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9
Modelling of Structures Subjected to Seismic Loading
T.P.Tassios
Laboratory of Reinforced Concrete, National Technical University of Athens, Greece

1 INTRODUCTION
Although considerable advances have been made in the use of analytical methods to predict the seismic performance of structures,
increasing use is being made of scaled reinforced concrete models in research and design.
Seismic behaviour is complex and the techniques of the associated modelling are continuously developing. This chapter, therefore,
draws upon recent research developments.
It is worth considering some details of seismic design. During a seismic event, all structural components are subjected to
deformations due to a sequence of horizontal and vertical displacements acting on the foundation of the structure. Critical sections
may yield, while the stiffness and hysteretic damping can be changed dramatically during the excitation. Thus, the characteristics of
motion (such as natural period and induced acceleration) can be continuously altered. Also, considerable response degradation due
to cycling may occur, thus reducing the resistance of several critical regions. Yet, the overall seismic behaviour of a structure may be
considered as satisfactory, provided that the structure does not collapse under the design earthquake. In this respect, the provision of
sufficient ductility is a fundamental requirement in seismic engineering. Seismic design forces are calculated on the basis of the
expected overall ductility of the structure and a simplified expression of these forces acting

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on an elastoplastic structure is given by
(1)
where W denotes the total weight of the superstructure and c, the base shear coefficient. This coefficient may be written as
(2)
where s(T)=normalised acceleration, from an elastic response spectrum, corresponding to the natural period T of the structure; and
q=the behaviour factor, reflecting mainly the overall ductility of the structure. In Table 1 the conditions affecting this behaviour
factor are listed.
Table 1
Conditions affecting the seismic behaviour factor of RC structures
No.
Conditions
1 Ductility of critical
regions

Parameters
1, 1 =percentages of longitudinal reinforcement
1:1 =their ratio
w =mechanical volumetric percentage of confining reinforcement
v =normalised axial compression force (N:Acfc)
s =M:Vd=shear ratio
VR,V:VR,M =ratio of ultimate shear force resistance values, corresponding to shear or flexural
failure modes

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2 Overall structural form

3 Input accelerogram

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Redundancy
Regularity of mass, stiffness, and overstrengths distribution
Availability of secondary resistance
Extent of imposed post-yield displacements (d:dy)
Number of large amplitude full reversals (n)

A reliable simulation of seismic behaviour of real structures should take account of these factors as well as the usual factors, such as
the value of the elastic modulus, etc. Ductility similitude must be retained as an additional requirement in model design (see section
4.2).
It is obvious that the complexity of dynamic behaviour reduces the ability of analytical methods to describe this behaviour.
Analytical

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modelling is not an exact science.1 It is possible, however, to improve analytical modelling of the behaviour of structures subjected
to static loading by direct comparison with the behaviour of real structures.
This is not the case for structures subjected to seismic effects in which a large number of factors influence response and full-size
testing is not realistic. Model testing, therefore, offers a solution in the confirmation, modification or calibration of analytical
solutions. It seems, however, that in structural engineering a step-by-step procedure has been adopted consisting of the calibration of
a less costly method of model analysis against a more costly one, for example:
Analytical methods versus small-scale dynamic models.
Small-scale dynamic models versus large-scale (or full-scale) models, tested under pseudo-dynamic conditions.
All models versus fully instrumented real structures, subjected to real earthquakes.
It is believed that in the above framework, small-scale dynamic modelling will be much more important than in the past.

2 SCOPE OF EXPERIMENTAL MODELLING

The following objectives can be achieved by means of experiments on models submitted to dynamic or quasi-static cyclic actions.
Models of building elements or subassemblages, tested up to failure, in order to check the seismic behaviour of original
configurations, new schemes of detailing and newly developed joints or connections.
Models of entire structures in order to establish realistic loading criteria, to study response characteristics under controlled
variation of input parameters and to design unusually complex structures.
In all cases, a model experiment seems to be justified whenever current theoretical knowledge cannot reliably cover the needs for
prediction and design.

3 MODEL TESTING METHODS

Generally, models in the first category (mainly large-scale or full-scale) are frequently tested under quasi-static or under pseudodynamic condi-

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tions, whereas models in the second category (mainly small-scale) are more frequently tested under dynamic conditions. There is not
an exclusive connection, however, between models scale and testing method. Technical and economical restraints dictate each time

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the appropriate combinations.

Since this chapter is meant to describe mainly small-scale models under seismic conditions, emphasis will be given to the use of
models tested on earthquake simulators.
3.1 Quasi-static cyclic actions
The behaviour of building elements or subassemblages under seismic conditions is governed by the effects of large amplitude, postyield reversed deformations on some critical regions. Pronounced nonlinear behaviour, accompanied by response degradation due to
axial, shear or bond failures or alternatively due to local instability phenomena, will primarily dictate the overall behaviour of the
structure during an earthquake. Seismic actions will depend on the decreasing stiffness and the available ductility of such building
elements. Their available strength, i.e. force-response capacity after degradation due to cycling, will govern the integrity of the
structure. Unfortunately, these fundamental structural characteristics are not easily amenable to an analytical treatment.
Laboratory experiments on small- or large-scale models submitted to consecutive low-rate cyclic deformations are of paramount
importance, both for research and design.
During experimentation, actuators are used in order to impose cyclic displacements at selected points of the model. Normal
instrumentation and data acquisition systems are used and detailed observation of the specimen is possible during testing.
Two recent examples of model testing are given by Eto et al.2 and Tassios.3
3.2 Pseudo-dynamic test of models
A model testing technique has been recently developed which may combine the advantages of the previous approach (low rate of
external application of displacements on discrete points of the model and gradual damage observation, etc.), with a systems
approach. An entire structure, or a very large part of it, is tested by subjecting it to a given input accelerogram.

