Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BY
MORYA
E.
WILLIS
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
1982
^*^
Copyright 19 82
by
To my parents,
igent ly
and
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
for
a more enjoyable
experince
As
thanks
sounds through
grateful.
spectrum analyzer,
will be forever
not only
for
ray
appreciation to Mrs.
Her
To
(heaven
appreciation
To Steven M. Kress
express my
Thanks also go to
Lisa Yonge and Gail Daniels for their patience and support
in the last hours before deadline.
with
in
calm
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABSTRACT
viii
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
Need for the S tudy
Purpose of the Study
Content of the Study
1
1
5
II
ACOUSTICS
III
THE FLUTE
Construction
Theobald Boehm's Influence
Acoustical Properties
Tone Production
Vibrato
Overblowing
Upper Register Notes
Harmonics
IV
CONTEMPORARY PRACTICES
Monophonic Sonorities
Harmonics
Artificial harmonics
Octave harmonics
Whistle tones
Pitch Changes
Bending pitches
Muting tones
Altered fingerings
Vibrato
Trill and Tremolo
Extended Range
Glissan do/Portamento
Special Effects
Articulation
Tonguing practices
Fluttertonguing
New articulation indicators
Key clicks.
Percussive tongue articulation
21
21
24
27
29
32
35
37
42
48
48
.48
.48
50
51
53
53
54
56
60
62
64
69
75
76
76
76
78
.79
....84
Noise Elements.
Open embouchure noise elements
Closed embouchure noise elements
Vocalized and non-vocalized
noise elements
Stage Directions
Multiple Sonorities.
Residual Tones
Random Pitch Effect
Sing, Hum, and Play
Double and Triple Stops
....86
..87
88
93
94
96
97
98
99
105
MULTIPHONICS
109
VI
NOTATION
Various Solutions
Pitch
Duration
Survey of Avant-Garde Notational
Practices
Contemporary Notational Systems
132
147
147
150
VII
154
158
...161
161
162
APPENDIX A:
LISTS OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES
THAT SUPPLY FINGERINGS FOR MULTIPHONIC SONORITIES
166
167
168
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
.170
176
literature.
The
contemporary practices
These
which are
in new devices
in
The various
the
concluding chapter.
Appendix
lists
A bibliography is included.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Need for the Study
society.
such as Scratch
ensembles
"2
as
collection
of
in
1
Cornelius Cardew formed the Scratch Orchestra in
1936, as a group of musicians (not necessarily with
extraordinary skills) willing to improvise and perform
pieces that are unusual in being the results of group
process of participation rather than the creation of
individual composers or performers.
2
C. Small, "Contemporary Music and Contemporary
Culture; Part III," Music in Education Vol. 35, no. 348
,
(1971), p.
437.
composition.
point out
performer tends to
intellectual.
and
"3
(SHMRG:
of
technique
This creates
(often
a great
create his
or
her own
3
R. C. Ehle, "The Dilemma of Contemporary Music," The
American Music Teacher Vol. 26, no. 1 (1976), p. 21.
4
J. LaRue, Guidelines for Style An alysis, (New York:
W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1970), Ch. 1.
5
R. C. Ehle, "The Two Major Stylistic Episodes of
Twentieth Century Music," The American Music Teacher ,
,
Vol.
no.
24,
"
Composer (US)
Vol 3,
ideas,
in
resulted
in many
performer alike.
problem;
medium has
reality.
in terms of
""7
...
compositions.
is
not
It
is
the performer
giving
if performers
the
7
James Galway, "An Interview with James Galway,"
Instrumentalist Vol. 30 (January 1976), p. 45.
D. Bollard ," Some Observations on Musical Style,
8
Interpretation, and Performance," Australian Journal of
Music Education, no. 18 (April 1976), p. 25.
,
intentions?
composer's
composer is doing is an
importance."
issue of paramount
audience.
his
"5
By approving of or
avant-garde compositions,
rejecting
In order to address
this
This dissertation
is meant to
as to
and usages.
9
R. Hornyak
A n Analysis of Student Attitudes Toward
August 1965 - March 1966,
Contemporary American Music
U .S Department of A.E.W., Office of Education, Project
#5-450(5-8288)
p. 26.
,
As musical
these
as they apply
Chapter II
explanation of the
It includes an
examination
presented.
bai. d
"Sound per
'
is
in use
technique of multiphonics
avant-garde music,
in
.
of
the
resulted
Chapter
10
York:
A bibliography is included.
CHAPTER II
ACOUSTICS
presupposes
acoustical theory.
practical awareness of
What is acoustics?
Primarily, acoustics
"^
Further
the response
fork.
it
Basically, sound is
of auditory nerves.
and
tuning
return it to
displacement.
imagine
contrary
to as elastic.
it
Its momentum
^C
N
/
Figure 1
Graphic depiction of vibration
From A to
vibration.
A -
-AorC-A-B.
the motion
(A to C)
of
As
as the amplitude.
The motion
A-C-A-B-A
(or
C-A-B-A-C)
is
The number of
Smaller elastic
bodies result
(higher frequency)
result.
sound waves
the
expansion.
varied
bounced in
if
the
Upon encountering a
This changing of
diffraction.
Another change
subject to is referred to as
Diffraction
is a
sound is rarely
For purposes of
10
graphic representation,
Figure 2
Sine wave
within
tube:
of its cycle
(from L to L)
The
the
Figure 3
Graphic of air particles
within tube
36.
11
"in a vibrating
the
The L in figure
Figure 4
Length of a wave
in
This variation
Willi Apel,
(Cambridge:
and Co.,
19 64)
p.
10.
12
It
is
Resonance
the
is
In a wind
acoustical characteristics of
various instruments.
called
The musical
upper partials
.).
^fn=
"
2n,
See figure 5,
880 = 4n
660 = 3n
440 = 2n
220 =
Figure 5
Corresponding frequencies of
partials above their fundamental
13
The second
is a
harmonic series.
It consists
of
Figure
called the
fundamental and an
a
6
illustrates the
h.^o"'
:"
0^
-o+
e-
12
10
11 12
13
14
15 16
Figure 6
Harmonic series with c fundamental
A vibrating body vibrates not only as a whole, but also
in segments of 1/2,
Willi Apel,
Music (Cambridge:
10.
