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Xy L Am Thanh Hinh Anh PDF
Xy L Am Thanh Hinh Anh PDF
X L M THANH, HNH NH
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2007
X L M THANH, HNH NH
Bin son :
LI NI U
Ti liu hng dn hc tp mn "X l m thanh v hnh nh" dnh cho khi o to t
xa chuyn ngnh in t vin thng. Ti liu ny s gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn v x l m
thanh v hnh nh. c bit, tc gi ch trng ti vn x l tn hiu ng dng trong mng vin
thng: l cc phng php nn tn hiu, lu tr, cc tiu chun nn tn hiu m thanh v hnh
nh. Nhng kin thc c trnh by trong ti liu s gip hc vin tip cn nhanh vi cc vn
thc tin thng gp trong mng vin thng.
V khi lng kin thc trong lnh vc x l m thanh cng nh hnh nh rt ln, v vi
qu thi gian qu eo hp dnh cho bin son, ti liu hng dn ny cha thu tm c ton b
kin thc cn c v lnh vc x l m thanh v hnh nh. tm hiu v mt s vn c trong
cng mn hc i hi hc vin phi nghin cu thm trong s sch tham kho c tc gi
cp ti trong phn cui ca ti liu ny.
Ni dung cun sch c chia lm hai chng:
-
CHNG 1
K THUT X L M THANH
u (t ) = 2t 2 5
f ( x, y ) = x 2 2 xy 6 y 2
Thng thng cc tn hiu t nhin khng biu din c bi mt hm s cp, cho nn
trong tnh ton, ngi ta thng dng hm xp x cho cc tn hiu t nhin.
H thng: l thit b vt l, thit b sinh hc, hoc chng trnh thc hin cc php ton
trn tn hiu nhm bin i tn hiu, rt trch thng tin, Vic thc hin php ton cn c gi
l x l tn hiu.
Hnh 1.8 nhn c tm mc tn hiu khc nhau mt cch phn bit, tn hiu nhnh ca tn hiu nhiu phi nh hn hoc sai bit gia cc mc . T s tn hiu trn nhiu
phi ti thiu l 8:1 hoc l 18dB, truyn bi 3 bit. 16 mc th t s tn hiu trn nhiu phi l
24dB, truyn bi 4 bit.
(1.1)
i =1
M hnh AR i din cho cc qu trnh tuyn tnh tnh, chp nhn tn hiu tng t nhiu
v tn hiu tng t iu ha. Mt m hnh khc ph hp hn i vi nhiu tnh hung phn tch
l m hnh auto regressive moving-average (ARMA) cho php cc im cc cng nh im 0.
Tuy nhin m hnh AR c tnh linh ng hn trong phn tch hn m hnh ARMA, v d mt tn
hiu nhc phc tp cn m hnh c bc P > 100 biu din dng sng ca tn hiu, trong khi
cc tn hiu n gin hn ch cn biu din bng bc 30. Trong nhiu ng dng, vic la chn bc
ca m hnh ph hp cho bi ton sao cho m bo vic biu din tn hiu l tha vic khng lm
mt i thng tin ca tn hiu l vic hi phc tp. C rt nhiu phng php dng c lng
bc ca m hnh AR nh phng php maximum likelihood/least-squares [Makhoul, 1975], v
phng php robust to noise [Huber, 1981, Spath, 1991], v.v Tuy nhin, i vi vic x l cc
tn hiu m nhc phc tp th thng thng s dng m hnh Sin (Sinusoidal) rt c hiu qu
trong cc ng dng m thoi. M hnh Sin rt ph hp trong cc phng php dng gim
nhiu. Tn hiu c cho bi cng thc sau
nT
Pn
(1.2)
Time
+1.0
Voltage
+0.5
0
-0.5
-1.0
Time
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
Time
Converter Output
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1
43
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1
43
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1
43
1.1.1.8 Tn s ly mu
Khi chuyn i mt m thanh sang dng s, iu cn lu l tn s ly mu ca h thng
x l phi m bo tnh trung thc v chnh xc khi cn phc hi li dng sng tn hiu ban u.
Theo nh ly mu Nyquist v Shannon, tn s ly mu quyt nh tn s cao nht ca tn
hiu phc hi. ti to li dng sng c tn s l F , cn phi ly 2 F mu trong mt giy. Tn
s ny cn c gi l tn s Nyquist. Tuy nhin, nh l Nyquist khng phi l ti u cho mi
trng hp. Nu mt dng sng hnh Sin c tn s l 500Hz, th tn s ly mu 1000Hz. Nu nh
tn s ly mu cao hn tn s Nyquist s gy ra tnh trng hiu ng l nh hng n bin
ca tn hiu v tn hiu b cng nhiu, tuy nhin lc th cc thnh phn hi tn s thp li c tn
hiu chnh xc hn khi c phc hi.
1.1.2
X (z ) =
x ( n) z
(1.3a)
n =
x ( n) =
1
X ( z ) z n1dz
2j C
(1.3b)
10
x ( n)
<
z n
(1.4)
n =
R1 < z < R2
(1.5)
n0
1 zN
1 z 1
N 1
X ( z ) = (1).z n =
n =0
n =0
V d: Cho x( n) = b u ( n 1) . Then X ( z ) =
n
1
,a < z
1 az 1
z n =
n =
1
, z <b
1 bz 1
1. Tuyn tnh
2. Dch
3. Hm m
Chui tn hiu
Bin i z
aX 1 ( z ) + bX 2 ( z )
x(n + n0 )
z n X ( z)
a n x(n )
X (a 1 z )
dX ( z )
dz
4. Hm tuyn tnh
nx(n)
5. o thi gian
x(-n)
X ( z 1 )
6. Tng quan
x(n)*h(n)
X(z)H(z)
7. Nhn chui
x(n)w(n)
1
X ( )W ( z / ) 1d
2j C
X (e jw ) =
x(n)e
jwn
(1.6a)
n =
x ( n) =
1
2
X (e
jw
)e jwn dw
(1.6b)
i Fourier l z = 1 , nh vy
11
x(n) <
(1.7)
iw
~
x ( n) = ~
x (n + N )
< n<
(1.8)
x (n) c th c dng l tng ri rc cc tn hiu sin thay v tch phn nh cng thc
Vi ~
(1.9b). Php bin i Fourier cho chui tun hon nh sau
2
N 1
kn
j
~
X (k ) = ~
x ( n )e N
(1.9a)
n=0
1
~
x (k ) =
N
2
j
kn
~
X ( k )e N
N 1
(1.9b)
k =0
X ( z ) = x ( n) z n
(1.10)
n =0
j 2k
Nu chia X (z ) thnh N im trn vng trn n v, z k = e
, k = 0,1,..., N 1 , ta
, k = 0,1,..., N 1
(1.11)
c:
X (e
2
k
N
N 1
) = x ( n )e
2
kn
N
n =0
x(n + rN )
r =
12
(1.12)
2
k
N
X ( k ) = x ( n )e
2
kn
N
, k = 0,1,..., N 1
(1.13a)
n =0
1
x ( n) =
N
N 1
X ( k )e
2
kn
N
, n = 0,1,..., N 1
(1.13b)
k =0
iu khc bit duy nht gia biu thc (1.12) v (1.9) l k hiu (loi b k hiu ~ khi
ni n tn hiu tun hon) v gii hn hu hn 0 k N 1 v 0 n N 1 . Lu mt
iu l ch dng php bin i DFT cho tn hiu tun hon c tnh cht l module ca N .
x ( n) =
x(n + rN ) = x( n
k =
module N )
(1.14)
= x((n)) N
Bng 2.2 Chui v bin i DFT
1. Tuyn tnh
Chui tn hiu
Bin i N im DFT
aX 1 (k ) + bX 2 (k )
x((n + n0 )) N
2. Dch
3. o thi gian
4. Kt hp
2
kn0
N
X (k )
x((n)) N
X * (k )
x(m)h((n m))
X(k)H(k)
N 1
m =0
5. Nhn chui
x(n)w(n)
1 N 1
X (r )W ((k r )) N
N r =0
Cc m hnh ly mu v m ho thoi
(1.15)
13
t bng phng php s. Trong cc phn sau, ta b qua sai s lng ha pht sinh trong qu trnh
bin i A/D
Tn hiu
lin tc
Mch
lc
ya (t ) Mch
xa (t )
A/D
hiu s
D/A
lc
xa (t ) v x(n)
t = nT =
n
Fs
(1.16)
X ( ) =
x ( n )e
jn
(1.17)
n =
2
k = x(n)e j 2kn / N k = 0,1,..., N 1 (1.18)
N n=
Xt = 2k / N , ta c X
Xt tn hiu x p ( n) =
x(n) ti mi
l =
N mu, tn hiu ny tun hon vi chu k N , do c th c trin khai theo khai trin
Fourier
x p ( n) =
14
1
N
N 1
X( N
k =0
k )e j 2kn / N , n = 0,1,..., N 1
(1.19)
x'a (t )
15
Tn chun
Tc bit truyn
(kbps)
Cc ng dng
1972a
64
1984b
FS 1015 LPC
2.4
Lin lc bo mt
1987b
13
V tuyn di ng s
1990c
1990b
7.95
1990c
5.6
H thng t bo GSM
1990c
6.7
H thng t bo Nht
1991b
FS1016 CELP
4.8
Lin lc bo mt
1992b
16
1993b
1995a
ITU-T G.723.1
MLQ/ACELP
1995b
MP-
8.5, 4, 2, 0.8
5.3, 6.3
12.2
1996
7.4
1997b
FS MELP
2.4
Lin lc bo mt
1996
1999
ETSI AMR-ACELP
l c m t mt phn
l c gii thch y
c
l c m t ngn gn m khng c m t k thut chi tit
b
16
17
Hnh 1.20 M hnh chung ca b m ha m thoi. Hnh trn: b m ha, hnh di: b
gii m.
B gii m thc hin vic phn tch chui bit nhn c, cc ch s nh phn c phc
hi sau qu trnh phn tch v dng kt hp vi cc thng s tng ng ca b gii m c
18
1.2.2
19
y (t ) = Ai (t )e j ( t )
(1.20)
i =1
Vi i (t ) =
( )d ,
i
thnh phn sin th i . Trong thc t, tn hiu c xem xt l tn hiu ri rc thi gian thc, nh
vy ta c th vit li
I
(1.21)
i =1
nT
Vi i ( n) = i ( ) d + 0,i .
(1.22)
(1.23)
Hnh 1.21 Phn tch cc thnh phn hnh sin ca phn stochastic
20
Pht hin nh v ghp (Peak detection and continuation): thc hin vic phn tch
cc thnh phn hnh sin t tn hiu thng d, ta phi tm c v ghi ch li cc nh tn s ni
tri, tc l cc thnh phn hnh sin nm vai tr chnh trong cng thc phn tch c. Mt chin
thut c s dng thc hin iu ny l v bng ch dn trong cc khung STFT.
thc hin vic phn chia phn no l tn hiu, phn no l nhiu, cc tn s v pha phi
c xc nh mt cch chnh xc. Ngoi ra, qu trnh tng hp li hai tn hiu c n
gin, bin ca cc thnh phn nn c ni suy gia cc khung tn hiu, v php ni suy tuyn
tnh thng c s dng. Cc tn s cng nh pha ca tn hiu cng c th c ni suy, tuy
nhin cn phi lu l php ni suy tn s c nh hng cht ch n php ni suy pha.
Tng hp li cc thnh phn sin: Trong giai on tng hp li, cc thnh phn sin c th
c to bi bt k phng php no nh my to dao ng s, my to dao ng bng sng hoc
tng hp ly mu bng sng, hoc k thut da trn c s FFT. K thut FFT c s dng nhiu
do tnh tin li khi tn hiu c nhiu thnh phn hnh sin.
Trch tn hiu thng d (Extraction of the residual): Vic trch ph ca tn hiu nhiu
thng d c th c thc hin min tn (c m t trong hnh 1) hoc trc tip t min thi
gian.
S hiu chnh ph thng d (Residual spectral fitting): thnh phn stochastic c m
hnh ha l tn hiu nhiu bng rng, c lc bi khi c trng tuyn tnh. Ph cng ca tn
hiu thng d c th c xp x bng gi tr trung bnh ca hm piecewise-linear. Vic tng hp
trong min thi gian c th c thc hin bng php o FFT, sau khi n nh c mt tp
cng mong mun v mt tp pha ngu nhin.
Hiu chnh m thanh: m hnh sin l mt m hnh hu dng v n cho php p dng vic
truyn cc m thanh nhc ly t vic ghi bng thc t. Hnh 1.22 m t mt cc bc thc hn
cho vic hiu chnh tn hiu m nhc
Hnh 1.22 C cu t chc cho vic biu din vic truyn tn hiu m nhc
21
hin d dng bng cch tch ring thnh phn nt m xt ring. Thc t, hu ht cc dng c
m nhc m rng trng ca mt nt nhc khng lm nh hng n cht lng x l.
Vi l do ny, mt m hnh mi l sin + nhiu + nt m c pht ha dng trong vic
phn tch m thanh. tng chnh ca vic trch m m trong thc t t vic quan st rng, cc
tn hiu hnh sin trong min thi gian c nh x qua min tn thnh cc nh c v tr xc nh,
trong khi cc xung ngn i ngu trong min thi gian khi c nh x qua min tn li c
dng hnh sin. Nh vy, m hnh sin c th c ng dng trong min tn s biu din cc tn
hiu hnh sin. S ca vic phn tch SNT c m t trong Hnh 1.23.
Hnh 1.23 Phn tch tn hiu m thanh theo m hnh sin + nhiu + nt m
Khi DCT trong Hnh 1.23 m t hot ng ca php ri rc cosin.
Php bin i, c nh ngha nh sau:
N 1
(2n + 1)k
C (k ) = x(n) cos
2N
n =0
(1.24)
Php bin i DCT thc hin vic mt xung c bin i thnh dng cosin v ngc li.
1.2.2.2.1 My to dao ng s
Ta nhn thy mt m thanh phc tp uc tng hp t nhiu thnh phn hnh sin bng
php tng hp FTT-1. Nu nh cc thnh phn hnh sin khng qu nhiu, vic tng hp tng thnh
phn c thc hin bng cch ly gi tr trung bnh ca my to dao ng s.
e j ( n+1) = e j e j n
0
Vi e
j0 n
(1.25)
nh sau:
(1.26)
(1.27)
j 0 0
xR (n + 1) = 2 cos 0 xR (n) xR (n 1)
(1.28)
p ng xung ca b lc nh sau
H R ( z) =
1
1 2 cos 0 z + z
1
(1 e
1
j0 z 1
)(1 e )
j0 z 1
(1.29)
xR1 = sin (0 0 )
(1.30)
xR 2 = sin (0 20 )
(1.31)
My to dao ng dng sng hot ng lp li theo chu k qut bng dng sng l bi s ca gia
s I v c ni dung ca bng dng sng ti v tr .