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A lumped mass model of the structure is assumed with a finite number of degrees of freedom. The seismic motion of a planar
structure may be described by the following equation:
(3)
where M=the mass matrix
=the nodal acceleration vector
C=the damping matrix
=the nodal velocity vector
=the vector of the response-forces of the structure (restoring forces)
g=horizontal ground acceleration, parallel to the plan of the structure given by the input accelerogram to be considered.
If a stiffness matrix K can be formulated by means of a standard finite element procedure, then
(4)

where
denotes the displacement vector, and the equations are solved by means of a step-by-step integration. Inaccuracies in the
prediction of the performance of the structure caused by non-linear behaviour may be overcome by means of a hybrid
(analytical/experimental) method. An elastic solution is adopted for the initial (small amplitude) part of the motion and the
corresponding displacements are computed on the basis of the input accelerogram. These displacements are quasi-statically applied

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to the model at appropriate points by electrohydraulic actuators linked to the computer. Corresponding forces are simultaneously
measured, thus providing the
vector. A new analytical solution is found for the next time interval, and hence new displacements
are imposed on the model. The method is called the pseudo-dynamic testing method (PD method). The method has been used by,
among others, Mahin et al.4 and a schematic arrangement of the implementation scheme is given in Fig. 1.
For structures with a predominant first mode, e.g. wall systems with a moderate number of floors, the technique may be simplified to
a single degree of freedom pseudo-dynamic (SPD) method.
The advantages of this method are evident. In fact, the absence of any really dynamic phenomenon is of a great importance from a
mechanical and a functional safety point of view. Conventional equipment, such as that used in quasi-static testing, is suitable. In
addition, the low rate or even intermittent testing procedure allows for a direct observation of gradual damage. The most interesting
feature of the pseudo-dynamic

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Fig. 1. An implementation scheme of pseudo-dynamic tests (from Mahin et al.).4

method is that the observance of similitude laws related to inertia forces (see section 4.2) is not required, except in cases of very
rapid application of imposed displacements.
On the other hand, the application of the method causes some problems in addition to those related to the design or purchasing of the
necessary high precision equipment.
The low rate of application of actions compared to a real dynamic excitation causes problems. Since PD tests are deformationcontrolled, stress relaxation may take place during slow displacement increments. Appropriate analytical modelling of such an event
may compensate for part of this effect. It should be noted that brittle fracture or local shock response cannot be modelled.
A second problem is concerned with numerical stability5 and with experimental errors. Erroneously measured displacements lead to
erroneous feedback, especially for higher modes.4
It has been proved, however, that under some conditions the PD method is very reliable for seismic testing of small and large scale
models.
Recent applications of the method are discussed by Xu Peifu et al.6 and Bertero et al.7
3.3 Vibration tests on models
In these tests, models are subjected to an external source of vibration and the following classification can be made.

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3.3.1 Free vibration tests (pull-back and sudden release)

The model performs free vibrations about its static equilibrium position. The natural period can be directly determined from the
recorded cycles. Damping is also calculated from the ratios of successive decayed vibrational amplitudes.
3.3.2 Forced vibrations

Counter rotating eccentric weight exciters may be mounted on top of large scale models, in order to produce steady state sinusoidal
excitations with a constant period. The corresponding response amplitudes are measured. The period is subsequently adjusted to
another value and the measurements are repeated. Thus, a resonance curve is plotted depicting the measured amplitudes for the

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whole range of imposed periods. From such a curve the natural period and the viscous damping can be obtained. By increasing the
magnitude of the exciting force, some non-linear characteristics may also be studied.8
Mode shapes and accelerations at several levels may also be investigated, especially using the forced vibration method.
Free vibration tests are currently used in order to study the condition of small-scale models before and after their testing on
earthquake simulators. The gradual increase of their natural period after consecutive excitations of increasing intensity, is very easily
followed by means of free vibration tests. Figure 2 shows the simple test set-up used on the 1:10

Fig. 2. A 1:10 RC frame-wall model is tested by means of free vibrations before and after testing on an earthquake simulator.9

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Fig. 3. Resonance curves of a full-scale model.10

scale RC model in Urbana, IL.9 Figure 3 is a typical set of resonance curves taken on the full-scale model of a building by means of
forced vibration tests. The frequency decrease with higher excitation forces is apparent.

4 MODELS ON EARTHQUAKE SIMULATORS

In the introduction to this chapter, it has been recognised that theories of seismic analysis and behaviour cannot be easily checked
against real structures. Physical model testing is offered as an ideal intermediate means for confirmation, modification or calibration
of analytical solutions.
In the previously described model testing methods, specific earthquake loading conditions were not applied. Even for the case of PD
tests, an analytical computer solution was used indirectly.
A direct application of a given strong motion accelerogram to the base of a model can only be implemented on an earthquake
simulator. Obviously, only small-scale models can be tested on available earthquake simulators. Consequently the disadvantages of
small scale have to be carefully counteracted by means of strict observation of similitude conditions.
4.1 Equipment
In this paragraph a short and rather elementary description of earthquake simulators, otherwise termed shaking tables, will be given.

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An extremely large variety of facilities of this kind are in use, starting from very small one-degree-of-freedom tables, up to
sophisticated very heavy six-degrees-of-freedom simulators.
The following main components of large simulators can be distinguished (Fig. 4):
(a) The platform. Normally a steel structure on which models will be fixed (Fig. 5). Considerable stiffness is needed. Natural
frequencies as remote as possible from the operating frequency range are desired.

Fig. 4. General layout of a large earthquake simulator (3-DOF system, Julich, FRG).

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(b) The static support system. When motionless, the platform may be supported on vertical actuators or on air-cushions or on a liquid
mass (oil or water).
(c) The driving system. Several actuators (depending on the degrees of freedom of the simulator) are appropriately attached and are
usually actuated by hydraulic power (although mechanical systems are sometimes used). Pressure accumulators are needed in order
to maintain the required pressure when peak flow is demanded.
(d) The reaction system. A monolithic massive reinforced concrete structure surrounds the whole system. Its mass is many times
larger than the total table and model mass. Springs and dampers may

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Fig. 5. Earthquake simulator of the Nat. Tech. University of Athens (6 degrees of freedom, design MTS/Carydis).
further improve the conditions of the systems isolation from the environment.
(e) The control system. The motion of the platform along, or around the axes of available freedom may be controlled by mechanical
or, normally, by electrical servo-systems. Displacement, velocity and acceleration are continuously controlled. Analogue facilities
are normally used to receive the input signals and a feedback system is