14
Figure
Pictoral representation
of vibrating segments
loud.
Combined
with the fundamental, these tones fuse and blend with each
other so that the ear hears the tone as a whole.
It
is
color or timbre.
its tone
substantial effect
have
Tone production
in
that in
In
15
16 ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
xc
Figure 8
Length and corresponding
pitch of air columns
Figure
16
wave length
^It.^
Figure 9
Open pipe illustration
As
can be seen
in
These points
(L)
represent areas
wavelength
is
is
measured from
seen
(in
figure
9)
density where
an area of high
It is a node
(N)
Located
Recalling that
it can
be
17
wave length
-?
TL
v.. /
Figure 10
Closed pipe illustration
In a
stopped pipe,
is always
antinode (L)
beginning.
a node
(N)
is always
Because wavelength
to frequency,
is
inversely proportional
specified length
of
different construction.
while closed
18
meanings.
It also is
involved in
more
lightly at one of
If a vibrating string
is
touched
it will
Figure 11
Dividing nodes
note.
For
harmonics,
in
a small circle
19
_0_
T^
Figure 12
Natural harmonic notation indicators
4^
Touch this
node
^^a #^-#
Sounds
Written
Finger thisV
fundamental
Figure 13
Artificial harmonic notation
On
the
Overblowing is
overblowing or venting.
process of
lips.
Venting is
located at or near
is possible
a node.
procedure of opening
hole
by
to
20
o ).
fundamentals
-O-
_Q.
=fiT
t-i-
TTT
Figure 14
Possible harmonic fundamentals
to obtain
principles.
established acoustical
to approach successfully
CHAPTER III
THE FLUTE
Construction
as a
basis of
the
of
The flute is
Its
in
is
the form of
of
This narrowing
head joint.
is
located
equal to
York:
2
York:
J.
W.
Bachus
21
22
12.2
ttim
Figure 15
Flute head joint measurements
C~^
or rectangular
long dimension.
is
either elliptical
and about
Boehm:
10.4
480
in.).
The
the body of
the
and
thirteen tone
an
York:
to
24.
F lute
Playing (Mew
23
10
11 12 13
head joint
embouchure
hole
d#
low b
trill
trill
Figure 16
The flute
The tenon
is
today,
flutes in use
the keys.
Preference for
joints)
is
personal.
Since
standardized.
24
In the
and French model flutes are built and played, but the
In France,
England is as heterogeneous as
open-hole model.
1881)
in
(1794
The
In fact,
it is often called
bore structure.
with
conical based
25
He found
that because of
the
Through
a small
head joint.
the
670 millimeters
the air column.
(mm)
which
theoretical length of
is the
of the cork.
the
to the face
It exists to
47.
26
the
string of
as large as
keys
(d and d#
to aid
and
They are
duplicates the thumb plate are also closed notes but are
the
player.
of
This new
matter of taste.
various substances
Modern
York:
Wooden
27
projection power.
The heavier
In
in
Acoustical Properties
the partials in
Because of
its
certain of
inharmonic.
referred to
as
It
is
is
partials is at
a modicum.
York:
'note'
is almost
(New
28
entirely composed of
an
figure 17)
Figure 17
Sinusoidal wave-form
The power
an
The breath
of
7
E. G. Richardson, The_Acous t i^cs_of _Orche s t r a 1
Instruments and Organ (London: E. Arnold and Co., 19 29),
p.
48.
8
of Contemporary Techniqu es
Press, 1975) , p. 1.
9
York:
J.
W.
A Performance Manual
Oxford University
Bachus
29
Tone Production
on the flute.
in turn function to
is
the slower it is
The player's
dynamic level or
"Loudness is the
if the
it is
In other words,
a high
degree
forced through
small opening
the air
30
degrees)
in order
is
to produce the
considered a "good"
By changing
is
the size
the
edge or core of the sound produced and can cause the pitch
to rise or become
sharp.
the pitch
to
achieve
(for example:
As
column direction.
the air
ciits the
edge of the
isaimedlow
(with the lower jaw pulled back), the column focal point
31
is directed more into the
stream
across the embouchure hole and the ease with which the
higher register
The same
in or out
These external
(with slight
tone quality
play
This is
pitch other than that for which the instrument was built
in
420.
32
slide tenon
lower.
This results
little or no
the player
In essence,
a correctly
focused sound will only play at the pitch for which it was
is used less as a
Vibrato
Vibrato is
its
"^'^
A_Handbook
12 Thomas Howell, The Avant- Garde Flute;
for Composers and Flutists (Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 1974), p. 7.
13
Brought to the attention of this writer in a
conversation with Edward C. Troupin, April, 1980.
14
Robert Donington, "Vibrato," in Grove's Dictionary
St. Martin's
of Music and Musicians Vol. 8 (New York:
Press, Inc., 1954), p. 765.
,
33
throat muscles.
method because
it is more
difficult to control.
When the
vibrato
The pulses
tension
in either
sound.
is an intensity vibrato.
cin
produces
^^
The
created.
15
William Montgomery, "Flute Tone Production, Part
II," The Instrumentalist , Vol. 33, no. 3 (October 1978),
p. 45.
34
In the
the
in slight
arise out of
and
the
because of
produces
of
a
An
Full
is brought
Primarily, vibrato
is used for
expressive purposes in a
16
Thomas Howell, The Avant-Garde Flute; A Handbook
University of
for Composers and Flutists (Los Angeles:
California Press, 1974), p. 10.
35
Overblowing
is closely
production.
tone
discussed before,
vibrating string
As
characteristic aggregate
needed to produce
the
The
it
6).
This
to bi
is
pressure.
36
A
f|:#
Fundamental
octave
* ir*
vented
harmonics
1st overtone
2nd overtone
octave
octave
Figure 18
Octave breakdown
,
fundamental octave.
is
lips.
in
octave displacement.
frequency of 440.
it can be
Doubling that
an
octave higher.)
The air
37
The
fundamentals.
These
the notes of
it as being caused by
this
the
air contained
38
the tube
the sides of
the holes
correct this
"^^
To
This process of
in turn
As
is
(N)
confusing statement,
In
(L)
an antinode
(L)
of the note
York:
19
p.
47.