23
I=
Bf 0
Fs
(1.32)
S thay i tn s ly mu
Bi ton thit k my to dao ng bng sng c th chuyn thnh bi ton thay i tn s
ly mu, v d nh bin i tn hiu c ly mu ti tn s ly mu Fs ,1 thnh tn hiu c ly
mu ti tn s Fs , 2 . Nu
Fs , 2
Fs ,1
L
, vi L v M l cc s nguyn ti gin, vic thc hin thay
M
s g ( n ) = ak g k ( n lk )
(1.33)
Khi s lng ht ln, th vic tnh ton s tr nn phc tp. Tnh cht ca cc ht v cc
v tr trong min thi gian quyt nh m sc ca m thanh. Vic la chn cc thng s ty thuc
vo cc tiu chun a ra bi cc m hnh th hin. Vic la chn cc m hnh biu din lin quan
n cc qu trnh hot ng m cc qu trnh ny c th nh hng n m thanh no theo
nhiu cch khc nhau.
Loi c bn v quan trng nht ca tng hp ht (tng hp ht bt ng b) l phn phi
cc ht khng theo quy lut trong min tn s -thi gian. Dng sng ht c dng
g k (i ) = d (i ) cos(2f k Ts i )
(1.34)
(1.35)
(n) = c Im cos(m n )
Hoc:
f (n) = f c If m cos(2f m n)
(1.36)
(1.37)
25
k
= A J 0 ( I ) sin(c n) + J k ( I ) sin ((c + km )n ) + ( 1) sin ((c km )n )
k =1
carrier
side frequencies
(1.38)
(1.39)
x(n) = A cos(0 n)
(1.40)
y (n) = F ( x(n ))
(1.41)
T0 ( x) = 1
(1.42)
T1 ( x) = x
(1.43)
Tn ( x) = 2 xTn1 ( x) Tn2 ( x) ,
(1.44)
Tn (cos ) = cos n
(1.45)
v c tnh cht:
Nh vy, vi tnh cht (31), nu hm mo phi tuyn l a thc Chebyshev cp m , gi
tr ng ra y c c bng cch s dng b dao ng sin x (n) = cos 0 n , nh vy
y (n) = cos(m0 n ) l hi bc m ca x .
Ph ca y(n) vi:
y (n) = hk cos(k0 n)
(1.46)
F ( x) = hk Tk ( x)
(1.47)
l:
k
Ngoi cc m hnh trn, cc m hnh vt l cng c p dng trong vic tng hp, x l
m thanh nh mch dao ng vt l, mch dao ng i v mch phn phi cng hng mt
chiu
1.2.3
Trong hu ht cc trng hp lin quan n x l thng tin, vic biu din tn hiu sao
cho m bo tnh tin li trong phn tch m vn khng lm mt i tnh cht ca tn hiu l iu
m cc nh khoa hc quan tm. Sng m thanh xut pht t li ni ca ngi c tnh cht t nhin
v ngu nhin nht. Phn tch ton hc thun tin nht l xem sng m thanh l mt hm s theo
bin thi gian t . Ta k hiu xa (t ) l dng sng tng t theo thi gian t .
27
( n) = 1 n = 0
= 0 ngc li
(1.48)
Chui bc n v c k hiu
u ( n) = 1 n 0
=0 n<0
(1.49)
Hm m
x( n) = a n
(1.50)
(1.51)
Nu a dng s phc, a = re
jw0
, th
0
28
Hnh 1.30 (a) Ly mu n v, (b) n v bc, (c) hm m thc v (d) hm sin suy gim
Hnh 1.31 S khi (a) h thng n ng vo/n ng ra; (b) h thng n ng vo/a ng ra
Khi h thng gm nhiu ng ra, tn hiu chui ng ra s c biu din bng mt vector
c m t nh Hnh 1.31.
H thng tuyn tnh dch bt bin l h thng c bit hu dng cho vic x l tn hiu m
thoi. H thng c c trng bi p ng xung, h(n) , khi tn hiu ng ra c tnh bi
cng thc
y ( n) =
x ( k ) h( n k ) = x ( n) * h( n)
(1.52a)
k =
29
y ( n) =
h( k ) x ( n k ) = h( n) * x ( n)
(1.52b)
k =
s [n] = ai s[n i]
(1.53)
i =1
e[n] = s[n] s[ n]
(1.54)
Hnh 1.33 B lc li d on
Li d on chnh l sai bit gia mu tht s v mu c lng. Hnh 1.33 m t lu
tn hiu thc hin b lc li d on. B lc c ng vo l tn hiu AR v ng ra chnh l tn
hiu li d on.
Ti thiu ho li
^
J = E {e [n]} = E s[n] + ai s[n i ]
i =1
(1.55)
31
M
J
(1.56)
2
E{s 2 [n]}
PG = 10 log10 s2 = 10 log10
2
{
}
E
e
n
[
]
(1.57)
(1.58)
Khi , li d on t gi tr ln nht.
iu kin ti u c th t c khi bc ca b d on ln hn hoc bng bc ca qu
trnh tng hp AR. Trong thc t, M thng l s cha bit trc. Mt phng php n gin
c th c lng c gi tr M t tn hiu ngun l v biu li d on nh l mt hm
ca bc d on. Vi phng php ny, ta c th quyt nh c bc ca d on ng vi li
bo ha, khi khi tng bc d on th li khng tng. Gi tr ca bc d on ti im tha
iu kin bo ha ny c xem l gi tr c lng tt nht cho bc ca tn hiu AR.
^
a2 [m]
...
aM [m]]
(1.59)
Vi M l bc d on
li d on
li d on ca b d on c cho bi cng thc
m 2
s [n]
PG[m] = 10 log10 n = mm N +1
2
e [n]
n = m N +1
(1.60)
Vi
^
(1.61)
i =1
a1 = 1.534
a2 = 1
a3 = 0.587
a4 = 0.347
a56 = 0.08
a6 = 0.061
a7 = 0.172
a8 = 0.156
a9 = 0.157
a10 = 0.141
Khung tng hp ca tn hiu AR c dng cho phn tch LP, vi tng cng l 240 mu.
c lng t ng tng quan khng hi qui s dng ca s Hamming. Phn tch LP c thc
hin vi bc t 2 n 20. Hnh 1.34 tm tt kt qu, vi li d on c tnh ton ti M = 2
v t gi tr cao nht ti M = 10 . Cc bc ln hn 10 khng cho c li cao hn na, cho
nn ta c th ch cn xt n M = 10 .
nh tr ban u: l = 0 , tp J 0 = R[0]
l = 1,2,..., M
o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , kl =
l 1
1
(R[l ]) + ai (l 1) R[l i ] ,
J l 1
i =1
ai( l ) = kl ;
ai( l ) = ai( l 1) kl al(l i 1) ; i 1,2,..., l 1
Dng nu l = M
o Bc 3: Tnh gi tr bnh phng trung bnh li d on tng ng vi
li gii ti bc l
J l = J j 1 (1 kl2 )
Gn l = l + 1 , quay li bc 1
i =0
Vi
34
e ( l ) [n]
= li d on s dng b lc d on li bc th l
ai(l )
= LPC ca b d on bc th l
(1.62)
R[k ]
nh l:
( l ) [k ] R[0]
(1.63)
M
M 1
( M 1) [0], ( M 1) [M ]
M 2
M 3
M 4
Gii thut:
nh tr ban u: l = 0 , tp
(0)
[k ] = R[k ], k = M + 1,..., M
l = 1,2,..., M
o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , kl =
( l 1) [l ]
e ( l 1) [0]
, dng khi l = M
( l ) [k ] = ( l 1) [k ] kl ( l 1) [l k ];
k = M + l + 1,...,0, l + 1,...M .
o Gn l = l + 1 , quay li bc 1
Trong cc bi ton ng dng thc t, gii thut Levison-Durbin dng trong iu kin du
chm tnh phi c cn nhc k sao cho m bo cc bin phi nm trong tm vc cho php.
1.3.2
H s lc: nh r p ng ca b lc tng hp
Chu k m thanh: trong trng hp i vi khung thoi, l chiu di thi gian gia
cc xung kch thch lin tip nhau.
36
37
Hnh 1.37 S ca mt khung m thanh phi thoi, Hnh bn tri: tn hiu nguyn thu; Hnh
bn phi: tn hiu tng hp. ng nt t l gi tr mt ph cng sut dng phng php d
on LPC.
Hnh 1.38 S khung tn hiu m thanh thoi. Hnh trn: tn hiu nguyn thy; Hnh di: tn
hiu tng hp.
38
Hnh 1.39 S ca mt khung m thanh thoi, Hnh bn tri: tn hiu nguyn thu; Hnh
bn phi: tn hiu tng hp. ng nt t l gi tr mt ph cng sut dng phng php d
on LPC.
p=
1
N
N 1
e [n]
2
(1.64)
n=0
p=
1
[N T ]T
[ N T ]T 1
e [n]
2
(1.65)
n =0
Vi []
l hm tnh gi tr nh hn hoc bng vi ton hng. Gi s rng N > T th vic
dng []
lun m bo rng vic tnh ton lun nm trong vng bin ca khung.
1.3.2.2.3 B gii m
Hnh 1.41 m t s khi ca b gii m theo m hnh to m LPC vi cc thng s
c iu khin bi lung bit. Gi s rng ca b to chui xung to ra cc xung c bin n
v, trong khi b to nhiu trng c tn hiu ng ra c bin khc i lng n v.
Vic tnh ton li c thc hin nh sau: i vi tn hiu l phi thoi, cng sut ca
tn hiu ca b lc tng hp phi bng vi li d on ca b m ha. K hiu li l g , ta c
g=
(1.66)
Cc phng php m ho
Dch v thoi l dch v c bn v quan trng nht trong cc dch v cung cp cho khch
hng ca cc nh khai thc di ng Vit Nam cng nh trn th gii. m bo h tr tt
khch hng nhm t c li th cnh tranh, cc nh khai thc di ng cn h tr tt dch v c
bn ny. Do , vic nh gi cc ch tiu cht lng cht lng thoi c vai tr rt quan trng.
Cc phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi c nhiu t chc vin thng (nh ITU,ETSI...)
nghin cu, xy dng. Trong phn ny trnh by mt s phng php nh gi cht lng thoi,
c bit l cho mng vin thng (c nh, di ng).
Vic nh gi cht lng thoi c vai tr rt quan trng i vi cc nh khai thc mng
thng tin di ng v c nh. V thoi l dch v thng tin c bn cho nn vic m bo cung cp
dch v ny vi cht lng n nh l mt yu t cnh tranh ca cc nh khai thc mng.
40
Phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c nhiu t chc tiu chun nh ITU-T,
ETSI, 3GPP thc hin chun ha. Bi bo phn tch bn cht ca mt s phng php nh gi
cht lng thoi c bn: phng php nh gi theo thang im MOS (Mean Opinion Score) da
trn khuyn ngh ITU-T P.800 [1], cc phng php nh gi da trn m hnh gic quan PSQM
(Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) theo khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861 [2], PESQ (Perceptual
Evaluation of Speech Quality) theo khuyn ngh ITU-T P.862 [3] v phng php da trn m
hnh nh gi truyn dn E-model theo tiu chun ETR 250 [4] ca ETSI. Cc phng php ny
c so snh v u nhc im v phm vi ng dng.
1.4.2
Ct ngng (clipping): l hin tng mt phn u hoc phn cui ca cm tn hiu thoi.
Nhiu nn...
1.4.3
Vic nh gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM cng nh cc h thng thng tin khc
(c nh v v tuyn) c th c thc hin bng cch nh gi cc tham s truyn dn c nh
hng n cht lng thoi v xc nh tc ng ca cc tham s ny i vi cht lng tng th.
Tuy nhin, vic nh gi tng tham s rt phc tp v tn km. Hin nay, vic nh gi cht
lng thoi c da trn mt tham s cht lng tng th l MOS (Mean Opinion Score).
Nhng phng php s dng MOS u mang tnh cht ch quan do chng ph thuc vo quan
im ca ngi s dng dch v. Tuy vy, chng ta c th phn chia cc phng php nh gi
cht lng thoi ra lm hai loi c bn:
41
b) Cc phng php c lng tuyt i: da trn vic c lng tuyt i cht lng
tn hiu thoi (phng php ny khng s dng cc tn hiu chun bit); vd: INMD (s
dng trong khuyn ngh P.561 ca ITU-T).
c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn: phng php ny xc nh gi tr cht lng thoi
mong mun da trn nhng hiu bit v mng; vd: m hnh ETSI Model.
Vic phn chia cc phng php nh gi c cho trn Trn thc t, cc thit b o c
th s dng kt hp nhiu phng php nh gi cht lng thoi. Tuy vy, trong cc phng
php ny th phng php so snh (hay cn gi l intrusive methods) c kt qu nh gi chnh
xc nht. Cc phng php nh gi cc cng c th c s dng cho mt s ng dng c th.
Hnh 1.41 Phn loi cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi: a) Cc phng php so snh, b)
Cc phng php c lng tuyt i, c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn
42
thang im cho trc. P.800 nh ngha mt s hnh thc nh gi cht lng thoi theo phng
php ch quan:
Phng thc phn loi theo suy hao (Degradation Category Rating (DCR)).
im nh gi
Rt tt
Tt
Chp nhn c
Ti
Rt ti
im nh gi
Khng cn c gng
Cn tng i tp trung
Cn tp trung
Khng hiu cu mu
Phng thc ny rt tn km, i hi nhiu ngi tham gia v thit lp phc tp.
Khi cn thc hin o thng xuyn cc tham s cht lng th vic s dng phng php
nh gi cht lng ny l khng thc t.
Nhng hn ch ca phng php nh gi cht lng thoi da trn MOS cho thy cn c
mt phng thc nh gi khch quan, phng php ny c th thc hin mt cch t ng
nh gi cht lng thoi.
45
46
Trong nhiu trng hp, s lng v chng loi cc thit b ny c xc nh ti thi im quy
hoch.
E-model da trn gi thit l cc tn hao truyn dn c th c chuyn i thnh
"psychological factors" v cc h s ny c tnh cng dn trn mt "psychological scale". Ni
cch khc, nhn thc ch quan v cht lng thoi c coi nh l tng hp ca cc tn hao
truyn dn.
E-model u tin thc hin tnh ton mt "gi tr gc" v cht lng (gi tr ny c xc
nh t nhiu trn mng). Mi tn hao thm vo c biu din di dng mt gi tr tn hao. Kt
qu ca php tr gi tr gc vi cc gi tr tn hao th hin c lng cht lng thoi cho mt
mng c th. Cui cng, kt qu cht lng thoi thu c c s dng c tnh t l thu
bao nh gi cht lng l tt hay ti. C th, E-model tnh mt h s nh gi truyn dn R nh
sau:
R = Ro - Is - Id - Ie + A
(1.67)
A cho php iu chnh cht lng trong nhng trng hp c bit nh thm vo cc yu
t phi k thut nh gi cht lng.
1.4.3.2.4 Kt lun
Phn 2.4.3.2 phn tch cc phng php nh gi cht lng c th s dng nh
gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM. Nh phn tch trn, im MOS l ch tiu cht lng
tng th c s dng nh gi cht lng thoi. Phng php nh gi ch quan s dng s
liu vo l nhn xt ca khch hng v mc cht lng t tnh ton ra im nh gi bnh qun
MOS. Cc phng php nh gi khch quan s dng cc m hnh tnh ton c lng ra mc
cht lng quy i v MOS.