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used. Modern installations also include control systems to correct possible motion errors.
(f) The data acquisition system. Appropriate multichannel systems are used.
The following features of an earthquake simulator are of interest:
(i) Geometrical data: table size and maximum height of centre of gravity of the specimen.
(ii) Maximum weight of specimen (without substantial modification of the performances of the simulator).
(iii) Degrees of freedom (total and simultaneously controlled).
(iv) Operating frequency range.
(v) Maximum values of acceleration, velocity and displacement. For a given operating frequency and a given specimens weight,
however, the available motion characteristics are modified according to a performance spectrum (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Performance spectrum of the SAMSON Earthquake simulator (3-DOF system, HRB Julich, FRG). 1=empty platform; 2=150
KN payload; 3=250 KN payload.
A world-wide list of earthquake simulators with a model capacity greater than 50 KN is given in the Appendices.
4.2 Basic similitude requirements
It is beyond the scope of this section to repeat the fundamentals of structural similitude. Chapter 2 of this book constitutes the best
reference

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in this respect for static loading. Similitude requirements for the specific applications in earthquake engineering, however, are
extensively described in Moncarz & Krawinkler.11
The essential data needed for the design of small-scale dynamic models, however, will be reproduced here, as an introduction to
section 4.4.
The dynamic behaviour of a model is fully described by means of the following three basic quantities: length (L), mass (M) and time
(T).
Only three independent scales can be selected when designing a model. Nevertheless, depending on practical necessities, other
quantities such as stress or acceleration, etc., may be selected for scaling, provided that the total number of independently chosen
scales will again be equal to three. Subsequently, the scales of all the other parameters are expressed in terms of the basic scale
factors chosen, by means of the equations governing the phenomenon, e.g. Table 2, column 3.
Such a complete observation of similitude requirements (termed a true replica model) is almost impossible in earthquake
engineering. Post-yield phenomena of concrete models are governed by the descending part of the stress-strain curve of concrete in
compression, by its cyclic response degradation and by the steel concrete bond characteristics. Consequently, the use of
microconcrete as a model material becomes imperative. The stress and stiffness scale-factors are taken equal to unity (S=SE=1) and
the similitude requirement for density
(5)
cannot be satisfied: since microconcrete has been selected as the model material, the S should be equal to unity.
Reinforced concrete small-scale models in seismic analysis cannot be true replica models. Instead, in order to reproduce intertia
effects, additional masses are provided at appropriate points on the model and are loosely attached so that the stiffness and strength
of members are not altered. These dynamically effective masses are decoupled from the density similitude requirement, but of
course they will be appropriately calculated (see section 4.4).
These additional masses are also acting vertically on the model (gravity forces). In many cases, the level of action-effects due to
gravity forces is of paramount importance for the seismic behaviour of the structure: The available ductility of RC columns depends
very much on their axial load, Table 1. Besides, the non-seismic loads acting on beam-ends on both

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Table 2
Similitude relationships11
Scaled entities
True replica

Model type
Artificial mass simulation

(3)
SL

(4)
SL

Gravity forces neglecteda

(5)
SL

(1)
Length displacement

(2)
SL

Time

ST

SL

Vibrational period

ST

SL

Velocity

Sv

Gravitational acceleration

Sg

Acceleration

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SA
Density

SE:SL

(see Section 4.2)

Strain

Stress

SE

SE

Modulus of elasticity

SE

SE

SE

Force

SF

Energy
aWhen

SW

SE

SE

SE

SE

the prototype material is used in the model,

sides of a beam column joint, predetermine the amplitude of local shear force reversals. The seismic behaviour of these beam-ends
and joints is adversely affected by eventual full reversals. Consequently, these gravity force action-effects should also be present in
the model. Thus, an appropriate distribution of the additional masses should be achieved, (section 4.4).
In other cases these gravity forces may be neglected without substantial error. An example of this situation occurs in the case of a
building whose lateral resistance is primarily secured by means of reinforced concrete walls. It is also the case for nuclear reactor
containments where the effects

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of gravity are rather small compared to internal pressure and severe seismic action. The acceleration scale factor is relaxed and the
condition SA:Sg=1 is not fulfilled.
4.3 Modelling materials
The use of microconcrete in small-scale seismic models constitutes the only available practical solution. The reinforcement is
simulated by ribbed small diameter steel wires.
This direct limitation of the composition of prototype reinforced concrete is dictated by the complicated post-yield cyclic
degradation phenomena which govern the seismic behaviour of RC structures.
The basic information on these modelling materials is given in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 of this book. A short account is also given
below, however, together with a discussion on the effectiveness of simulation of several mechanical properties of the prototype
materials.
4.3.1 Microconcrete

Production. Cement content should be kept as low as possible (for the same design compressive strength) in order to reduce the
tendency of the model to exhibit higher shrinkage than prototype. In this respect it is useful to recall a practical rule. For each 1-mm
decrease of the maximum aggregate size between 25 and 5 mm, a 2 kg/m cement increase should be provided, for constant
compressive strength under constant slump.
On the other hand, the maximum aggregate size (2560 mm) follows, approximately, the overall geometrical scaling in order to
match possible variation in size of aggregates across the wall sections and clearances.
Slightly higher values of maximum size are suggested, however, in order to decrease the discrepancies observed in tensile strength
and shrinkage between model and prototype concrete. Usually, three aggregate classes are mixed to produce the desired gradation.
Full similitude in grading curves should be avoided, however, in the area of very fine materials: It is suggested that the amount of
aggregate passing the 015 mm sieve is limited to less than 10%.
Additives may also be used, but their effect on bond and shrinkage should be carefully studied.

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Extensive trial mixes are suggested, followed by various measurements of mechanical properties, such as compression, tension,
bond, friction and shrinkage tests, after realistic curing conditions. Since a complete repro-

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duction of all prototype concrete properties is not feasible, an appropriate optimisation has to be made. It is worth noting that ageeffects should be carefully taken into account, since microconcrete seems to gain strength with age more rapidly than ordinary
concrete.
Finally, the curing of the model has an important role in determining the mechanical properties. It is suggested that the casting
sequence of the prototype frame is reproduced (e.g. storey by storey). Furthermore, thin microconcrete model elements could be
subject to a higher shrinkage and this should be taken into account during the curing process.
Compression simulation. In order to secure equal modulus of elasticity, equal strength and equal post-elastic behaviour, identical
cc curves are needed for model and prototype concrete. Experience shows that such a similitude is possible. Some eventual
shifting of the peak of the stressstrain curve, however, is to be expected. The problem of size-effect should also be considered: the
target-strength of microconcrete should be measured on control specimens which are tested under machine head-blocks of
appropriate stiffness. Finally, possible differential rate-effects should be considered. Figure 7 provides a summary of results of
several studies both on normal and small-aggregate concretes. Since the experimental condi-

Fig. 7. Strain rate effects on compressive strength fc and on strain at peakstress of concrete, co.