39
Figure 19
Single vented notes
Figure
20
desired pitch
is represented by
);
the
40
vent
b: t)^
3e:
vents
:E:
^^ = *$
t=^
i -o
j--^
<>
3rd
4th
5th
partial
partial
partial
Figure 20
Corresponding vented fingerings
of upper register pitches
is a similar process
desired harmonic.
fingering a
(ds)
in
figure 20 seems to
Its vented
the other
fingering is an octave
a fifth.
gi.
The
(as shown in
the fundamental
(using the
41
When opened,
the fingering
which is d3 (see
harmonic series
figure 21)
- 3rd
- 2nd
^J
II
partial
partial
fundamental
(1st partial)
Figure 21
Fundamental q\ with partials
As
The acoustical
is
the antinode
that
(L)
to the
20
C. B. Hilton, "Acoustics and Upper Register
Fingerings," Instrumentalist Vol. 21 (February 1976), pp.
,
60-63.
42
^:
\:
^ i
it
""
Figure 22
Illustration of inward, movement
venting process
The 3 and
#3
represented
finger hole involve a shift in the left hand thumb key and
This movement
opens a key that lies between the first and second finger
the actual
Harmonics
Harmonics, defined
series
overtone
These
43
overblowing.
in 1/2 results in
slight
acquisition, it
is
also used to
While venting
register note
a degree in harmonics.
octave.
dtf2-
As
fundamental
To
than the
flute,
there are no
flute does
the
18)
The notes of
are in fact
44
of as such because of
timbre. 21
As
-e-
Figure 23
Designation of harmonic
producing
available to the
in terms
of fingerings.
45
:l:il=:l:
:^t:
-^
J2.
+i. ^tf.ijfz^i'j^
^Mi4i,^>'fe4iU;m;i
(
= desired harmonic
= possible fundamantal
Figure 24
Illustration of harmonic possibilities
flutists due to
adjustment
is
difficulty.
Basically,
and embouchure
They
or b3.
it is
Another
flute (low ci or b)
is perfectly vented.
in
Therefore, the
46
(or b)
located near ci
The
many possibilities
for them.
technical facility.
in
increasing
an
For example,
if
A _H and book
Thomas Howell, The Avant- Garde Flute;
University of
(Los Angeles:
California Press, 1974), p. 14-15.
22
f or_Comosers_and_Flut_ists
47
[iff ^LffIf:||:CMrftr-^ftf:||
Figure 25^3
Facility exercize
23
Technical facility exercize (memorized) as taught by
Robert Cavally. Based on the flute orchestral excerpt
from The Moldau (from Ma Vlast by Bedrich Smetana.
)
CHAPTER IV
CONTEMPORARY PRACTICES
technical requirements
in the
involved in instrumental
Those
subject to examination
monophonic sonorities;
special effects;
Monophonic Sonorities
Monophonic sonorities,
as the name
single sound
harmonics
Harmonics
Artificial harmonics
derived from
fundamental according
48
to the acoustical
49
It
is
also
apparent fundamentals.
These
"artificial" harmonics.
are referred to as
be used as
These
_a
^QO.^OS
desired
pitch
'natural'
'artificial'
Figure 26
Harmonic derivation
(see figure 6)
at
f undamental^
Notat i
ona1 1y
addition to the
in
(
"
fingerings for
B.
50
Octave harmonics
In addition
is
The
referred to as fundamental
octave harmonics.
As discussed
of
It
is
Because
not available.
of
this range
(b
to f2)
By definition,
'spread'
in
*>
a fundamental.
can be employed,
51
Whistle tones
William
He used whistle
of this
tones as
relaxation^.
8va
8va
fundamental
partials
fundamental
(WT)
partials
(WT)
Figure 27
Whistle tones
52
the
the air spilling over the edge of the lip plate without
The
the whistle
its
name.
tones.
with a footnote.
Some composers
sounding
fingering
WT
Figure 28
Whistle tone notation
They are
53
twenty feet.
is
and articulation
nearly impossible.
Pitch Changes
ing le pi t c
hes
and altered
a pitch without
alteration:
fingerings
Bending pitches
jaw up and
down or by rolling the flute out and in, one can achieve
this effect.
pitches through
This
positioned upward
if blown downward
(ud to
54
a 1/2 step flat).
It is much easier to
pitch down
lip
Unclear
in
is
the direction in which the tone is bent, but not the exact
degree of its distortion.
for
j^j
>u ^u
f
-tf
l*"^
^^^
^n
Y^f
1/4 sharp
"t
3/4 sharp
^\,
4 4
+-
2^"*'
'Ir
1/4 flat
3/4 flat
^*
Figure 29
Pitch bending - varies by composer
Muting tones
trumpet.
in
55
fingerings.
By closing boles
The
spread tones.
(preferably soft)
tissue or cloth
This is an
several notes
preparation.
It
to be lost but is
longer in
be
the size
56
tape
Figure 30
Flute embouchure hole muting
Altered fingerings
normally be opened.
of the
It
is
the
of
they wish
57;
them to be used.
is
the opposite
eEfect
passages.
common partial of
two different
would support
fundamentals.
It is possible to
The notation
is
The
is timbral
in
tune.
non-resonant,
diffuse quality.
58
primarily
as "inflected pitches".
normal fingerings,
resonant as
normal usage-
Fingerings
pitches as it does in
is
that of microtones.
Basically,
or smaller fraction of
the interval.
such larger
easily be produced.
A complete
59
holes.
is
flute
On the French
model flute
The
(#6,
#6a)
also closes
mechanism makes
(#7).
(#7,
The f# key
This linked
Drastically altered
desired microtones.
simply because
the:
flute
a
is
complete
60
Also,
to facile
mishaps.
addition,, these
In
softer or less
in
adjustments
This
that embouchure
Many times roiling
to amend pitches.
This can
This aspect of
microtones
Vibrato
to
In contemporary
61
expanded.
Depending upon
At the
is often
the
usually involves
(wide or narrow)
Notation
V v/\/\/\
-OAAAAA/v
r
fast vib.
slow vib.
wide vib.
narrow vib.
Figure 31
Vibrato notations
62
In
As with the
descriptive instructions
Uneven
r
Figure 32
Uneven vibrato notation
vibrato.