Da trn nhng u nhc im v phm vi ng dng ca cc phng php ny, s
dng nh gi cht lng thoi cho mng GSM ca VNPT c th s dng cc phng php nh
gi nh sau:
d ( x, y ) =
(x
yi )
(1.68)
48
Bi ton c m t hnh 0, m t mt ma trn hai chiu theo thi gian s dng cho vic
canh chnh theo thi gian. Ct l m t cho ting ni mu (template) v dng l ting ni thu c
cn nhn dng. Trong hnh minh ha, tn hiu vo SsPEEhH c xem l mt dng nhiu ca
ting ni mu. Tn hiu vo ny s c so snh trng vi tt c cc mu ting ni c lu tr
trong h thng. Mu c tng thch tt nht s c sai bit nh nht so vi tn hiu vo cn
so snh. Gi tr sai bit ton cc l tng cc sai bit cc b ca vic so snh.
Hnh 1.44 M t canh chnh thi gian gia mu ting ni SPEECH v tn hiu ting ni u
vo SsPEEhH
Lm cch no c th tnh c tng thch tt nht (c gi tr sai bit ton cc
nh nht) gia tn hiu cn so snh v ting ni mu? Vic ny c thc hin bng cch c
lng tt c khong cch c th c, nhng cch ny khng hiu qu khi s lng khong cch c
dng hm m theo chiu di ca tn hiu ng vo. Thay vo , ta xem xt nhng rng buc tn
ti trong qu trnh so trng (hoc c th p t cc rng buc ny) v dng nhng rng buc ny
c c gii thut hiu qu hn. Cc rng buc c thit lp phi khng phc tp v cng
khng hn ch nhiu, nh:
Cc khong cch so trng khng th thc hin vic i lui;
Mi khung ca tn hiu cn so trng phi c dng trong qu trnh so trng;
Cc gi tr sai bit cc b c kt hp bng phng php cng dn vo gi tr sai bit
ton cc.
Mi khung trong tn hiu cn so trng vi mu ting ni c xem xt ng vi tng tnh
ton sai bit. Nu thi im ang xt l (i, j ) , vi i l ch s ca khung tn hiu ng vo, j l
ca khung ting ni mu, th cc v tr trc l (i 1, j 1), (i 1, j ) , (i, j 1) . tng
chnh ca lp trnh ng l ti v tr (i, j ) , vic tnh ton d trn sai bit nh nht ca cc v tr
(i 1, j 1), (i 1, j ) , (i, j 1) .
Gii thut lp trnh ng thc hin cn phi ng b thi gian: mi ct ca ma trn thi
gian-thi gian c xem nh l mt s k v cc tnh ton trc , do , ng vi mt mu ting
ni c chiu di N , s lng bc so trng ti a l N .
Gi D (i, j ) , d (i, j ) tng ng l sai bit ton cc v sai bit cc b ti v tr
(i, j ) .
(1)
49
Vi D(1,1) = d (1,1) l gi tr khi to ban u, gii thut ng dng qui vo vic tnh
ton cc sai bit ti D (i, j ) . Gi tr cui D ( n, N ) chnh l gi tr chnh lch gia template v
tn hiu cn so snh, lu rng N s khc nhau ng vi mi template.
i vi vic nhn dng ting ni, gii thut DP khng cn phi chy trn cc my tnh c
b nh ln, vic lu tr c thc hin bi mt array, lu gia tng ct n trong ma trn thi
gian-thi gian. Ma trn c v tr u tin c gi tr l 0, nh vy ch nhng hng di chuyn trong
ma trn c m t hnh 1 mi c th xut pht t v tr (i, j ) .
Hnh 1.45 Ba hng c tng thch tt nht c th i n t (i, j ) trong gii thut DTW
i xng.
Phng trnh (1) c thc hin bng phng php quy. Tuy nhin, tr khi ngn ng
c ti u cho vic quy, phng php ny c th tn nhiu thi gian ngay c i vi
nhng tn hiu cn so snh c kch thc nh. Mt phng php khc c th ci tin c tc
x l cng nh cn b nh thc thi nh hn l dng hai vng lp, s dng hai array lu tr cc
ct k vi ma trn thi gian-thi gian.
(2)
51
Hnh 1.47 Ba hng c gi tr so trng tt nht c th i n t (i, j ) trong gii thut DTW bt
i xng.
1.5.2
trng thi c th nhn thy c thng qua vic quan st cc trng thi, cho nn c gi l m
hnh Markov n.
Trong m hnh Markov n, cc k hiu sau y c s dng
-
{ }
Xc sut trng thi chuyn tip phi tha mn rng buc trc giao sau
aij 0,
-
1 i, j N v
a
j =1
ij
=1 ,
1 i N
b j (k ) = p{at = vk qt = j},
1 j N,
b j (k ) 0,
-
1 j N,
1 k M v
b (k ) = 1,
k =1
1 j N
Nu vic quan st l lin tc th phi dng hm mt xc sut lin tc thay cho xc sut
ri rc. Trong trng hp ny, cc thng s ca hm mt xc sut lin tc phi c
nh r. Thng thng mt xc sut xp x vi trng s tng M ca phn b Gaussian
b j (at ) = c jm ( jm , jm , at ) vi
m =1
c jm
= h s trng s
jm
jm
= ma trn ng bin
c jm tha cc iu kin c jm 0, 1 j N ,
-
1 m M v
c
m =1
jm
= 1,
1 i N
54
1 j N
1.5.3
Mng nron
56
gii hn, cho nn m hnh mng neuron nhn to so vi mng neuron ngi thuc dng l
tng v n gin hn.
59
CHNG 2: K THUT X L NH
2.1
Khi nim c bn v x l nh
Hnh nh tnh c th c biu din bi hm hai chiu f(x,y), trong , x v y l ta
khng gian phng (2 chiu). Khi xt nh "en-trng", gi tr hm f ti mt im c xc
nh bi ta (x,y) c gi l chi (mc xm) ca nh ti im ny. Nu x,y,v f l
mt s hin hu cc gi tr ri rc, chng ta c nh s. X l nh s l qu trnh bin i nh
s trn my tnh (PC). Nh vy, nh s c to ra bi mt s hu hn cc im nh, mi
im nh nm ti mt v tr nht nh v c 1 gi tr nht nh. Mt im nh trong mt nh
cn c gi l mt pixel.
H thng th gic l c quan cm nhn hnh nh quang hc tng i hon ho, cho
php con ngi cm nhn c hnh nh quang hc trong thin nhin. ng dng quan trng
nht ca x l nh l bin i tnh cht ca nh s nhm to ra cm nhn v s gia tng cht
lng hnh nh quang hc trong h thng th gic.
Tuy nhin, mt ngi ch cm nhn c sng in t c bc sng hn ch trong vng
nhn thy c, do nh theo quan nim thng thng gn lin vi hnh nh quang hc m
mt ngi c th cm nhn. Trong khi "nh" a vo x l c th c to ra bi cc
ngun bc x c ph rng hn, t sng v tuyn ti tia gamma, v d: nh do sng siu m
hoc tia X to ra. Nhiu h thng x l nh c th tng tc vi nhng "nh" nu trn, v vy
trn thc t, lnh vc x l nh c phm vi tng i rng, v lin quan ti nhiu lnh vc
khoa hc khc.
C th tm phn bit cc h thng x l nh theo mc phc tp ca thut ton x l
nh sau:
1- X l nh mc thp: l cc qu trnh bin i n gin nh thc hin cc b lc
nhm kh nhiu trong nh, tng cng tng phn hay nt ca nh. Trong trng hp
ny, tn hiu a vo h thng x l v tn hiu u ra l nh quang hc.
60
thi. nh chp t v tinh c th thu c thng qua cc thit b ghi hnh cm nhn c tia
sng quang hc ( = 450 520 nm ) (hnh 2a), hoc tia hng ngoi ( = 760 900 nm ) (hnh
2.2.1a
2.2.1b
62
2Tin x l nh: giai on x l tng i n gin nhm nng cao cht lng
nh tr gip cho cc qu trnh x l nng cao tip theo, v d: tng tng phn, lm ni
ng bin, kh nhiu v.v.
3Phn on: l qu trnh tch hnh nh thnh cc phn hoc vt th ring bit. y
l mt trong nhng vn kh gii quyt nht trong lnh vc x l nh. Nu thc hin tch
qu chi tit th bi ton nhn dng cc thnh phn c tch ra tr nn phc tp, cn ngc li
nu qu trnh phn on c thc hin qu th hoc phn an sai th kt qu nhn c
cui cng s khng chnh xc.
4Biu din v m t: l qu trnh x l tip sau khu phn on hnh nh. Cc vt
th sau khi phn an c th c m t di dng chui cc im nh to nn ranh gii mt
vng, hoc tp hp tt c cc im nh nm trong vng . Phng php m t thng qua
ranh gii vng thng c s dng khi cn tp trung s ch vo hnh dng bn ngai ca
chi tit nh nh cong, cc gc cnh v.v. Biu din vng thng c s dng khi chng ta
quan tm ti c tnh bn trong ca vng nh nh ng vn (texture) hay hnh dng skeletal.
5Nn nh - bao gm cc bin php gim thiu dung lng b nh cn thit lu
tr hnh nh, hay gim bng thng knh truyn, cn thit truyn tn hiu hnh nh s.
6Nhn dng: l qu trnh phn loi vt th da trn c s cc chi tit m t vt th
(v d cc phng tin giao thng c trong nh).
Cc qu trnh x l lit k trn u c thc hin di s gim st v iu khin da
trn c s cc kin thc v lnh vc x l nh. Cc kin thc c bn c th n gin nh v tr
vng nh ni c nhng thng tin cn quan tm, nh vy c th thu nh vng tm kim.
Trng hp phc tp hn, c s kin thc c th cha danh sch tt c nhng h hng c th
gp trong qu trnh kim sat cht lng thnh phm hoc cc nh v tinh c chi tit cao
trong cc h thng theo di s thay i mi trng trong mt vng. Ngoi vic iu khin
hat ng ca tng modul x l nh (hnh 2.1.3), c s kin thc cn s dng thc hin
vic iu khin tng tc gia cc modules. Trong hnh 2.1.3, qu trnh iu khin ni trn
c biu din bng mi tn hai chiu.
63
Cc phn t ca h thng x l nh s
Cu trc mt h thng x l nh a dng dng thc hin cc giai on x l nh
cp trn c m t trn hnh 2.1.4.
B nh
ngoi
Mn hnh
hin th
B nh
trong
My tnh
Phn mm
x l nh
B x l
hnh nh
chuyn dng
Thit b thu
nhn hnh nh
64
+U
Mt chui t in MOS phn b u trn b mt chip CCD c biu din trn hnh
2.1.6a, mi t in vi b mt cm quang l m bn dn s to ra mt im trn hnh nh thu
c.Theo phng php dch chuyn in tch, cc chip CCD c th chia ra lm hai loi:
CCD dng chui (mt chiu) v dng ma trn (hai chiu).
Trn Hnh 2.1.6a l cu trc chip CCD dng chui, qu trnh ghi (tch in) v c c
thc hin ti hai khu vc khc nhau, gi l min tch in v min nh. Hai khu vc trn c
ngn cch bi cng chuyn dch. Sau khi kt thc qu trnh tch in ti cc phn t cm
quang, in tch s c truyn song song qua cng chuyn dch vo thanh dch ngang (khng
nhy cm vi nh sng) tc min nh. Sau khi cng chuyn dch ng li, qu trnh ghi v
c ti hai min ni trn s c tin hnh song song.
65
Chip CCD s dng trong my quay video thng c cu trc ma trn (hnh 2.16b). Cc
phn t cm quang trong CCD tp hp thnh ma trn hai chiu, qu trnh c tn hiu c
thc hin theo chiu ngang v chiu dc. C nhiu cch t chc qu trnh ghi v c tn hiu
trong CCD, nhng ph bin nht l phng php dch chuyn tng nh. Khi s dng phng
php ny, trong chip CCD c thit k mt min nh, khng tip xc vi nh sng v c
din tch bng min tch ly l ma trn cc phn t cm quang.
in tch thu c ti min tch ly c chuyn v min nh. Sau , qu trnh ghi
nh ti min tch ly v c nh t min nh vo thanh dch ngang s c tin hnh song
song.Tng dng nh c dch chuyn xung thanh dch ngang, sau cc gi in tch ng
vi cc im trong dng nh s c y ra ln lt khi thanh dch. Sau khi ton b nh
trong min nh c c ra ht, mt nh mi t min tch ly s li c chuyn v y.Vi
nhng tnh nng vt tri trc ng ghi hnh in t c in, linh kin bin i - quang in
CCD c s dng rt rng ri trong cng ngh truyn hnh v nh s. Hu ht cc camera
quay video dn dng v bn chuyn nghip (semi-professional) c thit k trn c s chip
CCD.
B nh trong v ngoi trong cc h thng x l nh s thng c dung lng rt ln
dng lu tr nh tnh v ng di dng s. V d, lu mt nh s en trng kch thc
1024x1024 im, mi im c m ha bng 8 bits cn b nh ~1MB. lu mt nh mu
khng nn, dung lng b nh phi tng ln gp 3. B nh s trong h thng x l nh c th
chia lm 3 loi: 1- b nh m trong my tnh lu nh trong qu trnh x l. B nh ny
phi c kh nng ghi/c rt nhanh (v d 25 hnh/s); 2- b nh ngoi c tc truy cp
tng i nhanh, dng lu thng tin thng dng. Cc b nh ngoi c th l cng, th
nh flash v.v.. 3- B nh dng lu tr d liu. Loi b nh ny thng c dung lng ln,
tc truy cp khng cao. Thng dng nht l a quang ghi 1 ln (ROM) hoc nhiu ln
(ROM) nh a DVD c dung lng 4.7GB (mt mt). Ngoi ra trong h thng x l nh cn
s dng cc thit b cho php lu nh trn vt liu khc nh giy in, giy in nhit, giy trong,
c th l my in phun, in laser, in trn giy nh c bit bng cng ngh nung nng v.v.
66
B x l nh chuyn dng:
X dng chip x l nh chuyn dng, c kh nng thc hin nhanh cc lnh chuyn
dng trong x l nh. Cho php thc hin cc qu trnh x l nh nh lc, lm ni ng bao,
nn v gii nn video s v.v.. Trong b x l nh thng tch hp b nh m c tc cao.
Mn hnh hin th: H thng bin i in - quang hay n hnh (en trng cng nh
mu) c nhim v bin i tn hiu in c cha thng tin ca nh (tn hiu video) thnh hnh
nh trn mn hnh. C hai dng display c s dng rng ri l n hnh CRT (Cathode-Ray
Tube) v mn hnh tinh th lng LCD (Liquid Crystal Display). n hnh CRT thng c kh
nng hin th mu sc tt hn mn hnh LCD nn c dng ph bin trong cc h thng x
l nh chuyn nghip.
My tnh: c th l my tnh bn cng nh siu my tnh c chc nng iu khin tt
c cc b phn chc nng trong h thng x l nh s.
