=6=( < , ,    " 
6 6>( A<=6 2, 1,1 = 6>(
=(?6=< < =  2  27
: (?6< < 6< 6>( @B?( , ,  =@ 
i. e.   =



7

 "  

  " =  2    3 "  7

z6 2, 1,1

  =  3  3 7

|=(?6=<
(=6=( = 6>(
=(?6=< < =  2  27 =@
 ",)4,4


4))

)44

3" 3"
433

 =  3  37

3" 3"


" r    nn  1r )4

" r    r  


: =
6>( ?<@66@ , , ? @B?> 6>6 6>( (?6<

        ?  27    2   =@ =<66=<

:

=(         ?  27    2  

=@ =<66=<

=?( 6>( (?6< =(

=@ =<66=<
;>((<(  0
YB 



   

  2 

 ?  1  1      17

7


  ?  2

=. (. , ?  1  1      17

0

;>=@ =@ A<@@=( < G>(, ?  1  0, 1    0,   1  0

G>=?> =A=(@   1,   1, ?  1

Orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinates

Let the rectangular co-ordinates

co ordinates (x,y,z) of Any point be expressed as
function of (u,v,w),
So that x = x(u,v,w),y = y(u,v,w),z = z(u,v,w) ..(1)
Suppose that (1) can be solved for u,v,w in terms of x,y,z
i,e u = (x,y,z), v = v(x,y,z),w = w(x,y,z) .(2)
We assume that the functions in (1) and (2) are single valued functions
and have continuous partial derivatives so that the correspondence between
(x,y,z) and (u,v,w) is unique. Then (u,v,w) are called curvilinear
curvilinear co-ordinates
co
of (x,y,z). Each of u,v,w has a level of surface through
t
an arbitrary
bitrary point .
The surface

are called co
co-ordinate

surface through

Each pair of these co-ordinate

co ordinate surface intersects In curves called the co
coordinate curves. The curve of intersection of

will be called the w

w-curve, for

only w changes along this curve. Similarly we define u and v-curves.

v curves.
In vector notation, (1) can be written as
R = x(u,v,w)I + y(u,v,w)J + z(u,v,w)K

The co-ordinate curves for are rays perpendicular to the Z-axis;

axis; for
horizontal circles with centers on the Z-axis;
Z axis; for z lines parallels to the Z-axis.
Z
x = cos ,

y = sin , z=z

So that scale factors are

h1=1, h2 = , h3= 1. Also the volume element

dV= d d dz.

2) Spherical polar co--ordinates:

Let p(x,y,z) be any point whose projection on the xy-plane
plane is Q(x,y) .
Then the Spherical polar co--ordinates of p are

such that r = op,

.
The level surfaces

are respectively spheres

axis with vertex at O and planes through the Z-axis.

Z
about O, cones about the Z-axis
The co-ordinate
ordinate curves for r are rays from the origin; for ,, vertical circles with
centre at O (called meridians); for ,, horizontal circles with centres on the Z
Zaxis.
x

= OQ cos
= OP cos(90-)cos
)cos
= r sin cos,

y = OQ sin = r sin sin

z = r cos

So that the scale factors are

Also the volume element