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tions might not be comparable, there is considerable doubt in the amount of the differences in sensitivity shown in the figure.
Strain rate effects could help to explain the differences in response of models and prototypes. For instance, the magnitude of the
strain co at peak stress of concrete under compression depends upon strain rate (Fig. 7). Little experimental evidence seems to be
available which might be related to microconcrete.
Finally, Poissons ratio at 40% strength-level does not seem to be substantially influenced by rate-effects. A 15% decrease is
expected from 103 to 101 s1 strain rate.12
Tension simulation. Normally, a microconcrete has higher tension strength than its prototype, for equal compressive strength. This is
due to the higher cement content needed to counterbalance the higher amount of water used to achieve equal workability. Thus,
every effort should be made to decrease this difference in tensile strength which has an effect upon bond properties. Cracking strain
at failure in tension seems to increase by say 50% for a mean size of aggregate decreasing from 8 to 2mm.13
Regarding size-effects, the comments made for compressive control specimens are also applicable to the tensile specimens.
Differential rate-effects for the tensile strength between microconcrete and normal concrete are not known. It should be noted that
these rate-effects for normal concrete are more pronounced in tension than in compression. A 30% increase of tensile strength is
expected from 103 to 101 s1 strain-rate.14 Similarly, a 30% increase of Poissons ratio has been found in tension for the above
strain-rate change.12
Bond simulation. Bond action is of considerable importance for post-elastic phenomena governing the seismic behaviour. Transverse
cracking phenomena are related to stiffness, thus influencing the natural period of the model and its spectral response. Longitudinal
splitting and pull-out resistance are related to anchorage behaviour under cyclic loading.
Bond simulation poses a major problem, and Chapters 3 and 4 of this book offer considerable assistance in this respect. Local bond
stress/slip tests need to be performed, on the smallest possible bonded length, e.g. equal to two maximum aggregate sizes. On the

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basis of such local bond stress/slip curves, computerised predictions may be found for all bond-controlled phenomena, including
cyclic behaviour.15
Comparative rate-effects on bond strength are not known. Even if

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identical model/prototype behaviour is assumed, however, the time-compression frequently needed in seismic modelling (see ST,
Table 2) would lead to an additional bond increase, since, according to Vos et al.16
(6)

where n=07(125s)
,o=local bond stresses corresponding to a local slip, s (mm)
,

=bond loading rates

fc=concrete strength (N/mm2)

As an example, for ordinary concrete of fc=20N/mm2 and for s=001 mm, a time-compression factor equal to 10 would have
increased local bond by 15%.
Dowel action. Here again, post-cracking post-elastic phenomena related to the seismic behaviour of RC elements, increase the
importance of dowel action as a shear transfer mechanism. That is especially so when a large concrete cover or dense transverse
reinforcement is used. The cyclic behaviour of dowels embedded in prototype concrete is now better understood.17 It seems that if
everything is scaled correctly, the stiffness and strength of prototype and model dowels can be reproduced.18
Concrete to concrete friction. Under the action of compressive stresses, be they external or internal (clamping action of
reinforcements), aggregate interlock constitutes a very important shear-transfer mechanism along cracked interfaces.19 Several
experimental studies have shown that under monotonic loading there is no reliable influence of maximum aggregate size on the
shear stress and shear displacement relationship.2023 In all cases, considerable response degradation under cyclic actions was
observed. These studies were made for maximum aggregate sizes not lower than 10 mm.
4.3.2 Model reinforcement

Details of the characteristics and the fabrication of deformed steel wires are given in Chapter 4 of this book.
Cold-rolling operations of steel wires can be used in order to increase the yield strength. The ductility lost during this process is
subsequently restored by means of appropriate heat treatment.
Since the most important factor in model reinforcement is bond

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simulation, steel wires need to be deformed by means of appropriate cold-rolling. Large radius knurling wheels are used in order to
produce mechanical deformation of the wires surface. An accurate ratio of rib height to wires effective diameter is sought, together
with appropriate ribs spacing.24,25 Such cold-rolling causes simultaneous yield-strength increase, accompanied by an elimination of
the sharp yield-point and a significant decrease in ductility. Subsequent annealing can bring down the yield strength if needed and
control the adverse change in properties. Acceptable yield-plateaus and strain-hardening forms may be obtained by a combination of

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selecting initial carbon content and trial annealing processes.

Strain-rate effects in model reinforcement seem to be less important than in the case of microconcrete. In fact, both for prototype
steel bars,26 and for 34 mm diameter model reinforcement,27 the yield-stress linearly increases in a logarithmic scale of strain-rates
and reaches a 1015% higher value at

=101 s1 when compared to the yield-stress at

=104 s1.

4.4 Design of models

The design of a small-scale seismic model can now be made on the basis of the information given in this chapter. In what follows, a
more practical introduction to such a design is attempted.
Depending on the earthquake-simulator facilities available, as well as on the nature of the problem to be investigated, several
categories of model may be envisaged. A reminder of the corresponding similitude conditions governing their design is first given
but, due to the difficulties described in section 4.2, true replica models will not be considered.
4.4.1 Models with added (artificial) masses

The following steps are appropriate:

(a) Assume a unit acceleration scale-factor SA=1, since the gravity action-effects will be fully accounted for (gp=gm).
Consequently,
(7)
and
(8)

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or
(9)
This is the so-called time-compression factor.
(b) Now assume a unit stress scale-factor S=1, because of the fundamental importance of using a model material that exhibits the
same strength and same modulus of elasticity as the full-scale material, section 4.2. Therefore, since =ma:l2,
(10)
and since SA=1,
(11)
This relationship applies to the entire mass of each area of the model and not necessarily to the density of the model material alone.
(c) Select an initial value of geometrical scale-factor SL that is based on approximate criteria such as the bearing capacity of the
earthquake simulator.
All the above findings have been listed in Table 2. Now that the three independent scale-factors have been selected, the dynamic
problem can be fully described. The important consequences of this basic selection now follow:
(i) It is observed that another similitude condition is satisfied. Equal resonance sensitivity is also achieved both for the prototype and