For
does
in
whole or a half
63
intervals
microtonal pitches.
all
Most
trill indicator
(
They are
tjv>.~
plus the
^)
tnf
'
Figure 33
Harmonic trill notation
in that
Microtonal
64
be as much as a
standard
in the
I*
or
Notation
for these
or
I*
or
etc.
f^--^*^.*-^^^
or
1/4 up
1/4 down
Figure 34
Microtonal trill notation
As with altered fingerings
in
Extended Range
vast
65
Figure 35
Extended flute ranges
Literature
in
These
They are
fingering positions.
66
15va
,/ !
ml
o
I
0^^
15va
# o
o 0|
OS
15va
I
o
15va
ifc
03
67
15va
'
oo
o open key
closed key
^
p
"^
thumb key
bi
thumb key
Figure 36
Extended upper register fingerings
as
It was
used as early
his Duos fur Zwei Floten opus 39, the first duo in e
contains
a low b in the
In
minor
part.
1843,
in
early as
the
Night's Dr eam.
low
b''
Actually, this
low
b''
produce a low
br
Some manufacturers
in
these specific
68
become
accessory.
popular or necessary
By pulling
the head joint of the flute out one inch, all of the notes
u
Thus by fingering
will sound.
low b, low b
subtone sounding
an octave lower.
According to acoustical
inside the
Because it is
subtone,
it
is
exceedingly soft
dynamically.
be discussed
in
Special Effects.
in
and will
69
Glissando/Portamento
often
This act is
erroneously referred
Strictly speaking,
to as glissando.
such as
the piano.
not
referred to
3.1 i.s,s
as such.
ando
the
is known as
several ways
sliding
lip slides,
pitch.
The open
a
greater
in pitch can be
b'^2
(see
figure
70
Figure 37
Key slides
b'^i
unattainable.
to f3 thus extending
it is
the range
joint only.
By removing the
joint
in length
When the
71
3^
-Ljl) (=?:)
X-*-)'
^i-
i i
l#
B2
Bl
Figure 38
Head joint portamentos
As the
inserted (such
38-Bi).
is
to descend until
- see figure
it
it reaches
An
At approximately 9.7
in a pitch that
air pressure.
72
figure 38-B2)
in
varying
Variations or
8va
<J-<-.-^ -
Figure 39
Second partial portamentos with the head joint
,
head joint
in both
is 33 and the
is d#2.
half
Intuitively, if both
note d#2.
6)
tritone is by
and
finding the
The result of
dividing
73
by
in
is
1.4.
tritone.
explanation of
joint slide
By slowly closing
the hand,
At
this point
joint
By overblowing
jump
3*^3
to
can be attained.
Practically, it
is
is
possible theoretically.
removed (opened).
74
8va_
i^^
m
closed
open
closed
open
+:
-^1
closed
open
C
Figure 40
Optional pitches for portaraentos
with head joint and hand
is achieved
the fist.
By
the player
lipped down
are a2 to ai
a^ 3 to
(lower if
75
f.
:SI
closed
open
closed
open
B
Figure 41
Portamentos with head joint and fist
protamento effect.
achieve the
as
lengthen
It
should be
Special Effects
This
in
traditional monophonic
76
Articulation
Tonquinq practices
In
beginnings of
Some of the
of
articulations that
in
order.
Fluttertonquinq
Cine
It was
first
77
Fluttertonguing
best described as
(f latter
zunge
is
producing d-r-r-r."^
It
is
similar to
string
f luttertongue
It is best described as
rolling motion
the dental r.
This
Some refer to it
luttertongue is best
in loud
the flutter.
flutter can
It is
in
the more
fluttertonguing.
of
There is not
Also, some
It is
suggested that
if the
6
Willi Apel, "Tonguing," i n H a r v a r d _D i^c t i^o n a r y;_o f^
(Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University
Musi^c
Press, 1977) , p. 857.
78
register.
Because it
is
flutter
in
softer flutter,
the low
it is most
Fluttertonguing can
uiis-v^
::=i
rrr
fl
fl
fffff
Figure 42
Fluttertonguing notation
In
>
In
a wide
By combining
79
?1
breath accent
at the
^^
>
and the
to
discussed
>
),
in
t)
which is a toneless
warm the
note.
tendency that is
Key clicks
For many
register notes.
is
80
vibration. "7
.in
(as
as
achieved.
a flute is
pitch
open pipe.
The first
note is initiated
is
the
It results in
The
a cross
notation most
(+)
above the
43-A).
The pitches
Angeles:
A Handbook
University of
81
exceptions).
figure43-B).
is
The range of
43-C).
jo.
jc^o.
|;o.p
o.^;
I
Figure 4 3
Key slaps
By closing the embouchure hole with the tongue or chin,
the flute becomes
stopped pipe.
are produced.
down from
With the
4 4).
82
(+)
(+)
embouchure hole
stopped
fe
fingering
sounding
(+)
f^
Figure 4 4
Closed embouchure hole key slaps
resulting sounds
closed
83
(+)
(+)
1)
^'
j)
})
fingered
sounding
Figure 45
Closed embouchure hole key slap
notation
is sealed, these
and
itself.
In
(stopped
Due to
fingerings.
to
the
84
addition to
In
pitches.
in
initiating
as fluttertonguing,
tremolo tonguing
(used in place of
to
clicks.
that of tongue
"tok" percussive
either with
of
method yields
The second
more resonant.
mostly to
85
M3
to an
standardized.
Often,
not
is
nd
rather unused
mutations.
clicks.
tongue click
r
(k)
kt
r
tongue click
into embouchure
hole
(kt)
kt
I
Figure 4 6
Tongue click notation
This
technique is
tongue.
The
in tongue rams
86
Notation
(T)
'
^ ^^
^J^
t
Figure 47
Tongue ram notation
Noise Elements
is noise
traditional performance
87
position).
playing
A low,
hole.
In addition,
it is
88
Well known
in
air escapes.
so that no
as a quick way to
'warm-up' the
to tongue
The timbre,
(as
when
89
(dovm)
i!
(across)
Figure 4 8
Air stream direction into
embouchure hole
in jet
mechanism.
ti]
to
[u]
This difference
in
In
the
jet
High
90
levels.