2.1.5
Biu din nh s
Trong phn ny, chng ta s cp ti mt s nhng kin thc c bn v k hiu c
s dng trong lnh vc x l nh. l cc vn v nh sng, mu sc, kh nng tip thu
hnh nh quanh hc ca h thng th gic. Tip theo l qu trnh bin i nh analog thnh tn
hiu nh s, cch biu din hnh nh s, nh hng ca qu trnh ly mu v lng t ha ti
cht lng nh s. Ngoi ra, trong phn ny s xt ti quan h tng quan gia cc im nh,
nhng kin thc c bn ny s c s dng rng ri trong cc phn sau ca bi ging ny.
2.1.5.1 nh sng, mu sc v hnh nh
Ph ca cc sng in t trong thin nhin tri di t tia gamma (10-12 m) n sng
radio (10-4-104 m). Mt ngi ch cm nhn c nhng sng in t c bc sng t 380
nm (tia mu tm) n 780 nm (tia mu ) (hnh 2.1.7).
dng
460
luc
500
vang
590
cam
630
o
700
o nhay
tm
380
1.5
1.0
4
3
0.5
Bc song (nm)
400
500
600
700
( ) =
dP ( )
d
- bc sng (m);
68
(Watt/m)
(2.1.1)
P ( )
Cng sut ton phn ca ngun nh sng c ph lin tc (nh sng mt tri, ng sng
n t nng v.v.) s bng:
P =
780
( ) d
(2.1.2)
370
F = K V ( ) ( ) d
(lumen 1)
(2.1.3)
370
V ( )
I=
dF
, (candela 2)
d
- gc khi; d =
(2.1.4)
dS
(sr steradian)
r2
69
n
d
dSo
dS
dF
4 r 2
= 4 , do sng trung bnh ca ngun im 3 s
Gc khi ln nht l =
2
r
bng ton b quang thng chia cho gc 4:
I tb =
FA FA
=
4
I tb =
Fa 800 1500
=
= 60 120 candela
4
4
E=
dF
(lux 4)
dS
(2.1.5)
Ngun im l ngun sng c kch thc (d) nh hn nhiu ln so vi khong cch (l) n b mt c
chiu sng (l 10d).
4
70
dS0 dS cos
=
;
r2
r2
dF Id I dS cos
=
=
ES =
dS
dS dS
r2
I cos
ES =
r2
(2.1.6)
Bng 2.1.1
Vt c ri sng
ri (lx)
40-200
2000
Trang sch lc c
30
1000
Vt th ngoi nng
100000
chi L l i lng c trng cho b mt pht sng (trong khi ri c trng cho
b mt c chiu sng).
chi l mt sng trn b mt pht sng. chi c trng cho mc sng
ca ngun sng. Cho b mt pht sng S0. Theo hng trc giao vi S0, chi s bng:
L0 =
I0
S
(candel / m 2 )
(2.1.7)
chi (cd/m2)
10-30
Bng hnh TV
40-80
Si tc n chiu sng
5 106- 107
Mt tri
1.5 109
71
Trn phng din sinh hc (cm gic ch quan), nh sng c cm nhn thng qua ba
i lng chnh l: sng, sc mu v bo ha mu.
sng ph thuc vo cng sut ca ngun sng, ngun sng trng 500 W s c
sng ln hn ngun sng trng 15 W.
Sc mu (sc iu) l tnh cht c trng ca mu m qua ta nhn bit c mu ,
xanh, vng v.v.
bo ha mu l cng v sc mu qua ta c th phn bit c mu thm
hay mu nht v.v.
Khi nh gi v s lng ca cc i lng trn (bng cch o lng khch quan)
chng ta s s dng ba khi nim tng ng l: chi, bc sng tri v sch ca
mu. Sc iu ca ngun sng tng ng vi bc sng c nng lng ln nht trong
ph ca ngun sng , i lng ny c gi l bc sng tri . bo ha ca mt
mu c bc sng tri c tnh bng:
p = F / ( F + FE )
(2.1.8)
p l sch mu, i lng xc nh s lng nh sng trng trong ngun sng hay
pha long ca ngun sng . Nh vy, mu quang ph s c sch l p = 100% , i vi
mu trng p = 0 .
Da trn nhng tnh cht ca h th gic nh phn gii, tnh lu nh v thuyt ba
thnh phn cm nhn mu, to ra cm gic v mt mu no , ngi ta c th thc hin
pha trn cc mu c bn theo nhng phng php sau:
1.
72
Phng php tr
f F = r R + g G + b B
(2.1.9)
R = 700 nm
G = 546,1 nm
B = 435,8 nm
Ba mu trn c gi l ba mu c bn. Mi mu c bn s c mt mu b xung tng
ng, khi pha trn mu c bn v mu b xung ca n chng ta s nhn c mu trng. Cc
cp mu c bn v mu b xung l: L (Cyan), Lc Mn chn (Magenta), Lam Vng
(Yellow).
nh lut th hai: S bin i lin tc ca cc h s cng sut ca cc mu c bn s
dn dn s bin i lin tc ca mu sc tng hp, n chuyn t mu ny sang mu khc.
Khi thay i cng sut ca cc ngun sng c bn nhng gi nguyn t l cng sut th
mu tng hp s khng thay i sc , ch c s thay i v chi m thi. V vy, t l
tng i gia ba mu c bn R:B:G s quyt nh mu sc ca mu tng hp.
nh lut th ba: Mu sc tng hp ca nhiu ngun sng ch xc nh bi cc thnh
phn mu sc ca tng ngun sng ch khng ph thuc vo thnh phn ph ca chng.
Theo nh lut ny ta c th d dng nh lng mu sc ca nh sng tng hp c
to ra khi pha trn nhiu ngun sng vi nhau.
Cho phng trnh so mu ca 2 ngun sng l:
F = F1 + F2 = ( r1 + r2 ) R + ( g1 + g2 ) G + ( b1 + b2 ) B
(2.1.10)
L = LR + LG + LB
74
f'F
F
E
0
B
f F = r R + g G + b B
(2.1.11)
g
g
= ;
g=
r + g + b m
b
b
=
b=
r + g + b m
r=
(2.1.12)
m = r + g + b = f - chi ca mu.
Chia (2.1.11) cho m ta nhn c mu F:
F = rR + gG + bB
(2.1.13)
75
N v im trng ng
nng E, im N1 l im ct ca ng EN v BG s c sc iu tng ng im N,
nhng sch mu thp hn ( pN1 < pN ). Ni cch khc, bc sng tri ca tt c cc im
mu nm trn ng thng NE s bng
N - tc bc sng ca mu quang ph N. Nh vy
A
500
r,g,b
550
1.5
N2
N
N1
450
1.0
F
C
0.5
0
-0.5
600
-1.0
-1.5
400
r
500
600
, nm
pN1 =
N1E
100%
NE
(2.1.14)
ba ta mu r , g, b ca tt cc mu .
khc phc nhng nhc im ca h mu RGB, nm 1931, CIE xut mt
khng gian mu mi, k hiu l khng gian XYZ. Khi thit k biu mu mi ngi ta t
ra nhng yu cu nh sau:
1.
Tt c cc mu thc phi c xc nh bi cc modul mu c gi tr dng.
Nh vy ta mu ca tt c cc mu thc (nm pha trong ng mu quang ph) phi
nm trong tam gic mu XYZ.
2.
3.
77
X
Z
y
1.0
y
0.8
0.6
E
0.4
0.2
0.4
600
78
580
yE
700
0.2
700
x
F1
0.6 y
1
550
500
520
x1
0.2 xE 0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
vong mac
hoang iem
thau knh
truc nhn
iem mu
than kinh
th giac
thuy tinh
dch
mo mac
79
Hnh 2.1.20
Lmin Lmax xung quanh mc chi trung bnh ca nh, khong ny ta gi l phm vi ng
ca mt. i vi hnh nh c mc chi trung bnh no , tt c mc chi ln hn Lmax s
cm nhn nh mc trng, tt c mc chi nh hn Lmin s c cm nhn nh mc en. Khi
mc chi trung bnh thay i, mt ngi s t ng iu tit di chuyn phm vi ng theo
mc chi trung bnh. y chnh l tnh cht thch nghi vi sng ca mt ngi. Th nghim
cho thy, khi mc sng tng ln, thi gian mt iu tit thch nghi vi mc mi rt nhanh
(khong vi giy). Ngc li, khi mc chiu sng gim th mt iu tit thch nghi tng
i chm (vi pht).
Nh ni trn, mt c nhy khc nhau vi cc tia bc x c bc sng khc nhau
( th 1, Hnh 2.1.21). Nhng khi cng nh sng nh (vng scotopic) th nhy ca
mt di chuyn v pha nh sng c bc sng ngn hn ( th 2, Hnh 2.1.21).
Ln+ L
81
m=
ln k
+1
ln (1 + )
(2.1.15)
Thay vo cng thc (2.1.15) gi tr tng phn trung bnh ca hnh nh trn display
k = 100 , gi tr ngng tng phn = 0.03...0.04 , ta nhn c s sc xm cc i
mt cm nhn c s l m = 100 150 .
Trn thc t, tng phn k v s lng mc xm m b hn ch bi:
ngoi.
k =
82
Lmax + Lng
L
< k = max ,
Lmin + Lng
Lmin
f ( x, y ) = i ( x, y ) r ( x, y )
vi 0 < i ( x , y ) < , 0 < r ( x , y ) < 1
84
a)
b)
L = f L ( x , y, z , t ) ;
= f ( x, y, z, t ) ;
p = f p ( x , y, z , t ) .
(2.1.16 )
L = f L ( x , y, t ) .
Hnh 2.1.25
86
Hnh 2.1.27 Tn hiu hnh nh ri rc trong khng gian (theo dng) v thi gian (theo
mnh)
Tn hiu video c to ra ti ng ghi hnh bng phng php qut xen k, tuyn tnh t
tri sang phi, trn xung di l hm ca thi gian, gi tr hm t l thun vi chi ca
cc phn t nh truyn hnh. Tn hiu video y (Hnh 2.1.28) s bao gm cc thnh phn
sau: tn hiu video, tn hiu ng b dng v mnh, tn hiu xo. Trong tn hiu video mu
cn c thm thnh phn mang tin tc v mu sc ca cc dng nh.
87
- Tn hiu video l tn hiu mang tnh cht xung: ngoi cc xung ng b v xung xa,
trong tn hiu video thng c s thay i bin t ngt, to ra bin trc v bin sau ca
cc "xung hnh";
- Tn hiu video l tn hiu n cc, c thnh phn mt chiu;
- Tn hiu video c th c coi l tn hiu tun hon vi tn s lp li l
f H = 1/ T H ; fV = 1/ TV ;
Tn hiu video tng t cng nh tn hiu nh tnh phi c s ha trc khi a vo
h thng x l s.Cng nh trong cc h thng x l tn hiu mt chiu, qu trnh s ha tn
hiu hnh nh cng chia thnh 3 giai an:
1- Ri rc tn hiu trong min khng gian 2 chiu, y l qu trnh ly mu
2- S lng v hn cc mc xm trong tn hiu hnh nh tng t c thay bng s
lng hu hn cc mc lng t y l qu trnh lng t ha tn hiu
3- Mi mc lng t c biu din bng mt s nh phn - m ha tn hiu
So vi tn hiu mt chiu, qu trnh s ha tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian hai chiu
c th c thc hin vi nhiu cu trc ly mu khc nhau v cc bc lng t khc nhau
nhm gim dung lng tn hiu s nhn c. Tuy nhin, trn thc t cu trc ly mu trong
a s trng hp c dng truc giao (hnh ch nht) vi gi tr bc lng t khng thay i,
v khi qu trnh s ha s n gin nht. Khi s dng cu trc ly mu trc giao, nh s
nhn c di dng ma trn cc im nh phn b theo dng v ct.
Qu trnh ly mu tn hiu video phi tha mn nh l ly mu Nyquist. V d: Tn
hiu video h PAL c b rng ph B PAL = 5.0 MHz do tn s ly mu theo Nyquits phi
10MHz .
Trn thc t, tn s ly mu thng c la chn cao hn tng khong cch gia
di ph chnh v ph ph ca tn hiu video ri rc, khi thnh phn ph chnh c th c
tch ra (trong qu trnh khi phc nh gc) bng cc mch lc thng thp n gin. Ngoi ra,
tn hiu video tng hp (bao gm thnh phn mu) c ly mu vi tn s l bi s ca tn
s sng mang ph fs (sng mang mu). Vi h PAL, tn s ly mu s l 3 fs (13,3 MHz)
hoc 4 fs (17,7 MHz).
Trong h thng s ha tn hiu video theo thnh phn, ba tn hiu R, G, B hoc thnh
phn chi Y v hai tn hiu hiu mu R-Y, B-Y s c ly mu vi tn s p ng nh l
Nyquist v l bi s ca tn s dng theo c 2 tiu chun 525 v 625 dng/ nh. Tiu chun
CCIR-601 cho php s dng tn s ly mu l 13,5 MHz. S bt m ha tn hiu video l 8
hoc 10 bt.
Cc tiu chun ly mu video thnh phn: c nhiu tiu chun ly mu theo thnh phn,
imkhc nhau ch yu t l gia tn s ly mu v phng php ly mu tn hiu chi v
tn hiu mu (hoc hiu mu): l cc tiu chun 4:4:4, 4:2:2, 4:2:0, 4:1:1.
88
89
( x, y ) = (1,1) .
90
f ( 0,0 )
f ( 0,1)
...
f ( 0, N 1)
f (1,1) ...
f (1, N 1)
f (1,0 )
f ( x, y ) =
(2.1.17)
a0,N 1
a1, N 1
aM 1,N 1
(2.1.18)
91
y ( m, n ) = T x ( m, n )
(2.1.19)
T ax1 ( m, n ) + bx2 ( m, n ) = aT x1 ( m, n ) + bT x2 ( m, n ) =
= ay1 ( m, n ) + by2 ( m, n )
(2.1.20)
a v b l cc hng s bt k.
Cc ton t thc hin vi nh 2 chiu thng c tnh cht tuyn tnh, v d cc php
dch chuyn trong khng gian, php chp, cc php bin i cng nh nhiu qu trnh lc
tuyn tnh m chng ta s xt cc chng sau.
92
khi m = n
1
0
( m, n ) =
khi m n
(2.1.21)
h [ m, n ] = T ( m, n )
(2.1.22)
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m, l ; n, k )
(2.1.23)
l =0 k =0
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
(2.1.24a)
l =0 k =0
hay
y ( m , n ) = x ( m, n ) h ( m , n )
(2.1.24b)
a) Vector
Vector ct (ma trn ct) f , kch thc Nx1 l tp hp cc phn t f ( n ) vi n=1, 2, ...,
N sp xp theo ct dc:
93
f
.
f =
f
.
f
(1)
(2)
( j)
( N )
(2.1.25)
Vector dng (ma trn dng) h, kch thc 1xN l tp hp cc phn t f ( n ) vi n=1, 2,
...,N sp xp theo dng ngang: h = h (1) , h ( 2 ) ..h ( j ) ..h ( N )
(2.1.26)
b) Ma trn
Ma trn F, kch thc MxN l tp hp cc phn t F(m,n) vi m=1,2,..,M, n=1,2,...,N
c sp xp thnh M hng v N ct nh sau:
F ( 2, N )
F ( 2,1) F ( 2,2 ) .....