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the model. The ratio of the natural period Tp of the prototype and the predominant period Tpred., p of the input prototype
accelerogram is equal to the relevant ratio for the model. In fact, since stiffness k=(l2):l,
(12)
Therefore
(13)
and
(14)

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This is the time compression factor found in eqn (9). Combining eqns (13) and (14), it is found that
(15)
Therefore, the observance of equal resonance sensitivity is confirmed.
(ii) Another consequence of the correct selection of the independent scale-factors is that we are now able to calculate the additional
masses required on the appropriate areas of the model in order to simulate both the overall mass present and the gravity actioneffects. From eqn (11), the ratio of all masses present on prototype and model may be written as follows:
(16)
where mp, mm denote the masses of the building elements themselves (in prototype and in model, respectively), QE is the vertical
live load which is probabilistically present on the prototype at the moment of the design earthquake, and G is the additional
(artificial) weight that must be applied to the model.
The ratio of dead weights of the structures alone is
(17)
and from eqn (16)
(18)
This expression allows the calculation of the additional weight that must be applied on every area of the model, accounting for the
dead weight G and the vertical live load QE acting on the appropriate area of the prototype.
4.4.2 Models (partly or totally) neglecting vertical force action effects

Two compatibility checks are normally made in the previous case and

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these are:

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Is the total model weight (mmg+G) compatible with the capacity of the available earthquake simulator (see section 4.1)?
Is there any space within the model to properly attach the additional masses to the appropriate areas, (see section 4.4.1)?
If the first check is not satisfied a possible decrease of the geometrical scale-factor could be considered. This is provided that a
second check can be satisfied. Similarly, if the second check cannot be satisfied then an increase in the geometrical scale-factor
could be considered provided that the first check may then be satisfied.
If all these are not satisfied, other possibilities could be explored:
I Gravity forces are totally neglected. This is acceptable in only a few cases and then only as a first approximation (see section 4.2).
For this case the following similitude conditions should be satisfied:
(a) Select the highest possible value of SL, but in doing so remember the difficulties in trying to satisfy the conditions of section
4.4.1.
(b) Adopt a unit stress scale-factor S=1, since materials of equal strength and modulus of elasticity for both the prototype and the
model are used. This unit stress scale-factor cannot reproduce inertia stresses.
(c) Since no additional mass will be applied and identical materials will be used, a density scale-factor defined by
(19)
will be used.
Having selected these three scale-factors, some practical consequences will be discussed.
(i) Since (fully simulated) inertia stresses are expressed as
(20)
or
(21)
it is found that
(22)

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(ii) On the other hand, since
(23)
and using eqn (22), we find
(24)
(iii) It is very important now to note that the foregoing simplification which disregards the gravity force action-effect causes some
difficulty. The time compression factor now (ST=SL) is much larger than in Section 4.4.1. Therefore, in addition to some possible
distortions in test results, strain-rate effects are greatly accentuated (both in the models behaviour and the high frequency
reproduction of the simulator). The acceleration scale-factor has also changed. Instead of SA=1, the value SA=

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Therefore, instead of am=ap, the relationship

(25)
is obtained. Such an increase in acceleration amplitude may create problems for the earthquake simulator capacity.
II Gravity forces partly considered. In order to alleviate the two difficulties mentioned in the previous section and to diminish the
inaccuracy of neglecting gravity forces, an intermediate solution can be sought. This solution involves the addition of artificial
masses. Their weight G0 is sought such as to be compatible with the simulator capacity and the space available along the model.
In this case the time-compression factor is
(26)
It is worth noting that stiffnesses against seismic actions are mainly conditioned by stresses due only to inertia forces, for which
simulation is observed. Consequently, eqn (12) is valid, therefore
(27)
Substituting eqn (27) in eqn (26) it is found that
(28)

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This value lies between the time scale-factors given in eqns (9) and (21).
At the same time, since
(29)
it is concluded that
(30)
Here again, this value lies between the values found for the cases discussed in sections 4.4.1 and 4.4.2, respectively.
Consequently, a considerable reduction has been made possible on the values of both the necessary time compression factor and the
acceleration amplitude increase needed in model testing. Of course, simulation is still not complete since gravity force action effects
are only partly taken into account.
4.4.3 Model design steps

In Fig. 8 a summarised presentation of design steps is given, together with the necessary checks for the case of gravity forces being
taken into account. Similar steps are followed for the design of models neglecting gravity forces, G=0.
4.4.4 Model dimensioning

In principle, a bar-for-bar substitution of prototype reinforcements is needed for the following reasons:
Bond similitude will be better followed.
Eccentricities mainly in wall sections will be avoided.
Confinement will be better simulated.

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The relationship between action effects leading to flexural and shear failure modes will be better observed.
It has to be admitted that such a proportioning policy is, however, not practical for low scale-factors, possibly for SL=6. If this is the
case, the basic moment and shear ductility simulation is not fully observed.
Particular problems are related to splicing and anchorage. Splicing of longitudinal model reinforcement is not needed and can, in
fact, be avoided unless this is a parameter to be investigated.
Whenever anchorage is expected to be a decisive characteristic of large amplitude cyclic behaviour, a direct scaling down of
prototypes anchorage length may not be the best decision. The improved bond characteristics in the model should be somehow
accounted for.

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Fig. 8. An algorithm for seismic models design, accounting for gravity forces.
A particular problem is posed by the confinement of critical regions of the model elements. Local ductility depends on the available
ultimate strain cu of concrete, which in turn is a function of the mechanical volumetric percentage w of the confining
reinforcement.28 The ultimate strain is given by
(31)
where n denotes the number of intermediate longitudinal bars, other than those at the corners, on each side of a rectangular crosssection which are restrained by a link (Fig. 9).
4.5 Instrumentation
4.5.1 Scope

The instrumentation aims at recording the following data:

(a) The response of the shaking platform.

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Fig. 9. Stress-strain diagram of concrete confined with orthogonal hoops.