Unfortunately,
a second or
It
is the range
two.
determinator
is blown.
in
Essentially, it
In this respect,
consideration
Contemporary Techniques
In
Performance Manual of
imposing
91
(out)'
angle of flute
fingering - \/
(in)
[i]
vowel
[u]
dynamics
ff
Figure 49
Jet whistle notation^
to the
The first
is
similar
a phrase that
through
the
3
Robert Dick, The Other Flute;
of Contemporary Techniqu es (London:
Press, 1975) , p. 135.
Some
A Performance Manual
Oxford University
92
It is sometimes
treating the
The sound is
lip-reed instrument
technique
is
a brass
variation of this
The
instrument imposes
the octave.
to lip
rather than
Pedal pitches
very softly.
Standardized notation
It is therefore
necessary
93
The
The buzzing
to
process is often
It also
creates large
to rust.
of the keys
It is designed
as an
...
as well
as
(semitone
to be
The
A Handbo ok
University
for
of
94
and consonants.
is
Notation
by no means standardized.
Stage Directions
This category
is best
encompasses
might be required,
be it audio or visual.
This includes
Masks by
type of staging)
95
theatrical gestures.
and
sections or for
All of
the composer
Masks by
As mentioned before,
Oliver Knussen is
a good
performance.
it is
96
the flute.
in Voi.ce
timbre of
by Toru Takemitsu.
The
discussed here as
flute literature.
The
R.
Haubens tock-Ramati
This piece
with himself.
mobile and
performed
Any of
these newer
to the
Multiple Sonorities
97
the range of
ins t rumen t
[the]
."'
Contemporary
to
residual tones.
Residual Tones
the flute.
consists of
Acoustically,
partials sounding.
To
of the
residual tone
Residual tones
A full
range
of
At
in
98
fingering
residual tone
dynamic marking
R
fff
optional
Figure 50
Residual tone notation
is
as
"pedal key" or
It
the
illusion
This technique is
gi to c#2
right hand
be produced.
of__ContemDorarY_Techni^ues
Press,
this
1975*")
p.
133.
99
The pedal
in
this
in the other
technique actually
dT^2
It is caused by
Their
to
diF2
is
from dT2
notes gi to c#2.
the
to the
the
on
flute.
This
as R. Kirk,
I.
Anderson, and
p.
651.
100
H. Mann.
It has since
become
technique involves
constant flow
In
not visually
(b
to
02)
"vocal
This
to sing
(or
discover that
very strong
acoustical
the
101
sings
melody,
more
is
two
in
Another facet
of combination tones.
together,
a third
Its frequency is
are sounded
(differential tones)
mu
1 1 i
p le
"
1 5
as
easily
primary pitches.
as
a differential
is
in
- fi = fd'
difficult to hold
half step,
15
Willi Apel, "Combination Tone," in Harvard
Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, Massacuset ts
Harvard
University Press, 1977), p. 185.
:
102
instead
residue tone.
o|._Music_and_Mu
si^c i_an
in pitch.
the resultant is
a group of
would
If a
remain
The dynamic
is not
loud
1980)
p.
755.
103
This
always given
up to the performer.
type of
notation that specifies both the sung and played pitches
I
Figure 51-B is
an
Pla
J played
sun g
4]a
- e - oh
ah
Figure 51
Sing and play notation
104
sung
^^
Figure 52
Two staffed sing and play notation
is
in part due to
some of the problems that arise with sung and played notes
on the flute.
female, and by
substitution
is suitable
to the composer.
the octave
In many cases,
falsetto in order
composers do
vibrato.
stream that
is that of
105
played pitches
is
(which
process.
This
is
not saying
The
in
the
is that of
or more
Heiss,
J.
C.
Double-Stops;
106
to
standard fingerings.
This process
produced.
The
s=:
i^^
Figure 53
Double stop notation
fingered note
107
occur by fingering
its tone to
sound.
altered fingerings.
As discussed under
Monophonic
use of
By
(through the
a^
Ei:
Figure 54
Double stops
(d
and d#).
This is a
Of all of the
108
'^
'=)
#po|
Figure 55
Double stops
The
multiphonics
Because of
CHAPTER V
MULTIPHONICS
A
multiphonic
from two
of
to
simultaneous sounding
The interval
multiphonic consist of a
combinations in between.
York:
defined in
109
Techniques (New
110
be
to
sonority becomes
Controlling the
sonorities
is
basically
in order to
in
in
concept to
page 35)
reach the
2
Thomas Howell, The Avant-Garde Flute; A Handbook for
Composers and Flutists
(Los Angeles:
University of
California Press, 1974), p. 33.
r-
111
individually
." 3
stream strikes
This
the
same duration.
multiphonic,
sonority tends
predominate.
sonority of
As mentioned earlier,
multiphonics are at
This often
the
But
to
help
Sounding
fingering, the
112
the air
This process
is
the
By
to
the
of the
achieved with one method than the other and only by trial
and error can the
Furthermore, the
to the embouchure
placement
Acoustically,
of a
113
tone. "4
To
be understood.
sound
with
With a
fingering in use.
series.
this
stream that
Higher
will result
is because
(E)
This
J. C.
Triple -Stops;
114.
114
(see figure
56).
E^-ft3^
Figure 56
Formula for energy in relation
to density and velocity
level will
When producing a
that
This is functionally
involves
in
(as
involve
in a rim vent).
For example,
is
(ci or b,
115
holes
in
(see figure
antinode
its
to
creating an
of maximum or
in the
density at points
antinode.
vented.
energy is released.
116
be
to
Several
categorization principles.
frequencies
in
frequency.^
then is used to
a derived
The Other
sections.
natural harmonics.
M2.
and
be
"Woodwind Development:
A Monophonic and
Woodwind World; Brass and
Percussion
Vol. 14, no. 3 (June 1975), p. 14-16.
Thomas Howell, The Avant-Garde Flute
7
A Handbook for
Composers and Flutists
(Los Angeles:
University of
California Press, 1974), p. 63-180.
8
Robert Dick, The Ol^er Flute; A Performance Manual
of Contemporary Techniques
(London;
Oxford University
Press, 1975)
p. 81-127.
6
L. Singer,
117
Also, it is
response.
(such as dynamics)
of the pitches of
Many of these
These
chromatic scale.
as
The results
logical
partials.
