Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my Physics teacher Mr. Surender Puli for his
constant guidance, motivation, moral encouragement and
sympathetic attitude towards the success of this project.
I also want to thank the principal, Mr. John David Shikle, and the
administrative head, Captain Vijay Tiwari, for providing the
necessary materials.
I would also like to extend my gratitude towards the lab attendant,
my parents and everyone who has helped me in completing the
project successfully.

Harshvardhan
Vidyagyan School

INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

ii

INTRODUCTION

01

APPLICATIONS

02

AIM & APPARATUS

03

THEORY

04

PROCEDURE

09

OBSERVATIONS

10

RESULT & CONCLUSION

12

SOURCES OF ERROR

13

BIBLIOGRAPHY

14

iii

INTRODUCTION
A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR,
or photocell) is a light-controlled variable resistor.
The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing
incident
light
intensity;
in
other
words,
it
exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied
in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and darkactivated switching circuits.
There are two common types of materials used to
manufacture the photoconductive cells. They are
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe).
Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have a
ground state energy closer to the conduction band - since
the electrons don't have as far to jump, lower energy
photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower frequencies)
are sufficient to trigger the device. Two of its earliest
applications were as part of smoke and fire detection
systems and camera light meters. The structure is covered
with glass sheet to protect it from moisture and dust and
allows only light to fall on it.

Applications
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs are
used for the mid infrared spectral region. GeCu
photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors
available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared
spectroscopy.

Analog Applications

Camera Exposure Control

Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
Photocopy Machines - density of toner
Colorimetric Test Equipment
Densitometer
Electronic Scales - dual cell
Automatic Gain Control modulated light source
Automated Rear View Mirror

Digital Applications

Automatic Headlight Dimmer

Night Light Control
Oil Burner Flame Out
Street Light Control
Position Sensor

*LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes, its resistance
changes drastically for a particular light intensity.

AIM &
APPARATUS
AIM:
To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit containing a LDR,
because of a variation:(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to illuminate the
LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp, (of fixed power), used to
illuminate the LDR.

APPARATUS:

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Connecting Wires
Source of different power rating (bulbs)
Bulb Holder
Metre scale
Multi Meter
Battery

THEORY
1.)

LDR and its characteristics

When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites

an electron from valence band into conduction band. Due to such new
electrons coming up in conduction band area, the electrical resistance of
the device decreases. Thus the LDR or photo-conductive transducer
has the resistance which is the inverse function of radiation intensity.

0 = threshold wavelength, in meters

e = charge on one electron, in
Coulombs Ew = work function of the
metal used, in Ev
Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater than the
value obtained in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in
the resistance of this device.
The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV and for
Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large energy gaps, both the
materials have extremely high resistivity at room temperature
such large energy gaps, both the materials have extremely high
resistivity at room temperature.

Characteristics of photoconductive cells

Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance is called
as dark resistance. This resistance is typically of the order of 10 13
ohms. When light falls on it, its resistance decreases up to several
kilo ohms or even hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity
of light, falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells
were compared in our laboratory. And we found that there is
almost no response to the radiation of a wavelength which was
shorter than 300nm. It was very interesting to note that the
Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response nearer or within the
green color of the spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus it can
be used nearer to the infra-red region up to 750nm. It was found
that the maximum response of Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in the
yellow-orange range at 615nm and also it can be used in the
infra-red region up to about 970nm.

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship between the
light falling on the device and the resulting output signal. In the
case of a photocell, one is dealing with the relationship between
the incident light and the corresponding resistance of the cell.

Spectral Response
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a photoconductive cell is
dependent on the wavelength (color) of the incident light. Each
photoconductor material type has its own unique spectral response curve
or plot of the relative response of the photocell versus wavelength of light.

PROCEDURE

Choose a specific position for the source and mount it

using a holder, make sure it is stable.
Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and connect
it to the holder as shown in the figure.
Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the multimeter in
series.
Set the multimeter to ohm section and select suitable range
and measure the resistance with a bulb on.
Similarly switch to current section and move to micro ampere
in the multimeter. This gives the value of the current.
Repeat these steps with different power sources at different
distances and note down observations.

OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources
with different power ratings. Voltage of the battery = 6 V

1.) 15 watts (yellow) (wavelength = 570nm)

Serial
No

DISTANCE FROM
SOURCE
(cm)

RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm)

CURRENT
(micro ampere)

1.

50

142.5

40

2.

40

69

80

3.

30

41

150

4.

20

21

300

2.) 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm

Serial
No

DISTANCE FROM
SOURCE
(cm)

RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm)

CURRENT
(micro ampere)

1.

50

51

120

2.

40

35

170

3.

30

22

270

4.

20

11

540

3.) 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

Serial
No

DISTANCE FROM
SOURCE
(cm)

RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm)

CURRENT
(micro ampere)

1.

50

20

300

2.

40

13

460

3.

30

8.5

700

4.

20

4.5

1330

4.) 20 watts (CFL) (white light)

Serial
No

DISTANCE FROM
SOURCE
(cm)

RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm)

CURRENT
(micro ampere)

1.

50

15.5

380

2.

40

10

600

3.

30

1000

4.

20

2000

CONCLUSION &
RESULT
o The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity
of light and hence there is an increase in the flow of
current.
o There is an increase in the current as the distance from
the source decreases.
o The intensity decreases as the distance from the source
increases.

SOURCES OF ERROR
o The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.
o Connections may be faulty.
o The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
o Measurements should be taken accurately.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
NCERT class XII
Art of Electronics by paul worowitz
www.wikipedia.com/
www.electronics2000.co.uk/links/education-hobby/

 www.ecelab.com/