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(b) The horizontal and vertical displacements and the rotations of model elements relative to the base.
(c) Accelerations around the model.
(d) Internal angular deformations, strains and crack widths along critical regions of the model.

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(e) Internal forces generated at some critical cross-sections.

4.5.2 Methods of recording

The following instrumentation may be used to obtain the desired experimental objectives.
An external frame outside the shaking platform may be needed to record the displacement history of the platform. Accelerometers
are also attached on the platform in order to check the accuracy of reproduction of the input accelerogram.
A rigid reference frame is fixed on the platform, close to the model, (Fig. 10). A horizontal reference framework is also needed if
uplift displacements are also to be measured. A large number of displacement monitoring instruments, e.g. linear-variabledifferential-transformers or linear-potentiometers are used. Several horizontal displacements are measured both in the direction of
motion and perpendicular to it. Similarly, some vertical displacements are also recorded, mainly on upper regions, in order to
measure possible uplifts.
Appropriate accelerometers are attached to several levels of the model, in order to measure horizontal response accelerations,
parallel and transverse to the input motion. Vertical accelerations may also be needed to be measured, even when the input motion
does not contain vertical components. The measurement of localised deformations of models may pose problems because of their
small scale. Internal angular distortions may be measured by arragements like those shown in Fig. 11. Normal strain gauges are used
for strain measurements on wires and microconcrete. Finally, the time history of the width of some selected cracks may be recorded
by means of small type strain gauges. It is very advisable to insert appropriate load-cells (force transducers), when the scale of
the model offers such a possibility, in order to follow the time history of internal forces generated during the seismic motion at some
particular cross-sections, e.g. the columns of an RC building (Fig. 12).
4.5.3 Data acquisition system

It is beyond the scope of this chapter to describe in detail the data acquisition system needed for earthquake simulator tests.
Essentially, all

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Fig. 10. Instrumentation, location and orientation on a 1:10 RC seismic model of a seven-storey building.9

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Fig. 11. Column-footing interface details and diagonal distortion measurement in a 1:5 scale seismic model of a seven-storey
building.7
analogue signals from instruments connected to the model and the platform have to be amplified, recoded, digitised and stored. The
earthquake simulator motion, simultaneously recorded, is used as a time-reference source in order to synchronise records which
might be taken on different recorders. Graphic display and printer facilities are also part of the system.
Motion-picture cameras are used to record all phases of tests.
One of the main characteristics of these data acquisition facilities is their precision and resolution for high speed events.
4.6 Testing procedure
A check-list of steps for testing a seismic model is now given.

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Model visual inspection. Identification of possible initial cracks due to shrinkage, thermal stresses or accidental shocks during
handling.
Check again the stability of fixings.
Check the serviceability of all instruments (small amplitude arbitrary motions).
Horizontal static loadings are applied at several levels of the model

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Fig. 12. Internal force transducer installation in mid-height of a ground-floor RC column of a 1:5 seismic model.7
by means of light jacks, in order to measure the corresponding displacements and check the initial stiffness of the model. A
comparison between calculated and experimentally found initial natural frequency values should be made.
Free-vibration tests (small amplitude) carried out before and after attachment of the additional masses. The platform should be
immovable during these tests. Initial natural periods and viscous damping factors of the model are found.
Check the accuracy of reproduction of the input seismic record.

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After the selection of the appropriate time-compression factor, a given seismic record is used to control the motion of the shaking
table in the form of a displacement-time history. The displacements may be obtained by integrating the accelerograms.
An initial run is performed with properly scaled down acceleration amplitudes, so that the linear behaviour of the model is
observed. During this run, the elastic response of the model is recorded and checked against analytical finding. A good comparison
is expected as proof of satisfactory overall experimental conditions before investigations into the non-linear domain are attempted.
The acceleration-time history of the platform is checked against the input accelerogram. Some discrepancies are expected in peak
acceleration values due mainly to the simulator-model interaction (Fig. 6).
Experiments planned for the specific investigation are performed. Besides instrumental measurements, systematic visual
inspection of the model is carried-out after a seismic test. Crack formation, crack widths, possible microconcrete spalling and the
condition of steel wire at critical regions are recorded and described.
It is worth noting, that strictly speaking, only one non-linear dynamic test can be considered as accurate. Every additional test,
e.g. a second identical run, a scaled-up acceleration amplitude or a run with another input accelerogram is influenced by the lowcycling fatigue induced in the model during its first non-linear excursion. This is particularly so in the case of seismic loading close
to a partial collapse condition.
After each of these planned runs, additional free-vibration tests are carried out in order to assess the general condition of the
model. This may be expressed by the modified natural period and damping.
It is customary to perform a final destructive test of the model by means of disproportionate scaling-up of the input accelerogram.
Sometimes repair of the model and retesting is envisaged (mainly for medium scale models).
4.7 Applications and reliability of small-scale models

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Comprehensive details of the model testing of buildings are to be found in Refs 7, 29, 30. In these papers the dynamic behaviour of a
wall-frame multi-storey building, a five-storey pre-cast panel building and a seven-storey three-framed monolithic building are
discussed.

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A short discussion is now presented on the possible inconsistencies of small-scale RC models tested on earthquake simulators.
4.7.1 Initial conditions

Assuming that material modelling has been achieved as accurately as possible, the following eventual sources of error have to be
accounted for. The importance of the accurate simulation of strain-hardening of prototype and model reinforcement must be
emphasised. The lack of such hardening in some model wires may cause more rapid local deterioration and a lower global ductility
(inability for redistribution of action-effects).
Geometrical errors. Concrete cover of steel wires should be a matter of concern. Standard deviations of more than 1 mm have been
measured,9 for model elements of 8 mm nominal thickness. Post-testing systematic checks are recommended before the final
evaluation of experimental findings.
Output accelerations. The base accelerations induced to the model (i.e. the accelerations measured on the platform) differ from the
input signals, due to simulation errors and to modelsimulator interaction. Local differences of the order of 20% at peak values are
not rare. The overall damage potential of the two accelerograms may be considered as sufficiently equal if, however, the intensity
coefficient

is practically identical.
4.7.2 Model prototype basic dissimilarities

Some of these dissimilarities seem to be inevitable but they have to be considered when evaluating test results.
Cracking pattern. In general, models exhibit fewer cracks than prototypes tested pseudo-dynamically. In areas of low steel ratio, the
higher tensile strength of microconcrete may result in a considerable delay in the formation of first cracking. Sometimes, cracking
occurs together with yielding. Thus, non-yielded regions may remain uncracked. A longer yield plateau of the models
reinforcement may also be the reason for fewer cracks in model areas further from critical cross-sections.
Strain-rate effects may further accentuate bond dissimilarities between

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models tested on earthquake simulators and real full-scale structures or full-scale models tested pseudo-dynamically. A small bond
increase in models has been recognised in section 4.3.1 due to strain-rate effects. In addition, bond-stress relaxation,31 can hardly
occur under these very high rate conditions. Thus, a further increase of bond resistance occurs. It is worth noting here that such a
model-to-prototype dissimilarity is observed even in the case of equal-scale structures made of identical materials.32 Thus,
explanations other than strain-rate effects may be less important.
Now, whatever the reasons for such cracking dissimilarity may be, the consequences should be taken into consideration. Both
flexural and shear stiffness of models tested on earthquake simulators are higher than in prototypes. However, this difference is not
clear during the quasi-elastic loading conditions (less pronounced cracking due to loading, counter-effects of initial shrinkage cracks,
etc). Besides, more concentrated rotations at a models critical cross-sections, may lead to more rapid steel-hardening.
Axial force simulation. For several reasons, vertical RC building elements under large amplitude seismic reversals are very sensitive
to the actual axial forces. An increase of compressive axial forces leads to higher stiffness and thus to higher flexural and shear
action-effects. It is not always certain whether the corresponding increased flexural or shear strengths are high enough to cover the

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higher action effects. Higher axial compression leads to disproportionately lower ductilities. It is, therefore, very important to secure
the highest possible accuracy of axial force reproduction. To this end, gravity forces should in general be fully reproduced.
Similarly, all possible membrane and three-dimensional effects influencing axial forces, should also be simulated. Planar frames
detached from a real building can hardly fulfill this requirement.
Strength increase due to strain-rate effects. It has been observed in Section 4.3 that model concrete and less clearly, steel wire,
exhibit a differential sensitivity in strain-rate effects. In any event, small-scale seismic models under time-compression factors which
are considerably higher than unity are expected to be stronger, except perhaps for possible localised failures.
Localised deterioration events. Localised failure phenomena which are so critical for the final level of available ductility of a
structure can hardly be simulated. The basic dissimilarities already discussed and the over-

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sensitivity of these phenomena to local detailing, may explain this difficulty. Therefore, a detailed observation of the damage to the
model is needed at every step in order to attribute a specific result to normal global response or to localised deterioration. In the
latter case, parallel seismic experiments of isolated critical building elements, tested under larger scale, may offer a better insight.
For such tests, the response history of the element obtained from an earthquake simulator test of model structure, can serve as the
loading history applied to the isolated element.11.
Other seismic components. Under some conditions, the response of a structure to a given horizontal seismic excitation is
considerably influenced by a simultaneous transverse and vertical excitation. Unless a more complete input excitation is feasible the
disadvantage of one-direction time histories should be recognised.
4.8 The potential of small-scale models
In spite of the limitations described in the previous section, small-scale RC models tested on earthquake simulators remain a
powerful tool for the realistic prediction of the seismic behaviour of given structures. The use of small-scale models together with
pseudo-dynamic tests should be continued. Many areas not considered by seismic codes may be investigated using experimental
methods. Examples of these are:
Assessment of the limits of mass and stiffness irregularities and

Fig. 13. Force-displacement relationship for three seismic model frames tested under several input accelerograms. An overall
ductility factor equal to 35 seems to be suggested.9

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overstrengths, if equivalent static or even linear dynamic analysis is to be acceptable from a public safety standpoint.
The contradictory role of infill walls in RC frame structures can be parametrically investigated.
Realistic values of behaviour factors can be sought (see Section 1). In this respect small-scale models seem to be quite reliable
(Fig. 13).
Hybrid design methods can be implemented for unusually complex structures or for structures at high risk.
The consequences of foundation behaviour (rocking and sliding) on the overall seismic response can be studied. Few
investigations have been carried out in this area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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The Author of this chapter acknowledges the bibliographical assistance and the fruitful discussion offered by Professor P.Carydis.

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APPENDICES
Earthquake simulators (with model weight more than 50 KN) around the world (courtesy of P. Carydis)
Appendix 1. Tables in the European Community
No.

1
2

Institution

Construction Table Specimen Controlled Frequency Acceleration Maximum Table motion Country
year
size (m) weight degrees of range (Hz)
(g)
velocity displacement
(KN)
freedom
(cm/s.)
(cm)
CEN VESUVE
3131
200
1
0200 H 18
1000
100 France
Saclay
CEN
2020
100
2
0200 H
2200
125 France
TOURNESOL,
Saclay
V
1200
100
SOPEMEA,
3030
100
2
050
H 30
600
110 France
VelizyV 30
600
110
Villacoublay
HRB GmbH
5050
250
3
05100 H 15
1000
200 Germany
SAMSON,
Julich
H 15
1000
200
V 15
1000
200
National
1983
4040
100
6
0160 H 15
890
100 Greece
Technical
University,
H 15
890
100
Athens
V 29
850
100
Ansaldo
1980
3535
70
2
0160 H 13
860
70 Italy
Impianti,
Geneva
H 063
550
70
ISMES,
1984
4040
300
6
0120 H 30
550
100 Italy
Bergamo
H 30
550
100
V 20
450
100
ENEA,
1985
4040
100
3
0550 H 30
500
125 Italy
Rome
H 30
500
125
V 3.0
500
125

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No.

Institution

9 ELCOM
SYSTEM,
Perugia

Construction Table size Specimen Controlled Frequency Acceleration Maximum Table motion Country
year
(m)
weight degrees of range (Hz)
(g)
velocity displacement
(KN)
freedom
(cm/s.)
(cm)
160160
1500
1
0520 H
15 Italy

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10 Laborat.
National
de Engen.
Civil,
Lisbon
11 NEL,
Glasgow

245145

50

3030

200

12 GEC,
Whetstone
13 GEC Power
Engineering,
Stafford
14 University
of Bristol

38532

250

4343

1000

3030

150

1987

100 Portugal

033

H
H
V

125 UK
125
125
UK

31000

75 UK

100

V
H 10
H 10
V 10

500
500
500

75
150 UK

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Appendix 2. Tables in the North and South America
No.