The
based on the
These multiphonics
118
lA
etc,
<fr*
etc,
Figure 57
Overtone based multiphonics
This process of
One group
^
"^
\>\>j
Figure 58
Long tube-length multiphonics
119
w.
oo^o#o|S
0# V oo&
Figure 59
Short tube-length multiphonics
use of the
to achieve multiphonics.
The
first
These
fundamental.
to
figure 60)
^^
Figure 60
An underblown multiphonic
120
C2 is
foreign to
just as
the
to
simultaneously.
venting.
is possible
w
A
Figure 61
Multiphonics with microtonal intervals
pitches.
9
microtonal
A Handbo ok for
University
of
121
Howell'5.
in
As normally read,
12 or
24
e Pp
tone system.
is not
would be played as d2
in a 31 tone
arrangement
is
601.7,
is
604.5.
sonority.
and many
in
their
example of
Figure 62 is an
difference tone,
p.
61.
A Handbo ok
University
for
of
122
1258.4
1006 4
252.0
.
(^V~-B-)
difference tone
e^3 f^s^^s"cy
c*'3 frequency
251.6
given frequency
of
cl?]_
Figure 62
Multiphonic with difference tone
With
system becomes
acquire access
available
to present a
As with numerous
Under Monophonic
is-
in
conjunction
case,
sonorities,
Unfortunately,
is
The
in this
theoretically feasible.
lip
123
adjustments.
Trills that
33 and 34).
effect.
problematic
An
^^^
a-9^
-e-
b^
^^
o^o 0|!
T
Figure 63^0
Multiphonics with trills
such as
(unless
A Performance Manual
Oxford University
124
to
produce
stable.
mult iphonic
The fluctuation
but in order
that of
articulation).
the most
category of
as vibrato),
strong multiphonics
(see figure
64-A)
or as
an
fl-
fl
>
a:
9 o o o
A
fl<
Figure 64
Multiphonic with f luttertonguing
to
125
aspect
An unusual
multiphonic for
multiphonic
sonorities.
and
non -
vo c a
multiphonic sonorities.
be
is
that of
vocalized
incorporated into
is
CHAPTER
IV,
effect
the
As discussed
By combining
126
is very
effective.
combination of
SOo|g
A
Figure 65
Hum and play multiphonic notation
provides
In traditional
normal relation of
With multiphonics,
the
127
of flux, "11 and the
This necessitates
is
that
composer's
This is
It
is
the
also
to try
if placed in
This is caused
times
11
Thomas Howell, The Avant-Garde Flute; A Handbook
for Composers and Flutists
(Los Angeles:
University of
California Press, 1974), p. 32.
128
In the area of
next step
is
The
This
or without b foot)
should
composer is utilizing.
traditional notation
or noise content.
In multiphonic
a sonority differ
notation does
An additional complication
is
that
introduction of microtonal
The
ex.t
notation of these
would
129
problem.
mathematical quarter
(a
the
For example,
^^^ says
Functionally, as on
the piano, they are the same note, but in theory they are
different.
eT^2
and
f*^2*
^
688.1
4-
672.9
frequency
Figure 66
Theoretical pitches with frequencies
is
678.6
130
= 440,
partial solution,
discrimination.
pitches which do
t^te
Figure 67
Shaped note-head multiphonic
microtonal notation
It looks
it corresponds to that
131
Figure 68
Square -shaped note head as
fingering indicator
sonority.
performers.
This will
not
CHAPTER VI
NOTATION
Traditional notation is
are transmitted.
performer
as
possible. "1
In
the
to
notation was
intrinsically musical
piece.
These various
and
Any notational
First, it
Secondly,
time.
It
view that
1
G. Read, "The Dilemma of
Vol. 3, no. 1 (1971) , p. 22.
Notation," Composer
132
(.US
133
ability with
the
and time.
pitch
always maintained
subordinate role
in the scheme of
written music.
It was
necessary
competent
Traditional notation
obligations,
notation.
of
musical expression.
"3
The performer
to
is no longer cast
but now
This collaborative
effort
various
H. Cole, Sounds_ajid_Si^g^nsj
2
AsE^c t s _o f _Mu s
Notation (London;
Oxford University Press, 1974),
i^c
d.
18-21.
3
Vol.
G.
3,
(1971)
p.
23.
(US)
134
supplemental markings
writing music.
One of
Its
culmination
of notating
musical
It is referred to
as determinate notation.
is
The
indeterminate
the
avenues
ideas.
135
The merging of
its
sound
In
the area of
change.
effect.
is that of vibrato.
vary.
It also does
Composers of
a specified and
Harmonics,
Of course,
this
(chance)
136
(H)
intervals.
sense.
The
These
represent
is expected of them.
Also
137
sonorities.
microtonal
(such as
Traditional
seen in CHAPTER IV
in
simple form
adequate treatment.
(M)
as
especially
Many twentieth
freed melody to
The
At present, there is
no uniform
138
actual pitches.
to the
The major
interpreting phrasing,
in
Musical
matter of personal
tastes.
outcome of
to
Traditional notation,
ff
The traditional
to be more
139
ALAP - as
loud as possible
ASAP -
soft
"
"
^^^^-
^^^1
LUuU
Figure 69
Notations of various dynamic indicators
Placing dynamics
has
and will
Traditional notation
addition
is that
if
many times
140
The area of
rhythm
is where
(R)
4,
2,
16,
8,
etc.) where
the
/'^S^-^^ ^3"^-s)
of
thus changing
The more
if
simultaneously
polyr hy thms
precision is required.
high degree of
It is
Many contemporary
ensemble difficulties)
is
that of phrasing.
To remove
to
141
ri
r^V
nr
^=s^
-3M
u^
UTl
Figure 70
Notating phrases with
beams and brackets
If
marking
C'
""^'^)
11/8 or 15/16)
(such as
142
A -U_LJ
iq)
UA
noA
nAunu
HI)
I'Q
15
16
/15\
(^j
beats
=3
beats
beats
I
I
/\
I
Figure 71
Illustration of beat pattern figures
in
problem
measure.
The
found in traditional
143
executed.
be
Concerto
Figure 72 illustrates
establish control.
r7
01
^^
""
or ^^
V
or
+ + + and - - -
also
(free rubato-like figure)
Figure 72
Notation of controlled tempo changes
These examples are clearer than the older system, but are
still ambiguous and not very precise in their
delineation
is articulation.