F=
...............................................
F ( M ,1) F ( M ,2 ) ..... F ( M , N )
(2.1.27)
94
C ( m, n ) = A ( m, p )B ( p, n )
(2.1.28)
p =1
>> B= magic(3)
>> A*B
A=
B=
ans =
15 15 15
15 15 15
>> A= magic(3)
>> B=eye(3,3)
>> A*B
A=
B=
ans =
>> inv(A)
>> A*inv(A)
A=
ans =
ans =
-2
1.5 -0.5
Cho ma trn bt k:
Ma trn chuyn v AT
>> A'
A=
ans =
ans =
14 32
32 77
k = g Tf = f Tg ,
N
k = g(n)f (n)
(2.1.29)
n =1
1 1
1
V d: 2 . 3 =[1 2 3] 3 = [ 22 ]
3 5
5
h) Tch ma trn ca hai vector f kch thc Mx1 v g kch thc Nx1 l ma trn:
A=gf T ,
A(m, n) = g ( m ) f ( n )
(2.1.30)
1 1 1
1 3 4
V d: 2 X 3 = 2 [1 3 4] = 2 6 8
3 5 3
3 9 12
i) Tch chp hai ma trn
Nh chng ta bit, i vi cc h thng x l tn hiu ri rc tuyn tnh v bt bin
quan h gia p ng (dy ra) v kch thch (dy vo) ca h thng c m t theo (2.1.23):
N 1 N 1
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
(2.1.31)
l =0 k =0
x(n,m)
1
2
-1
1 -1 1
y(1,1)=
-1x1= -1
m
-1
x(n,m)
h(-n,-m)
1
h(1-n,1-m)
h(1-n,2-m)
1
y(1,2)=
(1x1)+(-1x2)= -1
h(n,m)
-1
m
1
3
h=
x=
1
-1
y=
-1 -1
-1
97
0 1
0 n 1
vn = 1 n
0 n + 1
0 N
2
[0 ]
[0 ]
1 0 0
th
0 1 0
n unit matrix
Nn =
0
0
1
[0 ]
[0 ]
(2.1.32)
(2.1.33)
f = N n Fv n
(2.1.34)
n =1
F= NTn f v Tn
(2.1.35)
n=1
98
1
0
0
1 4 7
F = 2 5 8 , v1 = 0 ; v 2 = 1 ; v 3 = 0 ,
0
0
1
3 6 9
1
0
0
N1 = 0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1
0
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 ; N 2 = 0 1 0 ; N 3 = 0 0 0
0
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0
0
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
0
N2
f= N n Fv n = N1 Fv1 + N 2 Fv 2 + N 3 Fv 3
n=1
1
0
0
N1 Fv1 = 0
0
0
0
0
0 0
1
0
1 0
0
0 1
0 0 1 4 7 1 0
0 0 2 5 8 0 = 0
0 0 3 6 9 0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 0
1
2
1 0
3
0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 2 = 0
0 0 3 0
0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
Tng t ta c: N 2 Fv 2 = 5 ; N 3Fv 3 = 0
6
0
0
7
0
8
0
9
1
2
3
4
f = 5
6
7
8
9
99
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
l =0 k =0
x ( 0,0 )
h ( m 0, n 0 )
x (1,0 )
h ( m 1, n 0 )
x 2,0
h m 2, n 0
)
( )
(
x ( 0,1)
h ( m 0, n 1)
x = x (1,1) hm ,n = h ( m 1, n 1)
x ( 2,1)
h ( m 2, n 1)
x 0,2
h m 0, n 2
)
( )
(
x (1,2 )
h ( m 1, n 2 )
x ( 2,2 )
h ( m 2, n 2 )
C th thy rng, ma trn cc im nh X ng vi hm 2 chiu x ( m, n ) - c bin
i theo (2.1.34) nhn c vector x. Nu ma trn nh Y ng vi y ( m, n ) cng c
biu din tng t th vector hm ,n s bin i thnh ma trn H:
h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 )
h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 )
h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 )
h ( 0,1) h ( 1,1)
H = h (1,1) h ( 0,1)
h ( 2,1) h (1,1)
h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 )
h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 )
h ( 2, 2 ) h (1, 2 )
h ( 2,0 ) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 2, 1)
h ( 1,0 ) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1)
h ( 0,0 ) h ( 2, 1) h (1, 1)
h ( 0, 1)
h ( 2,1) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h ( 2,0 )
h ( 1,0 )
h ( 1,1) h (1,0 )
h ( 0,0 )
h ( 0,1)
h ( 2,0 )
h (1,0 )
h ( 0,0 )
h ( 2, 2 ) h ( 0,1)
h ( 1,1)
h ( 2,1)
h ( 1, 2 ) h (1,1)
h ( 0,1)
h ( 1,1)
h ( 0, 2 )
h ( 2,1)
h (1,1)
h ( 0,1)
h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h ( 2, 2 )
h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 )
h ( 2, 2 ) h (1, 2 )
h ( 0, 2 )
h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 2, 1)
h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1)
h ( 2, 1) h (1, 1)
h ( 0, 1)
h ( 0,0 )
h ( 1,0 )
h ( 2,0 )
h (1,0 )
h ( 0,0 )
h ( 1,0 )
h ( 2,0 )
h (1,0 )
h ( 0,0 )
(2.1.37)
Khi , phng trnh (2.1.23) c rt ngn nh sau:
y = Hx
100
(2.1.38)
H 00
H = H10
H 20
H 01
H11
H 21
H 02
H12
H 22
(2.1.39)
m k = 0
n = 0
k = 0
H=
m
n = 1
k = 0
n = N 1
m k = 1
n = 0
m k = 1
n = 1
l
m k = 1
n = N 1
m k = N 1
n = 0
m k = N 1 (2.1.40)
n =1
m k = N 1
n = N 1
y = HN n Xv n
(2.1.41)
n =1
Ngoi ra, s dng (2.1.35) chng ta c th biu din ma trn Y thng qua vector y ca
nh:
N
Y= M Tm y u Tm
(2.1.42)
m=1
) (
Y= M Tm HN n X v n u Tm
m=1 n =1
(2.1.43)
Y= H m,n X v n u Tm
m=1 n =1
(2.1.44)
h ( m, l ; n, k ) = hc ( m, l ) hr ( n, k )
N 1
(2.1.45)
N 1
y ( m, n ) = hc ( m, l ) x ( l , k ) hr ( n, k )
l =0
(2.1.46)
k =0
hr 0,0
h 0, 1 ... h 1, 1
cN N
c N
hr 0,1
H =
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
hr 0, N 1
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
h
h
...
c 0,0 c N 1,0
hrN 1,1
= h T hT
r
c
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
hrN 1, N 1
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
hrN 1,0
h 0, 1 ... h 1, 1
cN N
c N
(2.1.47)
F (u) =
f (x)e
j 2 ux
dx
(2.1.48)
f (x) =
F (u) e
j 2 ux
du
102
(2.1.49)
Cng thc (2.1.48) c gi l khai trin thun Fourier cn (2.1.49) khai trin nghch
Fourier.
Khai trin Fuorier 2 chiu (2D) c s dng tng i rng ri trong cc qu trnh x
l nh nh lc, xc nh bin nh, nn nh v.v. Cp bin i Fourier lin tc 2 chiu thun v
nghch s l:
F ( u, v ) =
f ( x, y ) e
j 2 ( ux+vy )
dxdy
(2.1.50)
f ( x, y ) =
F ( u, v ) e
j 2 ( ux+vy )
dudv
(2.1.51)
V d: Bin i Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu (hnh 3.1.24a)
c dng nh trn (Hnh 2.1.24b).
a)
b)
Hnh 2.1.24 Ph Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu.
i vi tn hiu ri rc, mt bin, cp khai trin Fourier thun v nghch c dng nh
sau:
1
F (u) =
M
M 1
M 1
f ( x)e
j 2
ux
M
vi u = 0,1,2...M 1 ,
(2.1.52)
x =0
f ( x ) = F (u)e
j 2
ux
M
vi x = 0,1,2...M 1
(2.1.53)
u =0
thc hin khai trin Fourier, chng ta phi s dng M2 php nhn v php cng.
F (u) = F (u) e
j ( u )
(2.1.54)
Modul F ( u ) = R 2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )
1/ 2
c gi l ph bin , cn hm
I (u)
( u ) = arctg
gi l ph pha ca hm f(u). I(u) v R(u) l thnh phn thc v
R
u
(
)
o ca F(u).
Mt i lng khc c th suy ra t ph Fourier l ph cng sut ca tn hiu P(u):
P ( u ) = F ( u ) = R2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )
2
(2.1.55)
Ph nng lng cho chng ta thy phn b cng sut ca tn hiu trong min tn s.
Bin i Fourier c th c m rng cho hm f ( x , y ) c 2 bin. Khi f ( x , y ) lin
tc v ly tch phn c th cp bin i Fourier 2 chiu thun v nghch s l:
F ( u, v ) =
f ( x, y ) e
j 2 ( ux+vy )
dxdy
(2.1.56)
f ( x, y ) =
F ( u, v ) e
j 2 ( ux+vy )
dudv
(2.1.57)
u, v l bin tn s.
Cng nh trng hp bin i Fourier 1 chiu, ta c ph bin , ph pha v ph cng
sut cho trng hp 2 chiu:
F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
1/ 2
(2.1.58)
I ( u,v )
( u, v ) = arctg
R ( u, v )
(2.1.59)
P ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
(2.1.69)
1
F ( u, v ) =
MN
104
M 1 N 1
f ( x, y ) e
x =0 y =0
ux vy
j 2 +
M N
(2.1.70)
f ( x, y ) =
M 1 N 1
F ( u, v ) e
ux vy
j 2 +
M N
(2.1.71)
u =0 v =0
F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
1/ 2
(2.1.72)
I ( u, v )
( u, v ) = arctg
R ( u, v )
(2.1.73)
P ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
(2.1.74)
F ( 0,0 ) =
1
MN
M 1 N 1
f ( x, y )
(2.1.75)
x =0 y =0
x +y
, khi theo
v = ( N / 2) :
f ( x, y )( 1)
x +y
M
N
F u ;v
2
2
(2.1.76)
Ph 2 chiu ca nh sau khi dch chuyn c biu din trn Hnh 2.1.25c
Phm vi di ng (khong bin thin) ca gi tr cc h s khai trin Fourier c th cao
hn nhiu so vi gi tr ca thnh phn chi. V vy, nh ph hin th r hn trn mn
hnh, i khi ngi ta bin i cc gi tr ph theo hm logarit nh sau:
(2.1.77)
c- hng s.
nh ph sau khi bin i bng ( 3.1.77 ) biu din trn Hnh 2.1.25d.
105
2.2
v dc, l cc im ( x + 1, y ) , ( x 1, y ) , ( x, y + 1)( x, y 1) . Tp hp 4 im ln cn
N D ( p ) , l cc im:
( x + 1, y + 1) , ( x + 1, y 1) , ( x 1, y + 1)( x 1, y 1) . Tp hp 8 im N 4 ( p ) v
N D ( p ) c gi l 8 im ln cn: N 8 ( p ) . Trong trng hp khi im p nm bin ca
nh, cc im ln cn c th nm bn ngoi nh.
2.2.1.2 Mi lin kt (connectivity)
Mi lin kt gia cc im nh l khi nim quan trng, cho php xc nh cc gii hn
ca chi tit hay cc vng trong mt nh. Hai im nh c s lin kt vi nhau nu chng l
cc im ln cn v gi tr mc xm ca chng p ng 1 tiu chun no (th d nu chng
ging nhau). V d, i vi nh nh phn, 2 im nh c lin kt, khi chng nm trong b 4
ln cn v c gi tr ging nhau.
N4 ( p ) .
N8 ( p ) .
Hnh 2.2.1
( x 0 , y 0 ) = ( x, y )
( x n , y n ) = ( s, t )
( x i , y i ) v ( x i1 , y i1 ) l cc im lin kt vi 1 i n . n c gi l chiu di ca
ng kt ni. Khi ( x 0 , y 0 ) = ( x n , y n ) , ng ni c gi l khp kn.
Ty theo phng php xc nh lin kt,chng ta c ng kt ni 4, 8 hoc ng kt
ni m. Trn Hnh 2.2.1 m t 2 loi ng kt ni m v 8.
Cho S l mt tp cc im nh, hai pixel p v q c gi l lin kt trong S, nu tn ti
ng kt ni gia hai im p v q c to ra ch bi cc im trong tp S.
Vi bt c im p no t S, tt c cc pixel lin kt vi p trong S s c gi l thnh
phn lin kt ca S. Nu S trong ch tn ti mt thnh phn lin kt, th tp S gi l tp lin
kt.
Cho R l tp con cc im nh, R c gi l 1 vng nh nu R l tp lin kt. ng
bin ca vng R c to ra t tp nh cc im nh. Cc im ny c 1 hoc nhiu hn cc
im ln cn khng nm trong tp R.
107
2.2.1.3 Ton t x l im nh
Trong cc phn sau, chng ta s ni n cc php tnh thc hin vi hnh nh, th d
chia mt nh cho nh khc. Nh gii thiu trn, ta c th biu din nh s nh ma trn
cc im nh,tuy nhin trong trng hp tng qut, hai ma trn khng chia c cho nhau. V
vy, trn thc t, khi thc hin ton t chia 2 nh cho nhau, ngi ta chia cc pixel tng ng
ca 1 nh cho nh khc (vi iu kin cc im nh ca anh chia khc 0). V d, khi chia nh
f cho nh g, im nh th nht nhn c s l gi tr im nh th nht ca nh f chia cho
gi tr im nh th nht ca nh g. Tng t nh vy, cc ton t s hc v logic s c
thc hin cho cc pixel tng ng gia 2 nh.
2
2
De ( p,q ) = ( x s ) + ( y t )
(2.2.1)
D4 ( p,q ) = x s + y t
(2.2.2)
D8 ( p,q ) = max ( x s , y t )
(2.2.3)
108
2- Phng php pht hin ng bin trong nh mu: phn tch nh mu thnh cc nh
n sc (R,G,B) v xc nh ng bin trn c s s thay i mu sc trong cc nh n sc
ni trn.
3- Phn tch nh thnh vng theo cc c im c trng (th d kt cu b mt
(texture)), ranh gii gia cc vng chnh l ng bin ca nh.
2.2.2.2 Phng php Gradient
f ( x, y ) f ( x + dx, y ) f ( x, y )
=
x
dx
(2.2.4)
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y + dy ) f ( x, y )
=
y
dy
(2.2.5)
G x ( x, y ) = f ( x + 1, y ) f ( x, y )
Gradient theo hng y s l:
110
(2.2.6)
G y ( x, y ) = f ( x, y + 1) f ( x, y )
a)
(2.2.7)
b)
Hnh 2.2.4
Lm ni ng bin
s dng phng php gradient, a- nh
gc; b- ly o hm ring theo chiu y;
c- ly o hm ring theo chiu x;
c)
111
Bc
ng Bc
ng
ng Nam
112
2 f =
2 f 2 f
+
dx 2 dy 2
(2.2.8)
2 f
= f ( x + 1) + f ( x 1) 2 f ( x )
x 2
(2.2.9)
113
2 f
= f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) 2 f ( x , y )
x 2
(2.2.10)
2 f
= f ( x , y + 1) + f ( x , y 1) 2 f ( x , y )
y 2
(2.2.11)
2 f = f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) + f ( x , y + 1) + f ( x , y 1) 4 f ( x , y ) (2.2.12)
Tan t trn c th c thc hin bi cc mt n sau:
2.3
CC K THUT NN NH
2.3.1
Nn video trong nhng nm 1950 c thc hin bng cng ngh tng t vi t s nn
thp. S pht trin ca k thut s v vic s dng cng ngh s vo k thut truyn hnh lm
cho khi nim nn video tr thnh ti nng hi trong nhng nm gn y. T nhng
nm 1980, cc nh khoa hc t c nhng thnh tu quan trng trong vic nn tn hiu
video v audio. C rt nhiu hng sn xut thit b nn, nhng u da trn hai nh dng nn
rt ph bin l JPEG v MPEG.
Trong lnh vc truyn thng video, k thut x l tn hiu ch yu tp trung vo mc
ch nn. Ngi ta thng s dng 3 phng php nn i vi hnh nh da vo cc loi
d: d tha khng gian, d tha ph v d tha tm sinh l nhn.
Nn v c bn l mt qu trnh trong s lng s liu (data) biu din lng thng
tin ca mt nh hoc nhiu nh c gim bt bng cch loi b nhng s liu d tha trong
tn hiu video. Cc chui nh truyn hnh c nhiu phn nh ging nhau. Vy tn hiu truyn
hnh c cha nhiu d liu d tha, ta c th b qua m khng lm mt thng tin hnh nh.
l cc phn xa dng, xa mnh, vng nh tnh hoc chuyn ng rt chm,vng nh nn
ging nhau, m cc phn t lin tip hoc khc nhau rt t. Ngoi ra, tng h s nn
nh ng, chuyn ng trong nh truyn hnh phi c d bo, khi , ta ch cn truyn cc
thng tin v hng v mc (vector) chuyn ng ca cc vng nh khc nhau. Cc phn t
ln cn trong nh thng ging nhau, do ch cn truyn cc thng tin bin i. Cc h
thng nn s dng c tnh ny ca tn hiu video v cc c trng ca mt ngi (l km
nhy vi sai s trong hnh nh c nhiu chi tit v cc phn t chuyn ng). Qu trnh gii
nn nh l qu trnh xp x khi phc nh gc (thng thc hin pha thu).
Mt h thng nn video tiu biu (hay b m ho ngun) bao gm: b chuyn i, b
lng t ho, b m ho (Hnh 2.4.1)
Tn hiu
gc
B chuyn
i
B lng
t ha
B m
ha
Tn hiu
nn
115
116
a) m ha DPCM
b) gii m DPCM
Hnh 2.3.2 S khi b m ha v gii m DPCM
Nhm trnh cc li c th xut hin trong khi truyn, mt mu y c gi i theo
chu k nht nh, cho php cp nht c cc gi tr chnh xc. M ha DPCM cng s dng
thm cc k thut d on v lng t ha thch nghi hon thin thm k thut ny.
2.3.1.3 Cc k thut m ho ngun
Cc k thut ny da trn ng ngha ca nh nn cn gi l k thut m ho hng ng
ngha. C 3 loi c bn l m ho chuyn i, m ho sai phn v lng t ho vect.
MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, MPEG-7: do y ban ISO IEC/JTC1/SC29/WG11 pht trin cho m ho kt hp gia video v audio.
H.261: do Nhm nghin cu XI pht trin v c bit rng ri nh tiu chun
m ho video cho cc dch v nghe nhn tc n 64Kbps.
-
Mc d cc tiu chun c gii thiu trn ph hp cho tng loi ng dng ring bit.
Tuy nhin, chng cng c chung cc nguyn tc c bn. S khc bit gia cc chun ph
thuc ch yu vo yu cu c bit ca tng ng dng. Trong , tiu chun MPEG-4 c
xem nh mt chun tng qut ho ca chun H.263, v vy, vic kho st da trn chun ny
s c tnh cht p dng chung cho c hai chun.
2.3.1.6 Xc nh hiu qu ca qu trnh nn tn hiu s
Hiu qu nn c xc nh bng t l nn, ngha l t s gia s lng d liu ca nh
gc trn s liu ca nh nn.
118
119
V gi tr ca bt k mt pixel no , cng c th c d bo t gi tr ca cc ln cn
ca n, nn thng tin t cc pixels ring l tng i nh. S tham gia ca mt pixel ring
vo mt nh l d tha. Nhiu tn (bao gm: d tha khng gian, d tha hnh hc, d tha
trong nh) c t ra phn bit s ph thuc ny ca cc pixels. Ta dng d tha trong
pixel ch tt c cc tn trn. gim d tha trong pixel ca mt nh, dy pixel hai
chiu dng cho vic nhn v ni suy, phi c bin i thnh mt dng c hiu qu hn.
Trong cc phng php nn nh s trnh by trong chng ny, ta dng php bin i cosin
ri rc (DCT) bin i pixel t min khng gian sang min tn s, bng cch ny s gim
c d tha s liu trong pixel min tn s cao.
D tha tm sinh l
Bng trc quan ta thy, s thu nhn cng sng thay i ch gii trong mt phm vi
nht nh. Hin tng ny xut pht t s tht l mt khng p ng vi cng nhy ca tt
c cc thng tin nhn thy. Thng tin n gin c tm quan trng t hn thng tin khc trong
vng nhn thy. Thng tin ny c gi l d tha tm l nhn. N c th c loi b m
khng nh hng ng k n cht lng thu nhn nh. Khc vi d tha m v d tha
trong pixel, d tha tm sinh l c lin quan n thng tin theo nh lng, n c quan h
ti vic lng t ha. iu c ngha l nh x mt khong rng cc gi tr u vo ln mt
s hu hn cc gi tr u ra. l ton t khng o ngc (mt thng tin) cho kt qu nn
s liu c tn hao.
2.3.1.8 Sai lch bnh phng trung bnh
Phng php nh gi cht lng nh nn thng dng nht l da trn mc sai lch
bnh phng trung bnh so vi nh gc - RMS (Root Mean Square) c tnh bi biu thc:
RMS =
trong :
1
n
(X
i =1
X 'i )
X i - gi tr im nh gc
120
121
122
Cc php tnh DCT c thc hin trong phm vi cc khi 88 mu tn hiu chi Y v
cc khi tng ng ca tn hiu hiu mu. Vic chia hnh nh thnh cc block c thc
hin khi tin x l. Hiu qu ca vic chia ny rt d thy. Nu ta tnh ton DCT trn ton
b frame th ta xem nh ton b frame c d tha nh nhau. i vi mt hnh nh thng
thng, mt vi vng c mt s lng ln cc chi tit v cc vng khc c t chi tit . Nh
c tnh thay i ca cc nh khc nhau v cc phn khc nhau ca cng mt nh, ta c th
ci thin mt cch ng k vic m ha nu bit tn dng n.
a)
DCT mt chiu
DCT mt chiu bin i bin tn hiu ti cc im ri rc theo thi gian hoc khng
gian thnh chui cc h s ri rc, mi h s biu din bin ca mt thnh phn tn s nht
nh c trong tn hiu gc. H s u tin biu din mc DC trung bnh ca tn hiu. T tri
sang phi, cc h s th hin cc thnh phn tn s khng gian cao hn ca tn hiu v c
gi l cc h s AC. Thng thng, nhiu h s AC c gi tr s gn hoc bng 0.
123
Qu trnh bin i DCT thun (FDCT) dng trong tiu chun JPEG c nh ngha
nh sau:
X (k ) =
N 1
2
(2m + 1)k
C ( k ) x ( m)cos
2N
N
m =0
(2.3.1)
x (m) =
trong :
2 N 1
(2m + 1)k
X ( k )C ( k )cos
2N
N k =0
(2.3.2)
1/ 2
C (k ) =
1
k =0
k 0
16
16
4
j =0 k =0
trong :
f(j,k)- cc mu gc trong khi 88 pixel.
F(u,v)-cc h s ca khi DCT 88.
1/ 2
C (u),C ( v ) =
1
u, v = 0
u, v 0
Phng trnh trn l mt lin kt ca hai phng trnh DCT mt chiu, mt cho tn s
ngang v mt cho tn s ng. Gi tr trung bnh ca block 8x8 chnh l h s th nht (khi
u,v= 0)
17 7
F( 0,0) = f ( j, k)
8 j=0 k=0
(2.3.4)
C ( u) C ( v )
(2 j + 1)u
(2k + 1)v
cos
F(u, v)cos
4
16
16
u=0 v=0
7
f ( j, k ) =
(2.3.5)
Nh vy, bin i DCT ging nh bin i Fourier v cc h s F(u,v) cng ging nhau
v ngha. N biu din ph tn tn hiu c biu din bng cc mu f(j,k). Bn thn php
bin i DCT khng nn c s liu, t 64 mu ta nhn c 64 h s. Tuy nhin, php bin
i DCT thay i phn b gi tr cc h s so vi phn b cc gi tr mu.
Do bn cht ca tn hiu video, php bin i DCT cho ta gi tr DC tc F(0,0) thng
ln nht v cc h s trc tip k n ng vi tn s thp c gi tr nh hn, cc h s cn li
ng vi tn s cao c gi tr rt nh.
Hnh v 2.3.4 l mt v d minh ha qu trnh DCT hai chiu ca mt khi 88
im nh (chi) c trch ra t mt nh thc. Nu dng qu trnh DCT cho cc tn hiu s
thnh phn Y, CR,CB th cc tn hiu CB,CR c bin cc i 128 ( gi tr nh phn trong h
thng ly mu 8 bit), cn tn hiu Y c mt khong cc i t 0 n 255 gi tr nh phn.
n gin vic thit k b m ha DCT, tn hiu Y c dch mc xung di bng cch tr
128 t tng gi tr pixel trong khi c khong cc i ca tn hiu ging nh i vi cc
tn hiu CR v CB. phn gii m DCT, gi tr ny (128) c cng vo cc gi tr pixel chi.
Gi tr h s DC ca khi DCT c mt khong t 1024 n 1016.
125
127
128
F (u, v) + 2
F (u, v)
Fq(u,v)=
=s nguyn t gn nht
Q(u, v)
Q(u, v)
(2.3.6)
129
Hnh 2.3.7 Cc bng lng t cho tn hiu chi v mu theo chun JPEG
Vic bin i sao cho cht lng hnh nh do mt ngi cm nhn tt, ph thuc vo
cc thnh phn tn s v s bin i chi tit nh tng vng trong min khng gian. Cc nh
cng chi tit th h s thnh phn tn s cao cng ln.
2.3.2.3 Qut zig-zag
m ha entropy cc h s c lng t ha Fq(u,v), trc ht, cn bin i mng
hai chiu ca cc h s Fq(u,v) thnh chui s mt chiu bng cch qut zig-zag.
Vic x l 64 h s ca khi 8x8 pixel bng cch qut zig-zag lm tng ti a chui cc
gi tr 0 v do vy lm tng hiu qu nn khi dng RLC.
lin vi tnh khng n nh ca tn hiu video s lm tc bit thay i theo thi gian. Do ,
cn mt c cu iu khin b m khi m ha ngun tc bit bin i c ghp vi knh
tc bit hng.
B m ha entropy lm gim d tha thng k trong cc phn t c m ha
truyn. S d tha chnh l phn b xc sut khng ng u trn gi tr ca mi phn t.
Phn b xc sut cng lch khi phn b u th hiu sut m ha entropy cng tng. M
Huffman l mt trong nhng s m c s dng ph bin. Ngoi ra, trong m ha
entropy cn s dng m RLC s cho hiu sut nn rt cao.
K thut RLC c dng m ha c hiu qu cc h s DCT lng t ha hn l
dng trc tip cho s liu nh. Sau qu trnh qut zig-zag trn, RLC s c thc thi. Mt
h s khc 0 sau gi tr DC c m ha bng 1 t m bao gm 2 thng s: s lng 0 chy
trc 1 h s ring khc 0 v mc ca n sau khi lng t ha. RLC thc cht l vic thay th
cc h s c gi tr 0 bng s lng cc ch s 0 xut hin.
Hnh v 2.3.9 l mt v d v m ha entropy. Trong v d ny, chui mt chiu cc h
s DCT sau khi qut zig-zag vi cc gi tr ging nhau c gom li vi nhau bng m RLC.
Lc ny, chui mt chiu c cc on chui di c cng gi tr l cc symbol c dng:< chiu
di chui 0, gi tr>.
y, gi tr 10 khng c gi tr 0 no trc c biu din bng <0,10>; gi tr 2
c hai gi tr 0 ng trc c biu din bng <2,-2>v.v... Ring mt du c bit l End of
Block (EOB) c dng cho bit tt c cc h s tip theo trong khi bng 0. Trong v d
ny, ta c mt chui 49 t m vi gi tr 0. Nh vy ch xt ring 49 t m gi tr 0 c nn
xung ch cn 3 t m. iu ny chng t hiu sut nn rt cao ca m ha RLC. Nn bng
m RLC l qu trnh nn khng tn hao.
131
132
133
134
(2.3.7)
C ( u) C ( v )
(2 j + 1)u
(2k + 1)v
F(u, v)cos
cos
4
16
16
u=0 v=0
7
( j, k ) =
(2.3.8)
Qu trnh tnh ton IDCT cng tng t nh qu trnh tnh ton FDCT. nh c khi
phc f * ( j , k ) (ma trn trn Hnh 2.3.12d) khc vi nh gc (trn Hnh 2.3.5a). Sai s gia
cc gi tr khi phc v gi tr gc c tnh nh sau:
e(j,k)=f(j,k)-f*(j,k)
(2.3.9)
1 7 7
RMSE=
e( j, k)e( j, k)
64 k =0 j=0
(2.3.10)
135
255
PSNR=20 lg
RMSE
(2.3.11)
136
DCT
Lng t
hoa
Ma hoa
Entropy
Bang
lng t
Bang ma
hoa
So lieu
anh nen
Block 8x8
a)
So lieu
anh nen
b)
Giai ma
Entropy
Giai
lng t
IDCT
Block 8x8
Bang ma
hoa
Bang
lng t
2)
3)
Trong gii thut la chn ph, cc h s DCT c nhm li theo nhiu nhm bng tn.
Nhn chung, h s DCT tn s thp c gi trc, v sau l cc h s DCT tn s cao. V
d, mt chui 4 nhm nh sau:
Band 1: ch c h s DC.
Band 2: h s AC1 v AC2.
Band 3: h s AC3,AC4,AC5,AC6.
Band 4: h s AC7,, AC63.
Trong gii thut xp x, tt c cc h s DCT c gi i trc vi chnh xc thp
hn, v sau c ci tin li trong cc ln qut sau. V d, mt chui ba band nh sau:
Band 1: tt c cc h s DCT (chia 4).
Band 2: tt c cc h s DCT (chia 2).
138
Band 3: tt c cc h s DCT .
Gii thut kt hp kt hp c hai gii thut chia ph v xp x. H thng JPEG ly tin
hiu qu cho vic truyn cc nh phc tp. H thng ny hng n nhng ng dng yu cu
truyn nhanh cc nh c phn gii cao, cht lng cao v phc tp qua mng c bng
thng gii hn. Nhng ng dng bao gm truyn nh y hc, ng dng khm ph tri t v
v tr cng nh cc ng dng trn Internet.
2.3.2.10
Cc tham s tiu chun ca JPEG
Tiu chun JPEG xc nh cc tham s trong bng 2.3.3.
c im
Tn hiu m ha
Cu trc ly mu
65 536 x 65 536
Biu din mu
9 bit
DPCM
16x16 bit
chnh xc cc i ca h s DC
11 bit
Bng lng t
Bin i RLC
M Huffman
H s cn bng cc khi
C th bin i
B chuyn ng
Khng
Qut
Knh truyn
c qun l li
139
2.3.2.11
Phng php nn nh ng M JPEG
M JPEG l s m rng ca JPEG. V nn M JPEG ch thc hin trong mi nh, iu
dn n hiu qu (t s nn) thp hn so vi cc phng php nn nh ng MPEG s
c xt sau y.
Tn hiu 24 Mbit/s cho kt qu nh c nhiu nhn thy, cht lng nh khi phc
khng dng cho mc ch chuyn dng.
Trong trng hp nn vi t s cao s xut hin cc vung ( Artifacts ) trn nh khi
phc, l cc c trng ca cc h s DC. Nu m ha nhiu ln th hiu ng trn s tng
ln.
Vi nhng c im trn, chun M JPEG c u im khi s dng trong cng ngh sn
xut chng trnh truyn hnh. V cc nh c m ha c lp vi nhau nn vic thc hin
dng chnh xc ti tng nh l hon ton c th thc hin c. y chnh l im mnh ca
M JPEG s dng trong cc thit b sn xut chng trnh tin dng cho studio v dng hu
k, lm k xo vi gi thnh h thng ph hp, khng gy tn hao trong qu trnh dng.
Tuy nhin, i vi cc thit b s dng nh dng nn M JPEG c cc nhc im :
Mc d s dng cng mt phng php nn M JPEG trong cc thit b ca
mnh, cc sn phm ca cc nh my khc nhau cng khng hon ton ging nhau v mt
biu din cng nh phng php x l i vi tn hiu video c nn. Chnh v vy cc thit
b ny rt kh c th trao i trc tip s liu cho nhau.
1.
141
Hnh 2.3.16
Hnh 2.3.17
2.3.3.3 Cc cu trc nh
MPEG nh ngha cc loi nh khc nhau cho php s linh hot cn nhc gia hiu
qu m ha v truy cp ngu nhin. Cc loi nh nh sau:
nh loi P (Predicted-picture)
144
1. Khi. Khi 8x8 cc im nh tn hiu chi v tn hiu mu dng cho phng php
nn DCT.
2. T hp cu trc khi (macroblock): mt cu trc khi l mt nhm cc khi tng
ng vi lng thng tin cha ng trong kch thc 16x16 im trn bc nh. Cu trc khi
ny cng xc nh lng thng tin cha trong s thay i ty theo cu trc mu c s
dng. Thng tin u tin trong cu trc khi mang dng ca n (l cu trc khi Y hay Cr,
Cb) v cc vector b chuyn ng tng ng.
3. Mng (Slice): mng bao gm mt vi cu trc khi k nhau. Kch thc ln nht
ca mng c th bao gm ton b bc nh v kch thc nh nht ca mng l mt cu trc
khi. Thng tin u ca mng cha ng v tr ca mng trong ton b nh, v h s cn bng
lng t.
4. nh (Picture): lp nh cho php b gii m xc nh loi ca nh c m ha l
nh P, I hay nh B. Thng tin u dng ch th t truyn khung b gii m c th sp
xp cc nh li theo mt th t ng. Trong thng tin u ca nh cn cha cc thng tin v
ng b, phn gii v phm vi ca vector chuyn ng.
5. Nhm nh (GOP): nhm nh l t hp ca nhiu cc khung I, P v B. Cu trc
nhm nh c xc nh bng hai tham s m v n. Mi mt nhm nh bt u bng mt
khung I cho php xc nh im bt u tm kim v bin tp. Thng tin u gm 25 bit
cha m nh thi v iu khin.
6. on (chng trnh) video: on video bao gm thng tin u, mt s nhm nh v
thng tin kt thc on. Thng tin u ca on video cha ng kch thc mi chiu ca
nh, kch thc ca im nh, tc bit ca dng video s, tn s nh v b m ti thiu cn
c. on video v thng tin u to thnh mt dng bit c m ha gi l dng c bn
(Elementary Stream).
145
146
Hnh 2.3.22
147
148
Picture (nhm nh), Picture (nh), Slice, macro block (MB), block (khi). Cu to v chc
nng ca mi lp c ch ra trong bng 2.3.4. Cc tham s chnh ca tiu chun MPEG-1
c minh ha trong bng 2.3.5.
Bng 2.3.4 Cc thng s MPEG-1.
Lp
Cu to
Chc nng
Sequence
Gm nhiu GOP
GOP
Gm t (1n) nh bt u
bng nh I
n v truy xut
Picture I, B, P
Gm nhiu Slice
n v m ha c bn
Slice
Gm nhiu MB
n v ti ng b phc hi li
Macro Block
(MB)
Block
Vi 4:2:2 gm : 4 block Y, 1
block Cr v 1 block Cb
n v b chuyn ng
Gm 8x8 pixel
n v tnh DCT
c im
Tn hiu m ha
Y v Cr, Cb
Cu trc ly mu
4:2:0
4095x4095
Biu din mu
8 bit
9 bit
chnh xc cc i ca h s DC
8 bit
Bin i VLC
M Huffman
Bng VLC
Khng th truyn ti
H s cn bng cc khi
C th bin i
149
B chuyn ng
Qut
Tun t
chnh xc d on chuyn ng
im nh
Tc khi nn
Phng php nn MPEG-1 cho php truy cp ngu nhin cc khung hnh video, tm
kim thun v nghch trn dng tn hiu nn, bin tp v pht li trn dng tn hiu nn.
MPEG-1 l tp con ca MPEG-2, nn tt c cc b gii m MPEG-2 u c th gii m c
dng tn hiu MPEG-1.
2.3.3.10
Tiu chun MPEG-2
2.3.3.10.1 Gii thiu v chun MPEG-2
150
Chui
Header
Lp slice
GOP
Header
Lp MB
Header
nh
Lp block
Spatially Scalable profile (phn cp theo khng gian): tng t vi SNR profile
nhng thm vo lp c bn lp nng cao cht lng phn gii nh (Picture Resolution
Enhancement layer). Tnh phn cp theo khng gian c ngha l c s tha hip i vi
phn gii. Chui nh c chia ra thnh hai lp tng ng vi cc phn gii khc nhau ca
nh. Lp thp hn bao gm nh c phn gii thp v d nh truyn hnh tiu chun, lp
cao hn bao gm nh c phn gii cao hn v d nh truyn hnh phn gii cao
(HDTV).
4:2:2 profile: tng t MP, nhng cho php mt tc bit cao hn. N gia tng
kch thc nh dc ln 576 lines vi chun qut 625/50 v 512 lines vi chun qut 525/60.
152
Main level (mc chnh): phn gii ca truyn hnh tiu chun.
High 1440 level (mc cao 1440): phn gii ca HDTV vi 1440 mu/dng.
Bng 2.3.6. Bng thng s chnh profile v level ca tn hiu chun MPEG-2.
Profile
n gin
Chnh
(Simple)
(Main)
Phn cp Phn cp
theo SNR
theo khng
gian
Cao
(High)
Level
Thp
4:2:0
4:2:0
(Low)
352x288
352x288
4 Mbps
4Mbps
I, P, B
Chnh
4:2:0
4:2:0
4:2:0
4:2:0
(Main)
720x576
720x576
720x576
720x576
15 Mbps
15 Mbps
15 Mbps
20 Mbps
I, P
I, P, B
I, P, B
I, P, B
Cao 1440
(High
1440)
4:2:0
4:2:0
4:2:0,4:2:2
1440x1152
1440x1152
1440x1152
60 Mbps
60 Mbps
80 Mbps
I, P, B
I, P, B
I, P, B
Cao
4:2:0
4:2:0,4:2:2
(High)
1920x1152
1920x1152
80 Mbps
100 Mbps
I, P, B
I, P, B
153
ngang x theo chiu dc; dng di na l vn tc cao nht ca dng d liu sau khi nn; dng
cui cng l cc loi nh s dng nn.
2.3.3.10.4 ng dng MPEG-2 trong nn tn hiu video
Tnh cht nn tn hiu video (hoc gim tc bit ca video BRR Bit rate reduction)
l s kt hp nhiu yu t khc nhau :
Cht lng nh : cht lng nh cao thng dng cho khu x l nh, trong
khu hu k (dng hnh); gim hn trong khu ly tin (news), truyn dn pht sng.
154
di 64 kbps
64 n 384 kbps
c im quan trng ca chun MPEG-4 l cho php khi phc li ti pha thu, v vy
chun nn ny c bit thch hp i vi mi trng d xy ra li nh truyn d liu qua cc
thit b cm tay. Nhng profile v level khc trong MPEG-4 cho php s dng tc bit ln
n 38.4 Mbps v vic x l cht lng studio cn cc profile v level ln n 1.2Gbps.
MPEG-4 l chun quc t u tin dnh cho m ho cc i tng (object) video. Vi
linh ng v hiu qu do m ho tng i tng video, MPEG-4 t yu cu ng dng cho
cc dch v ni dung video c tnh tng tc v cc dch v truyn thng video trc tip hay
lu tr. Trong MPEG-4, khung nh ca mt i tng video (hay cn gi l phng i tng
video) c m ho ring l. S cch ly cc i tng video nh vy mang n mm do
hn cho vic thc hin m ho thch nghi lm tng hiu qu nn tnh hiu. Mc d tp trung
vo nhng ng dng tc bit thp nhng MPEG-4 cng bao gm c studio cht lng cao
v HDTV
Cc i tng khc nhau trong mt cnh gc c th c m ha v truyn i ring bit
nh l video object v audio object v c kt hp tr li ti b gii m. Cc loi object khc
nhau s c m ha vi nhng k thut khc nhau v vi cc cng c ph hp nht. Nhng
object khc nhau c th c to ra mt cch c lp v trong mt vi trng hp mt cnh
c th phn tch ring thnh object nn (background) v object cn cnh. V d: on video
quay trn bng c x l tch ring qu bng ra khi cnh sn c. Background (cnh
khng c qu bng ) s c truyn i v ai cng c th thy game thu ht khan gi nhng
ch nhng ngi c tr tin mi thy qu bng.
Hnh 2.3.24 cho thy cc khi nim chung v qu trnh m ha v gii m cc i tng
c lp trong chun nn MPEG-4.
My
quay
video
B
tch
cc
object
trong
nh
M ha
object
M ha
object
M ha
object
Gii m
object
Mul
tip
lex
De
mul
tip
lex
Gii m
object
Tng
hp
i
tng
Mn
hnh
Gii m
object
cp v kha cc title ny khi qua b gii m video trc khi hin th. Vic gii m lung bit
video MPEG-4 yu cu b gii m c nhiu c ch gii m v kh nng thc hin cc hot
ng a hp. Trong MPEG-4 c th truyn nhiu lung text v vic chn b gii m lung
no trong s nhng lung trn kt hp vi video. Vic la chn ny c th do ngi xem
quyt nh hoc do cc thng tin khc c truyn trong lung bit.
Ba c tnh rt quan trng ca MPEG-4 l:
gii m
-
Cc thng tin trong lung bit c th hin th nhiu dng khc nhau t cng mt
lung bit (ty theo la chn ngi xem chng hn nh ngn ng)
MPEG-4 cho kh nng m ha video v audio hn hn MPEG-2 cng nh kh nng
khi phc li. Tuy nhin sc mnh tht s ca MPEG-4 l cc ng dng mi m c th xy
dng da vo vic m ha c lp cc object cho hiu sut m cao hn, v vic tch ring cc
object cho php tng tc cc object vi nhau c bit l cc chng trnh gio dc v cc tr
chi. V cng do kh nng tch bit cc object m c th thay i t l tm thi chng hn
nh vn duy tr phn gii ca cc object cn cnh quan trng nhng gim nh phong xung
tc thp hn nu h thng s dng c bng thng b hn ch hoc thiu ti nguyn (b nh,
tc tnh)
Tuy nhin cng c mt s nhc im l b gii m phi c kh nng gii m ht tt c
cc lung bit m n h tr v c kh nng kt hp. Do phn cng ca b gii m MPEG-4
phc tp hn so vi b gii m MPEG-2. V ngy nay th cng c nhiu b m thc hin gii
m bng phn mm nhng b gii m bng phn cng c th b hn ch v kh nng linh hot
2.3.3.11.1 Video trong MPEG-4
Trc khi tm hiu k thut nn video trong MPEG-4 cn tm hiu cu trc ca mt
cnh video c MPEG-4 nh ngha. Mt cnh tiu biu bao gm phong nh (background)
mt hoc nhiu i tng cn nh (foreground) chng hn nh vt, mt hoc nhiu ngi
v mt vi phn t ha. Trong MPEG-1 v 2 mt cnh c ly mu mt ln cho mt
khung v to ra cc bitmap s c m ha. MPEG-4 cng lm vic ging nh vy nhng n
c th gii quyt tng i tng ring r. n gin hn c th khng xt n cc vt
nh vy ngoi cc thnh phn ha cnh bao gm background, mt ngi c xem l
foreground. V d: ngi d bo thi tit ng trc nn mu xanh bin hay xanh l cy v
mt nn (background) khc chng hn nh bn thi tit gi l chroma keyed. Trong
studio nh mt ngi ng trc nn mu s c x l loi b nn mu v to thnh key
signal hay alpha channel din t hnh dng ca ngi cn cnh. Thng tin v hnh dng
ngi s c kt hp vi thnh phn cnh. Ni ngi ng th cnh nn c thay th bng
nh ngi v nhng ni khc ca nh nn th khng thay i. Trong thut ng ca MPEG-4
th ngi cn nh c xem l i tng video (video object) c tng trng bi hai phn
t l nh video ca ngi gi l texture v key signal hay alpha channel c xem l shape.
156
157
Trong MPEG-4 khng phi tt c cc i tng video c cng kch thc v vic m
ha texture ch cn thit nhng khu vc l mt phn ca i tng. i vi nhng i
tng ch nht th n gin chn kch thc l bi s ca 16 pixel (mt macroblock) theo
mi hng v tt c cc macroblock s c x l. i vi cc i tng c ng nt phc
tp th ng bin (boundary) c nh ngha l tn hiu ng nt (shape signal). Phm vi
ca i tng cng c nh ngha bi dy hnh ch nht cc macroblock nhng m ha
texture c thc hin i vi ton b cc macroblock trn ng bin hoc phn bn trong
ng bin i tng
I-VOP c m ha nh khung I trong MPEG-2. MPEG-4 s dng b d on thch
ng i vi cc gi tr DC. B d on cng xc nh gradient sng ngang v dc v d
on gi tr DC t cc khi trn v bn tri theo hng ca gradient nh hn
S tng quan ca cc nh ngoi vic c li cho d on h s DC cn gip vic m
ha cc h s AC. Nhng vng texture ging nhau s to ra mt dy cc h s AC ging
nhau sau khi bin i DCT. Cc h s AC quan trng nht tng trng cho nng lng ln
nht ca texture ging nhau rt nhiu (c li cho qu trnh m ha). Cc h s ny thng
thng l cc h s khc zero trong hng u tin hoc ct u tin, chng thng c lng
t ha vi mc chnh xc cao nht. Trong MPEG-4 cc h s AC ca hng u tin hoc
ct u tin c d on t cc khi ngay trn v bn tri.
Vic lng t cc h s cng tng t nh phng php s dng trong MPEG-2 nhng
c ch qut cc h s v m ha vi chiu di t m thay i th c ci tin hn.
Cc phng php c chn c h s ra c xc nh da vo qu trnh d on
DC. Khi khng c d on DC th qut zigzag nh trong MPEG-2 c s dng. Nu h s
DC c d on t khi pha bn tri th s dng qut dc lun phin (Alternate-vertical
scanning) l h thng qut s c theo chiu dc trc tin. Tuy nhin nu h s DC c d
an t cc khi trn th chn qut ngang lun phin (Altrenate Horziontal scan).
ci thin hiu qu ca b m ha c chiu di thay i (VLC) trong MPEG-4 dng
hai bng VLC khc nhau.
2.3.3.11.5 M ha ng bin
Kh nng m ha nhng i tng c ng nt ty thng gp nhng tnh hung
c bit ng bin ca i tng. Khi , cc khi nm bn ngoi ng bin th khng
cn m ha texture. Nhng tt c nhng khi bn trong ng bin c m ha theo cc k
thut trnh by. M ha texture cn cho cc khi ng bin nhng trong cc khi ch
c mt phn thuc i tng. Trc khi m ha ng bin, ngi ta thc hin bin php
"m" (padding) cc khi ny. Nhng pixel khng phi l thnh phn ca i tng c gn
cho nhng gi tr bng nhau v bng vi gi tr trung bnh ca tt c cc pixel trong phn i
tng. Gi tr ca cc pixel bn trong i tng khng thay i. Vic thay i gi tr bn
ngoi i tng khng nh hng n kt qu sau cng bi v cc pixel ny khng c hin
th. Qu trnh trn c xem l lm gim thiu nng lng ca cc h s khi bin i DCT
158
2.3.3.11.6 Sprites
MPEG-4 c mt lai i tng khc thng c dng lm cnh nn l sprite. Sprite l
i tng video thng c kch thc ln hn mn hnh hin th. Sprite l i tng c s
dng lin tc trong mt cnh (tng t nh cnh nn tnh). Thng thng mt cnh ca game
bao gm cnh nn v mt s i tng nhn to di chuyn theo kch bn ca game v hnh
ng ca ngi chi. Trong qu trnh hnh ng cnh c nhn thy ch l mt vng nh
trong cnh nn, vng ny l thnh phn ca cng mt nh tnh (Hnh 2.3.25). MPEG-4 cung
cp kh nng truyn ton b cnh nn nh sprite v kh nng to cnh khc nhau bng cch
truyn cc thng tin cropping v wraping xc nh phn sprite s c hin th mt thi
im nht nh. Sau khi sprite c truyn i th ch c thng tin cropping/wraping cho sprite
v cc i tng cn nh (foreground) cn c truyn. Trong game in hnh mi phn ca
sprite c th c s dng nhiu ln v th lng d liu cn truyn s gim ng k.
159
Subtract
Down
Converter
Up
Converter
Base
Layer
Encoder
Base
Layer
Decoder
Enhancement
Layer
Encoder
Enhancement
VOL
Multiplexer
Multiplexer
output
Base layer VOL
161
Tiu
m ha
chun
phn
gii cc i
i
Tc bit cc
Videophone
H.261
176x144
64 128 Kbps
Hi ngh truyn
H.261
352x288
0.384
MPEG-2
720x576
DPCM
720x576
hnh
Truyn hnh cp
Truyn hnh
Studio / sn xut
MPEG2(@4:2:2)
HDTV / sn xut
MPEG-2
HDTV / truyn
MPEG-2
Mbps
49 Mbps
< 50 Mbps
MPEG-2
MJPEG
1.554
720x576
< 50 Mbps
1920x1280
1920x1280
100 Mbps
20 Mbps
dn
hn, mt ngi cng ch cm nhn thm khng ng l bao m s lng chng trnh phi
gim i ng k. iu ng ngha vi hiu qu pht sng thp. Tm li, mc ch u tin
ca pht qung b l nn lm sao pht c nhiu chng trnh.
Nh vy, vn ta quan tm y l la chn chun no trong cng on sn xut hu
k. i vi nn ca my ghi hnh cn phi ch gi cht lng tn hiu cn cho gia cng
x l trong studio. Cc phng php nn trong my ghi hnh s thc cht l x l ni ti trong
my gim vn tc dng s ghi ln bng cn va thp nhm gii quyt kh nhiu vn
thc t.
i vi MPEG-2, c th s dng MPEG-2 4:2:2P@ML trong khu hu k. V mt cht
lng, nu s dng my ghi cng ngh nn MPEG dng mt loi nh I cng thun li cho
vic dng in tng ng M-JPEG. Nhng cch gii quyt nh th l cha kinh t, v trong
h thng mch theo cng ngh nn MPEG, mch d on b chuyn ng l mch phc tp
nht v c gi thnh cao m li khng s dng (ch dng mt nh I, khng s dng nh P v
B). V mc tiu pht c nhiu chng trnh nn pht qung b s dng nn MPEG-2 vi
nhm nh y I, P, B v h s nn rt cao.
Qua phn tch trn, ta c th thy rng chun M-JPEG s dng trong cc thit b sn
xut chng trnh tin dng cho sn xut studio v dng hu k, lm k xo vi gi thnh h
thng ph hp.
163
Cc tiu chun ITU-T cho m thanh bao gm G.711 G.722 G.722.1 G.722.2
G.723 G.723.1 G.726 G.728 G.729 G.729.1 G.729a
G.711 l chun ITU-T dng cho thoi ch yu trong cc h thng tng i, c pht
hnh chnh thc vo nm 1972.
164
S lng m ha m thanh bng tn rng ITU i khi khng c hiu chnh xc.
Thc t, c ba loi m ha c bn phn bit, nhng iu c chung mt tn l G.722. u tin,
G.722 l m ha vi tn s 7kHz, s dng ADPCM hot ng vi tc truyn 48-64kbps.
Mt phin bn khc G.722.1 hot ng vi tc d liu bng mt na nhng c cht lng
tt nh G.722 vi phng php m ha da vo nn tng chuyn i. V chun G.722.2, hot
ng vi m thoi bng tn rng vi tc bit truyn rt thp, s dng gii thut CELPbased.
V vn bn quuyn, n thi im ny, giy ng k bn quyn cho G.722 ht
hn, cho nn hin ti chun ny c xem nh l chun min ph. G.722.1 thuc bn quyn
ca tp on Polycom v chun G.722.2 cn c tn l AMR-WB, thuc quyn s hu ca tp
on VoiceAge.
G.722.2 (GSM AMR WB)
Adaptive Multi Rate - WideBand hay AMR-WB l mt chun m ha ting ni c
pht trin sau khi AMR s dng cng cng ngh tng t nh ACELP. M cung cp cht
lng m thoi tuyt vi bi v s dng bng tn thoi rng hn 50-7000 Hz khi so snh vi
cc m m thoi bng hp hin ang dng rng ri trong cc POTS vi 300-3400Hz. AMRWB c h thng ha thnh G.722.2, l mt chun m ha m thoi chun ITU-T.
165
6.3 kbit/s (s dng khung 24 byte), dng gii thut MPC-MLQ (MOS 3.9)
5.3 kbit/s (s dng khung 20 byte) dng gii thut ACELP (MOS 3.62)
166
nhm thc hin qu trnh tin x l m chng mun ng vo video u tin mc nh thc
hin. Mt k thut hiu qu trong vn hu x l tr thnh phn t chnh yu ca cc h
thng tt nht da trn chun H.261 l lc gii kha. N thc hin vic gim s xut hin ca
vt nhn to nhiu c dng hnh khi gy ra bi vic b di ng theo dng khi v cc phn
chuyn i do vic thit k to ra. Vic lc gii kha tr thnh mt phn tch hp trong hu
ht cc chun hin nay, H.264 (ngay c s dng chun H.264, vic hu x l vn cho php
thc hn v c th cho c cht lng cao)
Vic lc c cp trong vic chun ha c nh hng n vic ci tin quan trng
gia kh nng nn v thit k H.261. Tuy nhi, H.261 vn l nh hng lch s chnh trong
lnh vc pht trin ca m ha video.
2.2 Chun H.262
Chun H.262 l mt chun m ha video s ITU-T. Chun ny lin quan n phn
video ca chun ISO/IEC MPEG-2 (c bit di ci tn ISO/IEC 13818-2). Chun ny
c pht trin do s hp tc ca ITU-T v cc t chc ISO/IEC JTC 1, v tr thnh chun
chung cho c hai t chc ny. ITU-T Recommendation H.262 v ISO/IEC 13818-2 c pht
trin v pht hnh di dng l chun quc t. Hai ti liu ny m t hu ht tt c cc kha
cnh ca chun.
2.3 Chun H263
Chun H.263 l chun m ha ITU-T thit k vo nm 1995/1996 dng cho gii php
m ha nn tc truyn thp cho cc dch v hi ngh truyn hnh.
M u tin c thit k trong cc h thng H.324 (PSTN hoc cc mch chuyn mch
mch khc truyn dch v hi ngh truyn hnh v in thoi truyn hnh), cng nh trong cc
h thgn dng m H.323 (hi ngh truyn hnh RTP/IP-based), H.320 (hi ngh truyn hnh
ISDN-based), RTSP (phng tin truyn thng dng streaming) v SIP (hi ngh Internet).
Hu ht ni dung Flash Video( dng trn cc site nh YouTube, Google Video, MySpace,
v.v.) c m ha di dng nh dng ny, tuy vn c site s dng m ha VP6, h tr
phin bn Flash 8. Tn hiu video H.263 c th c gii m bng th vin phi bn quyn
LGPL-licensed dng trong cc chng trnh nh ffdshow, VLC media player v MPlayer.
Chun H.263 c pht trin nh l mt phin bn nng cp da trn chun H.261, v
chun MPEG-1, MPEG-2. Phin bn u tin c hon thnh vo nm 1995 v hon ton
ph hp trong vic thay th cho H.261 vi tt c cc tc truyn. Hin ti c cc phin
bn H.263v2 (cn gi l chun H.263+ 1998) v chun H.263v3 (H.263++ 2000).
Chun m ha c ITU-T sau H.263 l H.264, cn c tn l AVC v MPEG-4 phn
th 10. Hu ht cc sn phm hi ngh truyn hnh cng ngh mi hin nay lun tch hp c
ba chun H.264, H.263 v H.261.
2.4 Chun H264
168
Chun H.264, MPEG-4 Part 10, hay AVC (dng cho Advanced Video Coding), l mt
chun m ha video s vi nn cc cao, l kt qu ca ITU-T Video Coding Experts
Group (VCEG) kt hp vi ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG), c xem l
sn phm thng mi Joint Video Team (JVT). Chun ITU-T H.264 v ISO/IEC MPEG4 Part 10(ISO/IEC 14496-10) ng dng cc cng ngh l tng. Phin bn nhp u tin
c hon thnh vo thng 05 nm 2003.
Chun H.264 c t tn theo cng dng ITU-T H.26x ca cc chun video, trong khi
tn AVC c t tn da theo tn d n hp tc, vi tn ca d n l H.26L. Chun cn
c gi bng cc tn khc H.264/AVC, AVC/H.264, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, MPEG-4/H.264
AVC nhm nhn mnh tnh k tha. i khi, cn c gi l m ha JVT vi l do l t
chc JVT pht trin.
Mc ch ca d n H.264/AVC l to ra mt chun c kh nng cung cp tn hiu
video cht lng cao vi cc tc bit truyn thp, nh hn hay bng mt na so vi tc
ca cc chun trc ( nh MPEG-2, H.263, hay MPEG-4 Part 2) vi tnh ng dng cao trong
thc t. Ngoi ra, chun phi p ng yu cu cung cp cch thc linh ng cho php chun
c ng dng rng ri trong nhiu trnh ng dng ( v d cho c tc bit cao v thyp hoc
phn gii cao hoc thp, v chy n nh trong nhiu h thng cng nh mng ( cho vic
broadcast, lu tr DVD, mng gi RTP/IP, v cc h thng tng i ang phng tin ITU-T)
2.5 Chun JVT
Chun JVT hon thnh vic nng cp, pht trin mt s tnh nng m rng so vi
chun nguyn thu, c bit di tn l Fidelity Range Extensions (FRExt). Cc phin bn
m rng h tr m ha video vi trung thc cao bng cch thc gia tng chnh xc ly
mu (bao gm m ha 10-bit v 12-bit) vi thng tin mu phn gi cao (gm cc cu trc
ly mu nh YUV 4:2:2 v YUV 4:4:4). Mt s tnh nng khc trong d n Fidelity Range
Extensions ( nh php bin i s nguyn chuyn mch tng thch 44 v 88, cc ma trn
trng s lng t ha da trn gic quan, m ha khng mt mt hnh ni ti hiu qu, h tr
cc khng gian mu cng thm v php bin i mu s d). Cng vic thit k trong d n
c hon thnh vo thng 7 nm 2004 v phin bn nhp c ra mt vo thng 09 nm
2004.
169
170
MC LC
LI NI U
3
3
10
13
13
19
27
30
CHNG 2: K THUT X L NH
2.1 TNG QUAN V X L NH V VIDEO S
2.1.1 Khi nim c bn v x l nh
2.1.2 Lnh vc ng dng k thut x l nh
2.1.3 Cc giai on chnh trong x l nh
2.1.4 Cc phn t ca h thng x l nh s
2.1.5 Biu din nh s
2.1.6 L thuyt ton ng dng trong x l nh v video s
30
36
40
40
41
41
48
48
53
55
60
60
60
61
62
64
67
92
106
106
109
2.3 CC K THUT NN NH
2.3.1 Gii thiu chung v k thut nn nh
2.3.2 Phng php nn nh JPEG
2.3.3 Chun nn MPEG
2.3.4 ng dng v nh gi kh nng kinh t ca cc tiu chun nn
115
115
121
140
162
164
167
172
170
X L M THANH, HNH NH
M s: 411XAH450
Chu trch nhim bn tho
TRUNG TM O TO BU CHNH VIN THNG 1