4
5

Institution

Construction Table size Specimen Controlled Frequency Acceleration Maximum Table motion Country
year
(m)
weight degrees of range (Hz)
(g)
velocity displacement
(KN)
freedom
(cm/s.)
(cm)
University of
1968
365365
45
1
050
H 50
381
51 USA
Illinois,
Urbana
University of
1971
6161
450
5
0550
H 067
635
152 USA
California,
Berkeley
V 022
254
51
Construction
1973
365365
60
5
01200
H 15
813
73 USA
Engineering
Research Lab.
V 30
686
35
Champaign,
IL
Westinghouse
1978
4949
178
3
0100
H 35
762
305 USA
Pittsburg, PA
V
762
305
University of
1978
3030
68
1
050
H 10
635
75 Canada
British
Columbia
Union
1980
183183
340
2
0120
H 025
305
193 USA
Carbide Corp.
Oak Ridge,
V 025
305
193
TN
E.G. & G.
1981
3030
100
5
030
H 10
635
152 USA
Idaho Falls,
V 05
318
76
10
State of
1983
37x37
180
2
0.160
H 10
760
150 USA
University
of New York,
V 10
500
75
Buffalo

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9 Wyle
Laboratories,
Huntsville, AI
10 Wyle
Laboratories,
Huntsville, AI
11 CERL US
Army

1972

06x06

890

0100

H 150

2000

610 USA

1973

0606

890

0100

H 100

1520

280 USA

1973

37x37

53

0200

H 200

890

152 USA

1978

2418

89

0100

V 40.0
H 06

890

12 University of
Washington
13 University of
Mexico,
Mexico City

76
76 USA

1975

4525

200

0150

H 12

381

51 Mexico

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Appendix 3. Tables in Japan
No.

Institution

1 Kajima
Institute of
Construction
Technol,
Chofu
2 Ministry of
Construction,
Tsukuba
3 Toshiba
Electric Co.,
Kawasaki
4 Ministry of
Construction,
Tsukuba
5 NUPEC,
Tadotsu,
Takamatsu
6 IshikawajimaHarima
Heavy
Industries,
Yokohama
7 Nippon
Telephone
and
Telegraph
Tokyo
8 Instit. of

Construction Table size Specimen Controlled Frequency Acceleration Maximum Table motion Country
year
(m)
weight degrees of range (Hz)
(g)
velocity displacement
(KN)
freedom
(cm/s.)
(cm)
1975
4040
2000
2
0150
H 20
1140
150 Japan
V 10

445

75

1979

6080

1000

0130

H 07

600

75 Japan

1980

5050

200

(2, 1983)
2

0130

H 10

400

75 Japan

250
600

38
75 Japan

1981

2030

1982

(4 tables)
150150

1983

4545

1985

3030

10020

250

0150

V 07
H 07

10000

030

H 18

750

200 Japan

350

0150

V 09
H 15

375
750

200
100 Japan

H 15

750

100

V 10
H 30

500
65

67
100 Japan

H 30

65

100

V 30
H 04

65

120
100 Japan

100

1700

1100

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Industr.
Sc., Univ. of
Tokyo, Chiba
9 Railway
Techn. Res.
Inst. JNR,
Tokyo

Pgina 23 de 26

10020

1000

H 04

600

50 Japan

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10 CRIEPI, Abiko,
Chiba
11 Natl. Res. Cent. for
Dis. Prevention, Tsukuba
12 Takasago Res. Inst.
Mitsub. Ind., Himeji
13 Natl. Res. Inst. Agric.
Eng., Tsukuba
14 Port & Harb. Res. Inst.,
Yokosuka
15 Port and Harb. Res. Inst.,
Yokosuka
16 Shimizu Const. Comp.,
Tokyo
17 Build. Res. Institute,
Tsukuba
18 Ohbayashi Gumi,
Tokyo
19 Div. Prev. Res. Inst.,
Kyoto
20 Div. Prev. Res. Inst.,
Kyoto
21 Natl. Res. Center for Dis. Prevention, Tsukuba

6560

1250

6060

750

6060

500

6032

300

5520

170

4035

H 12 600
100
75
420
420
320

200 Japan
100
50 Japan
50
50 Japan

H 05 150

50 Japan

300

H 045 250

50 Japan

5040

120

H 10 720

100 Japan

4030

200

H 10 600

75 Japan

4030

100

H 10

100 Japan

3030

120

H 05

100 Japan

2525

80

150150

050

050

050

H 12
V 10
H 12
V 12
H 04

50 Japan

H 5000 1 (H or V) 050

H 05 500
V 05 500
H 055 370

50 Japan
50
30 Japan

V 2000

V 100 370

30

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Appendix 4. Tables in other countries
No.

Institution

Construction Table Specimen Controlled Frequency Acceleratio Maximum Table motion Country
year
size (m) weight degrees of range (Hz)
(g)
velocity displacement
(KN)
freedom
(cm/s.)
(cm)
1 University of
1980
5050
400
2
0130 H 067
635
125 Yugoslavia
Kiril
and Metodij,
V 040
380
50

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Skopje
2 Tong Ji
University,
Shanghai
3 East China
Technical
University of
Water
Resources,
Nanjing
4 Dalian
Institute of
Technology,
Dalian
5 Hydroproject
Res.
Institute,
Tbilisy
6 Arya Mehz
University,
Teheran
7 University of
Pahlavi,
Shiraz
8 INCERC,
IASI

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1983

4040

100

0150

H 15

890

100 China

625
625
500

100
100
50 China

500

75 China

1984

2028

60

0180

H 15
H27
H 12

1984

3030

100

0150

H 10

1980

6060

500

01100

H 12

100 USSR
100
75
50 Iran

50 Iran

5050

500

050

H 12
V 10
H 06

4040

200

050

H 11

7070

6000

H 08

130 Romania

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Knig, G. & Dargel, H.J., A constitutive law for R.C. with consideration to the effect of high strain rates. In Proc. Interassoc. Symp.
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