It is in this
area that the need for clarity and precision has been most
144
needed.
of
implied or inferred.
(
means separated.
meaning, be it
in their
note
performer.
).
symbol.
This can
an indication
in an
the
beginning of notes.
For example,
separated or
<
^^^
),
seem inclined
articulations.
to
likely be
145
+ + + +
fl fl fl
I*
fluttertongue articulation
UlJ
sing
i*
I*
grunt
vocal articulation
br
3r
whistlt
whistle
bl'
t
- air noise
>
>
articulation
>
j
>
Figure 73
Notation of articulation
and contemporary devices
is
sloped down-stroke
^^^
very harsh to
('<-')
"^
to indicate
in the various
will
146
be.
(
y^
harsh?
strive
control using
to
proving to be inadequate
or at least
or growth.
too restrictive.
predic tabili ty
" 4
it
is
only
from the "tyranny of the bar line", but also from beat,
overall form,
and
composition.
Unfortunately,
Cope
147
Various Solutions
of
"^
Many new
to the numerous
survey of
significant proposals.
Pitch
With
confused.
too
J.
were
other composers.
1966/1972), p.
7.
141
particular piece.
form of
standardization is necessary.
It has
staff itself
involves using
Several
The first
c c# d d# e f f# g g# a a# b c
Figure 74
New seven line staff
The drawback
number
The
Equitone
It
reduces
the staff to one linear octave (see figure 75), with the
"clef" at the beginning indicating which c the
line is to
149
o o
-e-
c c# d d# e
-^
f
^ >
-e- -4-
f# g g# a
o
a# b c
Figure 75
Equitone linear octave
C2
ci
middle c
C
Figure 76
Equitone clef designations
be totally
Proprotional spacing of
that
systems in microtonal
non-diatonic notes.
to
indicate the
150
themselves.
revisions or with
The problem is
the microinterval
^,
4|r
50
(1/2
[^
25
75
1/4
3/4)
Figure 77
Microtonal indicators
Duration
One
of
bipartite-based construction.
dots, and
151
inflexible.
alterations that
as follows.
It
f f
l^jp
i|
ff
'
^"^ ^^
*^^
^ augment the
16
Bartolozzi
's
J
z
values necessary
>
32 r
13
4
If
Figure 78
durational revisions
the dot)
to
This
its
of shaped note-heads
He borrowed the
idea
It
152
/^ -
153
*
Figure 80
Proportional notation
by Earle Browne.
problem
The
of placement of accidentals.
the
0-C)
(see figure
markings.
and
it to take on the
154
available depends
are
practices found
is
determinate notation.
In
The first
compositions written in
The
gramophone
record. "6
avoidance of
It
of a
avant-garde notations
First
improvisation in that
T.
is
tested here
155
as he must adapt to whatever
such as
dice.
if the
The
interpre taion or
It
is
similar to
is
of the
really
implicit notation.
There
this area.
the
in
conventional notation.
in
combination with
in
7
K. Stone, "Notation," in Dictionary of Contemporary
Music, Edited by J. Vinton (New York:
E. P. Dutton and
Co., 1974), p. 521.
156
IhH
Figure 81
Frame notation indicators
Rhythm, repetition
interpret at will.
in
performer to
of
is
the use of
It is
freer
idea
the composer.
its basis.
157
interpretation of
the performer.
compositions.
to
common
in avant-garde
whether
Figure 82
Indicative notation
speed.
It
increase in the
of
158
Contemporary
Notational Systems
it becomes
There seems
compounded by an abundance
of new symbols
It is
and an
order for
In
following requirements.
conventional notation
Since
the
of signs.
eliminating
A new
It should,
the
too
159
It must be flexible,
allowing
indeterminate).
Music
attempts
Unfortunately, it is limited
In
the
an
It is
innovations
is
located
In 1974, at
160
point of view.
It is
of contemporary
CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
in
With
avant-garde literature
is
learning
the theoretical
now being
avant-garde literature is
First of all,
to
161
of
Much
162
of this
to
or.
per formers
communication
is
devices.
This lack of
the
of the composer.
styles is
consistent or "core"
Recommendations
...
is
faced
and apparent
of new
163
musical idioms."^
To
be followed
of
avant-garde music.
in
instruments.
of these phenomena
is assimilated, the
these acoustical
in gaining exposure
as
literature as possible.
of the piece.
It is
By making the
of action.
1
Leonard Stein, "The Performer's Point of View,"
Perspectives on Notation and Performance
Edited by B,
Boretz and E. T. Cone (New York:
W. W. Norton and Co.,
.
Ind.,
1976)
p.
50.
164
it
and
itself.
in
notation is
avant-garde devices.
This requires
fundamental
Until
composers wishing
point of view.
in
165
Additional research or
implemented.
in need of further
In
the area
notation,
consistency
in
In
the area of
166
APPENDIX A
LISTS OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES THAT SUPPLJf
FINGERINGS FOR MULTIPHONIC SONORITIES
Dick, R
Th e _0 1 h e r _F 1 u t e 2.
A Performance Manual of
Contemporary Techniques
University Press, 1975.
Dick, R
Oxford
London:
154 p.
Fischer, P.
"New Sounds for Flute," Lecture-recital
College Park, Maryland: Sunday, February 8, 19 76.
Heiss, J. C.
"For the Flute:
A List of Double-Stops;
Triple-Stops; Quadruple-Stops; and Shakes,"
Perspe ctives on Notation and Performance
Edited
by B. Boretz and E. T. Cone.
W. W.
New York:
.
Heiss, J. C.
pp.
114=116.
P..s2.ectives_on
Edited by B. Boretz
W. W.
Heiss,
Howell, T
T h e _ A V a n t - G a r d e _F l^u t e j_
A Handbook for
Composers and Flutists
Los Angeles:
University
of California Press, 1974.
290 p.
.
Pellerite,
J.
Flute
Second edition.
Zalo Publications, 1972.
.
62 pp.
Read, G.
pp.
50-55.
167
APPENDIX
Boustead, A.
Cole,
London:
Oxford
So^iil^s _a n d_Si211S.J
Notation
London:
:^E.ts _o f _Mu s _i c a 1
Oxford University Press, 1974.
162 p.
"ContemporaryNotation
Cope, D.
Instrumentalist
Vol.
30,
Cope, D.
Books, 1977.
Music,"
in
New York:
Schirmer
351 p.
Cope, D.
Dart, T.
Iowa:
New York:
Perkins, J.M.
Read, G.
1969.
452 p.
Risatti, H.
N e w_Mui^c_Vocabular_;^j
A_Gu_ide_to
219 p.
Smith Brindle, R.
Since 1945
The_New_Mu_icj
London:
T he Avant-Garde
1975. 206 p.
Stone, K.
168
APPENDIX C
LIST OF SELECTED COMPOSITIONS FOR SOLO FLUTE
Berio, Luciano.
f^ Solo Flute.
Milan:
Paris:
Se3H..I12..
Suvini Zerboni.
Bozza, Eugene.
Alphonse Leduc.
Dick, Robert.
Aft erlight for Solo Flute. Appendix B
A_P e r f o r m a n c e _M a n u a 1 _o
o f The O ther Flute
London:
Oxford
Con temper a rY,_Techni_aues.
;
Durant, David.
Mli.i_^I._Il2.^2in2^Ili.^_lll.H.i..
Gainesville,
Florida.
(London) Ltd.
Heiss, John.C.
Hovhaness, Alan.
San
New York:
C.
F. Peters Corporation.
Huston, Scott.
Flute).
of
Jolivet, Andr^
London:
Boosey
Knussen, Oliver.
&
New York:
G. Schirmer.
Levy, Burt.
Mason, Thorn.
Th o Iialli:.
Publications.
Pompilo, Jan.
Bloomington, Indiana:
Antonio, Texas:
Zalo
San
169
Reynolds, Roger.
New York:
C.
F.
Salzedo, Carlos.
Volute and Rondel for Flute Alone.
Cincinnati, Ohio:
Albert J. Andraud, Wind
Instrument Music Library.
Stidfole, Arthur.
New York:
Smith
Paris:
Solitaire.
Publications.
Takemitsu, Toru
Editions Salabert.
Varise, Edgard
York:
Ricordi.
New
170
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appleton,
J. H. and R. C. Perera.
The Development and
Practice of Electronic Music
New Jersey:
PrenticeHall, Inc., 1975.
384 p.
.
Bachus,
J.
York:
W.
New
Ballantine,
C.
"Towards an Aesthetic of Experimental
Music," Musical Quarterly Vol. 63, no. 2 (1977), pp.
224-246.
,
Bartoloz zi
B
Ne w Sounds for Woodwind
Translated and
edited by R. S. Brindle.
London:
Oxford University
Press 1967. 78 p
.
Bartolozzi,
B.
"Proposals for Changes in Music Notation,"
Translated by B. Shepard
Jou r n a 1 _o f _Mu s j^c_Th e o r y
Vol. 5, no. 2 (1961), pp. 297-301.
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Benade,
H.
Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics
Oxford University Press, 1976.
569 p.
A.
York:
New
Benade,
A. H.
"The Physics of Wood Winds," The Physics
of Music
San Francisco:
W. H. Freeman and Co.,
October 1960. 98 p
,
Boehm, T.
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Bollard,
D.
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Bou stead,
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_i
n a_D o wn_Mu s i c
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Chittum, D.
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Cope, D.
no.
2,
Cope,
'
Composer (US)
"
"Contemporary Notation
D.
Instrumentalist
Cope,
Vol.
D.
W. C. Brown Co.,
Books, 1977.
New York:
t a t i^o n
122 p.
Th e Interpretation of Music
T.
Schirmer
Dubuque, Iowa:
Dart,
Dubuque, Iowa:
351 p.
Ne w_Mu s ic_No
Cope, D.
Music,"
28-32.
pp.
140 p.
1971.
Cope, D.
in
Vol. 3,
New York:
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192 p.
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A Performance Manual of
Contemporary Techniques
London:
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Dick, R
Press, 1975.
154 p.
Th e _0 1 h e r _F 1 u t e 2.
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Dick, R
Donington, R.
and Musicians
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St.
(Vol. 8,
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Ehle, R. C.
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Relationship to the History of Western Classical
Music)," The Am erican Music Teacher Vol. 26, no. 1
,
(1976)
pp.
20-22.
Ehle, R.C.
no.
(1975)
pp.
23-27.
Erickson, R.
Everett, T.
"Five Questions:
Composer (US)
Everett,
Vol.
3,
no.
US
Vol.
3,
no.
(1971), pp.
"Five Questions:
T.
Composer
33-38.
(1971), pp.
52-54.
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,
and Ap preciation from Wagner to the Avant-Garde.
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J.
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pp. 62-65.
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Fischer, P.
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Gardner,
J.
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no. 25, October 1976. pp. 24-26.
Griffiths, P.
1977.
Heiss, J. C.
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A List of Double-Stops;
and Shakes,"
Triple-Stops; Qu ad r up le - S t o p s
;
W.
W.
Edited by
Norton and
Heiss,
J. C.
"The Flute: New Sounds," P erspectives on
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Edited by B. Boretz and E.
T. Cone.
New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1976.
pp. 207-212.
.
Hilton, C. B.
Hornyak, R.
Howell,
T
T h e _A V a n t - G a r d e _F_1 u t e 2.
Composers and Flutists
Los Angeles:
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A_H a n d bo o k _f o
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Richardson,
E. G.
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30-53.
Risatti,
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E.
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E.
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176
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
the tender age of seven she moved with her family (two
parents, one grandmother, a younger brother, and a canary
Typical of
was
heaven-sent relief.
to
was
returned
the
flute was
instituted.
If memory
a beginning, or at least a
177
continuation.
Bardwell
M.
Baird Fouse.
and
Terence
Upon
objective.
He
as a
teacher.
level.
In
college
Introduction to
in
178
teaching.
in
a reading orchestra,
4/^ hC4^
^^'^^^g/Zj^V/i/KyM.
Edward C. Troupin
Professor of Music
S. Philip
Professor of Mus
U/utov>^
Albert Smith
Professor of Curriculum and
Instruction
This dissertation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
the Division of Curriculum and Instruction in the College
of Education and to the Graduate Council, and was accepted
as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy.
May, 19 82
j.<iC^^
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA