DRAWING KO, wl 3 eg OO. N 2 <—w | J IN a ne SE Gee ee Pe ‘ (Buttarworth-Hoinemann An imprint of Elsevier Science: Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford 0X2 BOP 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington MAG1803 First published by Amold 1968 ‘Sacand edition by Amold 1974 Reprinted by Butter worh-Hememann 2001, 2003 Copyright © K Moeing 1974. Allrights reserved The right of K Morfing to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted In accordance with the Copyright, Designsand Patents Act 1568 ‘No pant of this publication may be reproduced in ary material form {inckiding photocapying or storing in any medium by electronic means [and whothar oF not transiently ov incidentally to soma other use of this publication) \without tha written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England, WIT 4LP. Applications for the copyright hoider’s writen permission to reproduce any part ofthis publication should be addressed to the publishers Permissions may be sought directly rom Elsevier's Science and Technology Rights Gepartment in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) (0) 1665 843690; fax: (+44) (0) 1865 853333; @-mai: pormissions(@oetsevier.co.uk, You may asa complete your request or-ine via the Elsavier Science homepage (http://www. elsevier.com), by selecting ‘Customer ‘Support’ and then ‘Obtaining Permissions’. ‘Whilst tha acvies and information in this book is beifeved to be true-and accurate atthe die of going to press, neither the author nor publisher can accept any legal responsibilty or lability for any errors or omissions that may be made, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available trom the Birtish Library (SBN 07191 34198 For more information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications Please visit our website at www:bh.com [Printed and bound in Graat Britain by The Bath Press, BathContents Pratacs to the second edition Acknowledgments PART | GEOMETRIC DRAWING Chapter 1 Scales a The reprosentative fraction; plain seal Giagonal scales: proportional scales. Exerciser 1 2 The construction of geometric figures from given dats 10 Construction of the following triangles: Equilateral, given one of the sides lsoscoles, given the perimeter and altitude Scalene, given base angles and altitude Scalene, given base, altitude and vertical angle Scalene, given perimeter and ratio of sides Scalene, given perimeter, altitude and vertical angie Similar triangles with different perimeter Construction of the following quedritaterals: ‘Square, given one side ‘Square. given the diagonal Rectangle, given the diagonal and one side Paraltelogram, given two sides and an angle Rhombus, given the disganal and length of sides ‘Trapazium, given the parailel sides, the perpendicular distance between them and ‘one angle Construction of the following polygons: Regular hexagon, given the langth of side Regular hexagon. given the diameter Regular octagon, given the diagonal {within a circle) Regular octagon, given the diameter (within # square) Regular polygon, given the length of side (thee methods) Regular polygon, given the diagonal (within: a circle) Regular potygon. given the dismeter Exercises 2 page Isometric projection 20 Conventional isometric projection (isometric drawing); circles and curves in isometric; tuue isomenic projection; isometric scales Exercises 3 26 ‘The construction of circles to satisfy given conditions 23 To construct the circumference, given the diameter To construct the diameter, given the circumference To find tha centre of a circle ‘To construct circles. given the following conditions: To pass through three given points inscribed circle of a regular polygon Circumseribed circle of a regular polygon Escribed circle to a regular polygon To pass through a fixed point and touch a line at a given point To pass through two given points and touch a given ine To touch two given fines and pass through a given point To touch another given circle and & given line: To touch another circle and two tangents of that circle To touch another circle and two given lines To pass through two given points and touch a given circle ‘Three circles which touch, given the position of their contres ‘Two circles within a third circte, cireles to touch ‘Any number of circles within a given circle, ail circles to touch ‘A number of equal circles within a given regular polygon Equal circles around a given regular polygon Exercises 4 Tangency ‘Tangent from a point on the circumference three eqTangent from a point outside the circle Common tangent to two equal circies (exterior) Common tangent to two equal circles (interiar) Common tangent to two unequal circles (exterior) Common tangent to two unequal circles (interior) Exercises 5 ‘Oblique projection ‘Oblique faces at 30°. 45°, 60°: oblique scale (3. 4. 4): Cavalier and Cabinat projections: circles and curves in oblique projection. Exarcisas 6 [Enlarging and reducing plane figures and equivaisnt arees Linear reductions in size; reduction of sides by different proportions: reductions in area, Equivalent areas: Rectangle equal in sree to 8 given tiiengle ‘Square equal in area to a given rectangle ‘Square equal in area to a given triangle Triangle equal in area to 2 given polygon (Circle which has the same area as two smatier circles added together To divide a triangle into three parts of equal area To divide » polygon into a number of equal areas Exercises 7 ‘The blending of lines and curves. To blend a radius with two straight lines at right angles To blend a radius with two straight lines meeting at any angle To find the centre of an arc which passes through a given point and blends with a given line To find the centre of an arc which blends with a fine and a circle To find the cenue of an arc which blends, externally and internally, with two circles To join two parallel lines with two equal radii, the sum of which equats the distance between the lines To join two parallel lines with two equal ‘adil ‘To join two paraiel lines with two unequat radii Exercises 8 Loci Loci of mechanisms; trammels, some other problems in loci Exercises 9 10 " 42 a 12 5a 6 WW 6 68 78 vi Orthographic projection Third Angle projection; First Angle projection: elevation and plan; front elevation, end elevation and plan: auxiliary elevations and auxilisry plans; prisms and pyramids: cylinders and cones; sections. Exercises 10 Conic sections—The Ellipse. the Parabola, the Hyperbola The ellipse it three constructions for the the normal and the tangent The parabola as a conic section: as a locus; within a rectangle; the focus and tangent ‘The hyperbola as 8 conic section; as @ locus. Exercites 11 Intersection of regular solids Intersection of the following solids: Two dissimilar square prisms at right angles ‘Two dissimilar square prisms at an angle A hexagonal prism end # square prism at fight ang! Two dissimilar hexagonal prisms at an angle A hexagonal prism and an octagonal prism at an angle A squato prism and » square pyremic! at Fight angles A square pyramid and a hexagonal prism at a locus; the focus, Dissimitar cylinders in different planes at en angle Cylinder and square pyramid at right angies Cylinder and square pyramid at an angle Cylinder and hexagonal pyramid at an angie Cylinder and cone with cone enveloping the cylinder C\lindsr and cone, neither enveloping the onner Cylinder and cone with cylinder enveloping the cone Cylinder and cone in different planes Cylinder and hemisphere Fillet curves Exercises 12 Further orthographic projection Rabetment: traces. The straight line: Projection of a line which is not parallel to any of the principal planes Trio length of a straight line and true angie between 8 straight lin and vertical and horizontal planes To find traces of a straight line given the pian and elevation page 78 110 112 129 12‘To draw the elavation and plan of a straight line given the true length and the distances of the ends of the line from the principal planes To construct the plan of a straight line given the distance of one snl of the line from the XY line in the plan, the true length af the line nd tha elevation To construct the elevation of a straight line Given the distance of one end of the line from the XY line in the elevation, the true length of the fine and the plan To construct the elevation of a straight line (Given the pian and the angle that the line makes with the horizontal plane To draw tha plan of a line given the ‘levation end the angle that the line makes. with the vertical plane ‘The inclined plane: Projection; traces; angles between planes; ‘wus shape of an inclined plane: true shapes. ‘of the sides of an oblique, truncated Pyramid. ‘The oblique plana: Projection; traces, To find the true angle between tha oblique Blane end the horizontal plane To find the true angle between the oblique plane and the vertical plane To find the true angie between the waces of an oblique plane Exarcisas 13 oo Developments 148 Development of prisms: ‘Square priam ‘Square prism with an oblique top Hexagonal prism with oblique ends Intersacting square and hexagonal prisms Intersecting hexagonal and octagonal prisms Development of cylinders: Cylinder Cylinder with oblique top ‘Cylinder eut obliquely at both ends, ‘Cylinder with circular cut-out ‘An intersecting cylinder Both intersecting cylinders Bevalopment of pyrarnids: Pyramid Frustum of a square pyramid Hexagonal pyramid with top cut obliquely Hexagonal pyramid penetrated by a square Prism Oblique hexagonal pyramid Development of cones: Cone Frustum of a cone Frustum of & cane cut obliquely ‘Cone with a cylindrical hole Oblique cone Exercises 14 166 Further problems in loci 169 The cycloid; tangent and normal to the eycloid; epi- end hypo-cycloids; tangent and. nortnal to the epi- and hypo-eycloids; inferior and superier trochoids; the involute; normal and tangent to the involute: the Aschimedean spical; the helix; round and square section coiled springs; square section threads. Execcises 15 167 Freehand sketching 168 Pictorial ekaiching; sketching in Orthographic Projection; sketching as an aid to design. Some more problems solved by drawing 176 ‘Areas of irregular shapes; the mid-ordinate rule Resolution of forces: a zouple, calculation of some forces acting on @ beam: forces ‘acting at a point; equilibeant and rasuhant forces ‘Simple com design; cam followers Exercises 17 PART Il Introduction Type of projection Sections Screw threads Nuts ond bolts Designstion of ISO screw threads ‘Types of bolts and screws Dimensioning Conventional representations Machining symbole Surface roughness Abbreviations Framing and title blocks Assembly drawings ‘Some engineering fastenings: The stud and sat batt Locking devices Rivets and riveted joints Keys, keyways and splines Conered joints Worked examples Exercises 18 190 ENGINEERING ORAWING 194 230 ie A 258 Sizes of ISO metric hexagon nuts, bolts and washers Appendix 8 260 Sizes of slowed and castie nuts with metric ‘threads Index 261Part I Geometric drawingScales Bofore you start any drawing you first decide how large the drawings have to be. The different views of the object to be drawn must not be bunched together or be too far apart. If you are able to de this and stil draw the object in its natural size then obviously this is best. This is: not always possible; the object may be much too large for the paper or much too small to be drawn clearly. tn either case it will be necessary to draw the object ‘to scale’ The scale must depend on the size of the object: a miniature electronic component may have to be drawn 100 times larger than it really is, whilst some maps have natural dimensions divided by millions, There are drawing aids called ‘scales’ which are designed to help the draughtsman cope with these scaled jimencions. They look like an ordinary ruler but closer inspection shows that the divisions on these scales are ot the usual centimetres of millimetres, but can represent them. These scales are very useful but there will come @ ‘time when you will want to draw to 8 size that is not on one of these scales. You could work aut the scaled size ‘for every dimension on the drawing but this can be a tong and tedious business—unless you construct your own scale. Thit chapter shows you how to construct any seale that you wish. anal pe 6040 20 Uy The Representative Fraction (R.F.) The representative fraction shows instantly the ratio of the size of the line on your drawing and the natural size. ‘The ratio of numerator to denominator of the fraction is the ratio of drawn size to naturat size. Thus, representa tive fraction of j means that the actual size of the object is five times the size of the drawing of that object. Mf a scale is given as 1mm = 1m then the B.F. is mn men 1 Tm 1000mm ~ ¥606 A cartographer {a map dreughtsman) hes to work with ‘some very large scales. He may heve to find, for instance, the ALF. fora scale of 1 mm = 5 km. In this case the ALF. wit be LMT A _ Bkm ~ Bx 1000x1000 ~ 5000000 Plain Scales There are two types of scales, plain and diagonal. The plain scale is used for simple scales, scales that do not have many sub-divisions. When constructing any scale, the first thing to-dacide is the length of the scale, The obvious length is a litte Jonger than the longest dimension on the deawing. Fig. 1/1 shows a-very simple scale of 20 mm = 100 mm. The Fig. 1/1 Plain scale 10mm = 100 mm ort mm = 5mmlargest natural dimension is 500 mm. $0 the total length cof the scale is ®§2 mm or 100 mm. This 100 mm is divided into 5 equal portions, each portion representing 100 mm, The first 100 mm is then divided into 10 equal portions. each portion representing 10mm. These divisions are then clearly marked 10 show what each portion represents Finish is very imponant when drawing scales, You would not wish ta use a badly graduated or poorly marked ruler and you should apply the same standards to your scales. Make sure that they are marked with ali the important measurements. Fig. 1/2 shows another plain scale. This one would be ‘used where the drawn size would be thres times bigger than the notural sae. ‘To construct # plain scale, 30mm = 10mm, 50mm Tong to read to 1mm (Fig. 1/2) ‘Length of scale = 30 x5 = 150mm 1st division 5x10mm 2nd division 10x1mm Diagonal Scales ‘There is a limit to the number of divisions that can be constructed on a plain scale. Try to divide 10 mm into ‘50 parts; you will find that it is almost impossible, The architect, cartographer and surveyer all have the problem of having to sub-divide imta smaller units than a plain scale allows. A diagonal scale sllows you to divide into mailer units. Belore looking at any particular diagonal scale, let us first look at the undertying principle. Fig. 1/3 shows @ tangle ABC. Suppose that AB is 10 mm tang and BC is divided into 10 equal parts. Lines from these equal parts have been drawn parallel to AB and numbered from 1 to 10. Itshould be obvious that the line 5-5 is half ine bength of AB. Sirnilarty, the line 1-1 is x's the length of AB and line 7~7 is 4 the length of AB. (If you wish to prove this mathematically usa similar triangles.) You can see that the lengths of the lines 1-1 t0 10-10 increase by 1 mm each time you go up a line. Hf the Fength ‘of AB had been 1 mm to begin with the increases would have been yb mm each time, In this way small lengths can be divided into very much smaller lengths, and can be easily picked out. a Fg. 1/8‘Three examples of diagonal scales follow. 25.2 mm Oimm lo o os — on on oe) 29) On os oe OL 9 al 7 3 a 3 f\ imm Fig. 1/4 Diagonal scale 20 mm = 10 mm to read to O.1 mm (RLF. 4) This scale would be used where the drawing is twice the size of the natural object and the draughtsman has 0 be able to measure on a scale accurate to 0.1 mm. ‘The longest natural dimension i 60 mm. This length is first divided into six 10 mm intervals, The first 10mm is then divided into 10 parts, each 1 mm wide (scaled) Each of these 1 mm intervals is divided with a diagonal imo 10 more equal pars.Te construct a diagonal scale, 30 mm = 1mm, 4m long to read to 10mm Fig 1/5 Length of scale is «30 mm = 120 rim. First division into 4 30 mm Second division imto 10100 mm lengths, Diagonal division into 10 10 mm lengths. Fig. 1/5 A diagonal scala, 3.cm = 1m, to read m and cm‘To construct a diagonal scale, 60mm =1mm, Simm long to read 0.01 mm Fig. 1/6 Length of scale is 3x 50mm = 150 mm. First division is 3 50 mm lengths. Second division Is 10 0.1 mm lengths. Diagonal division is 10 0.01 mm lengths. Fig. 1/8 A diagonal scale, 50 mn. = 1 mim. ‘0 read to 0.01 mm (RF: ys)Proportional Scales It ts possitle to construct one plain scale directly from another, $0 that the new scale is proportional to the original one. An example of this is given in Fig. 1/7. The new scale is a copy of the original one but is J times larger. The proportions of the scales can be varied by changing the ratios of the lines AB to BC. Exercises 1 1. (a) Draw the simple key shown in Fig. 1 full size. to. 1 DIMENSIONS IN mm Fig 1 (b) Construct a plain scale with a representative frac- tion of §. suitable for use in the making of an enlarged drawing of this kay. Do not draw this key again. Southam Regions! Examinstions Board (Question originally set in Imperial units). Fig. 1/7 To enlarge a scale by 8 proportion of 7:4 2. Construct a plain scale of 50 mm = 300 mm to read to 10 mm up to 1200 mm. Using this scale, draw ta scale a triangle having a perimeter of 1200 mm and having ‘sides in the ratio 3:4:6. Print neatty aiong each side ‘the langth to tha nearest 10 mm. Oxford Local Examinetions (Question originally set in Imperial units; s66 Chapter 2 for information not in Chapter 1). 3. Construct the plain figure shown in Fig. 2 and then, by means of a proportional scale, draw a similar figure Standing on the base AG. All angles must be con- structed geometrically in the first figure. Measure and state the length ef the side corresponding with CD, Oxtoed Loca! Examinations (Question originally set in imperial units; see Chapter 2 for information net in Chapter 1),DIMENSIONS: IN mm Fig.2 4. Construct » disgonal scale in which 40 mm represents 1m, The scale is to read down to 10mm and is to cover a range of Sm. Mark off a distance of 4m 720 mn. 5. Construct a disgonal scale of 25 mm to represent 11m which can be used to measure m and 101mm up to Bm. Using this scale construct a quadiilateral ABCD which stands on 2 base AB of length 4m 720 mm and having BC = 3m530mm, AD = 4m170mm, LABC = 120° and LADC = 90°, Measure and stata the lengths of the two disgonais and the per- pendicular height, all correct to the feerest 10 mm. ‘Angles must ba constructed geometicaliy. Oxford Loca! Examinations (Question originelly set in tmperial units: see Chapter 2 for information not in Chapter 1). 6. Construct # diagonal scale, 1en times full size. 10 ‘show mm and tenths of a mm and to road to a maxi mum of 20.avn. Using the scale, construct a triangle ABC with AB 17.4 mm, BC 13.4.mm and AC 11 mm. Orford snd Cambridge Schools Examinations Board.2 The construction of geometric figures from given data ‘This chapter is concemed with the construction of plane There are an endless number of plane figures but wa Geometric figures. Plane geometry is the geometry af will Conc6mn ourselves only with the mora common ones figures that ere two-dimensional, ie. figures that have —the triangle, the quadrilateral and the better known ‘only length and breadth. Solid geometry is the geometry polygons. of three-dimensional figures. Before we look at any particular figure, there are e tew ‘Constructions that must be revised. Fig. 2/1 To construct a paraiiel tine x Fig. 24 To erect » perpendicular from a paint to 2 line Fig. 2/8 To bisect an angie Fig. 2/2 To bisect » line ———— Fig. 23 To erect 2 perpendiculer from 2 point on a line —_Fig.26 To bisect the angle formed by two converging lines 10LA Fig. 2/7 To: construct 60* Fig. 2/8 To conswuct 30° bx Fig.2/8 To consmuct So Fig. 2/10 To construct 45° Fig. 2/11 To construct an angle similar to another engle a | Fig. 2/12 To divide 8 fine into a number Fig. 2413 To divide a fine of equal parts (sey 6) proportionally (sey 1:2:4) WTHE TRIANGLE Definitions ‘The tiengle is @ plane figure bounded by three straight tides. ‘A scalene wiangle is a triangle with three unequal ‘a triangle with all the sides, ‘equilateral triangle: and hence ellthe engles, equal, ‘A right-angied wiangle it 8 triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite the right-angle is called the hypotenuse. Constructions To construct an equilateral triangle, given one of the sides (Fig. 2/14) 1. Draw ailing AB, equal to the langth of tha side. 2. With compass point on A and redius AB, draw an arc ‘as shown. c Fig. 2714 A B 3. With compass point on B, and with the same radius, Grew another arc to cut the First arc at C. ‘Triangle ABG is equilateral. To construct an lscsceles triangle given the perl- moter and the altitude (Fig. 2/15) 1, Drawlina AB equal to half the perimater. 2. From Berect « perpendicular and make BC equsl tothe attitude. 3. Join AC and bissctit to cut AB in D. > Fg. 215 4, Produce DB sothat BE = BO. CDE is the required triangle. To construct # triangle. given the base angles and the altitude (Fig. 2/16) 1. Drawaline AB, 2 Construct CD peraliel to AB so that the distance between tham is equal to the altitude. 3. From any point E, on CD, draw CEF and DEG so that they cut AB in Fand G respectively. Since CEF = EFG and DEG = EGF (sitemate angles), then EFG is the required triangle. Cc BD A o —8 Fig. 2/16 To construct a triangle given the base, the altitude and the vertical angle (Fig. 2/17) 1. Draw the base AB. 2. Construct BAC equal to the vertical angle. 3. Erect AD perpendicular to AC. 4, Bisect AB to meet AD in 0. 5. With cenue O and radius OA (= 08), draw a circle 6. Construct EF paratial to AB so that tha distance between them ig equal to the altitude, Let EF intersect the circle in G_ ABG ia the required tingle.‘To construct 4 triangle given the perimeter and the ratioof the sides (Fig. 2/18) 1. Draw the line AB equal in length to the perimeter. 2. Divide AB into the required ratio (say 4:3: 6) 3. With centre C and radius CA draw an arc. 4. With centre D and radius DB draw an arc to intersect the first arc in E. ECD is the required triangle. To construct @ triangle given the altitude and the vertical angle (Fig. 2/19) 1, Draw AB and AC each equal to half the perimeter. and so that CAB is the vertical angle. 2. From Band C erect perpendiculars to meet in D. 3. With contre D, draw a circle, radius DB (= DC). 4. With centre A and radius equal to the althude, draw an arc. 5. Construct the common tangent between the circle and ‘the arc. Let this tangent intersect AC in F and AB in E. (For tangent construction see Chapter 4.) FEAIs therequired viangle. COMMON TANGENT 13‘To construct a triangle similar to another triangle but with a different perimeter (Fig. 2/20) 1. Drew the given triangle ABC. 2. Produce BC in both directions. 3, With compass point on B and radius BA, draw an arc ta cut CB produced in F. 4. With compass point on C and radius CA, draw sn arc to cut 8Cproducedin E. 6. Drew a line FG equal in length to the required peri- meter. 6. Join EG and draw CJ and BH parallel toit. 7. With contre H and radius HF draw an arc. 8. With centre J ond radius JG draw another arc to inter sect the first aecin K. HikJ is the required triangle, THE QUADRILATERAL Definitions The quadrilateral is @ plane figure bounded by four straight sides. ‘A square is & quadtilateral with ail four sides of equal length and one of its angles (and hence the other three) a rightangle. ‘A rectangle is 8 quadtilateral with its opposite sidas of ‘equal length and one of its angles (and hence the other theea) aright angle ‘A paratietogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and theretore parallel ‘A rhombus is & quadiileteral with all four sides equal ‘A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel, A trapezoid is @ quadrileteral with all four sides and angles unequal. 14 Constructions To construct # square given the length of the side (Fig. 2/21) 1, Drewethe side AB. 2. From B erecta perpendicular. 3. Mark off tha length of sida BC. 4. With centres A and © draw arcs, radius equal to the langth af the side of the square, 1o intersect at D., ABCD is the required square. Cc Fig. 2/21‘To construct a square given the diagonal (Fig. 2/22) 1. Draw the diagonal AC. 2. Bisect AC, 3. With centre © and radius OA (= OC) draw a circle to cut the bisecting line in B and D. ABCD isthe required square, B Fig. 222 iD To construct = rectangle given the length of the diagonal and ona of the sides (Fig. 2/23) 1, Draw the diagonal 8D. 2. Bisect BD. 3. With centre O and radius OB (= OD) draw acircie, 4, With centre B and radius equal to the length of the known side, draw en arc to cut the circie in C: 8. Repeat step 4 with centre D tocut at A. ABCD is the required rectangle. Fig. 2/23 To construct # parallelogram given two sides and am angle (Fig. 2/24) ‘1. Draw AD equal tothe length of one of thesides. 2. FromA construct the known angie. 3. Mark otf AB equal in length to the other known side. ‘4. With compass point at B draw an are equal in radius to. AD. 5. With compass point at D draw an arc equal in radius to AB. ‘ABCDis the required parallelogram. 8 c Fig. 2/24 A D To construct » rhombus given the diagonal and the hength of the sides (Fig. 2/25) 1. Draw the diagonal AC. 2. From A and C draw intersecting arcs, equal in length to. the sides, to meet at Band ©. ABCD is the required rhombus. 6, A Fig. 225 oO To construct trapezium given the lengths of the parallel sides, the perpendicular distance between them and one angle (Fig. 2/26) 1. Draw one of the peraitels AB. 2, Construct the pavatis! line. 3, Construct the known angle from 8 to intersect the parallel line inc. 4, Mark off the known length CD. ABCD i the requirad trapezium, c DBPOLYGONS Definitions ‘A potvaon le slave Bgury unde! ty mcr than four straight sides. Polygons that are frequently refered have particular names. Some of these are listed below. ‘A pentagon is 8 plane figure bounded by five sides. ‘Athaxagon isa plane figura bounded by six sides. ‘A heptagon is a plane figura bounded by seven sides. ‘An octagon is » plane figure bounded by eight sides. ‘Anonagons a plane figure bounded by nine sides. ‘Adacagon is.a plane figure bounded by ten sides. Avregular polygon i one that has ail it sides equal and therefore sil its exterior angles equal and all its interior angles equal. It is possible to construct a circie within a regular polygon 30 thet ail the sides of the polygon ara tangential to that circle. The diameter of that circle it called the diameter of the polygon. If the polygon has an even number of sides, the diameter isthe distance between two. Giometricelly opposed faces, This dimension is often called the “seross-flats' dimension. ‘The diagonal of a polygon is the distance from one comer to the comet furthest ewey'tiom it. If the polygon has en even number of sides, than this distance is the dimension between two diamatrically opposed comers, Constructions ‘Te construct a regular hexagon given the length of ‘the sides (Fig. 2/27) 1. Drawa circle, radius equal to the length of the side. 2. From any point on the circumference, step the radius around the circle six times. Hf your construction is accurate, you will finish at exactly the same pisces that you started. 3. Connect the six points to form a regular hexagon. To construct # reguiar hexagon given the diameter (Fig. 2/28) This constuction, using compasses and straight edge only, is quite feasible but is relatively unimportant. What fa imponunt is to recognize that a hexagon can ba con- structed, given the diameter or acrass-fiats dimension, by drawing tangents to the circle with a 6° sat square. This is vary important when drawing hexsgonal-headed nuts and bolts, f~ a {°° ee\ \ / ~ _4 30% 30° Fig. 2/28 Fig. 2/27To construct s regular octagon given the diagonal, Le. within a given circle (Fig, 2/23) 1. Draw the circle and insert a diameter AE. 2, Conatruet another diagons! CG, perpendicular to the firstdiogonal. ‘3. Bisect the four quadrants thus produced to cut the circlein B, D, F, and H. ABCDEFGH is the required octagon. Fig. 2/20 To construct a regular octagon given the diameter, |e. within a given square (Fig. 2/30) 1. Construct @ square PORS, length of side equal to the diameter. 2. Drew the diagonals SO and PR tointersect in 7, 3. With centres P.O. R ond S daw four arcs. radius PT (= OT = AT = ST) to ex the square in A.B, C, 0, E, F.G and. ABCDEFGH is the required octagon. ‘To construct any given polygon. given the fength of aside ‘There are three fairly simple ways of constructing a regulér polygon. Two methods require a simple calculation and the third requires very careful construction il it is to be exact. All three methods are shown. The constructions ‘work for any polygon, and a heptagon (seven sides) has been chosen to illustrate them. Mathod'1 (Fig. 2/31) 1. Draw aifing AB equal in length to-one of the sides and produce AB toP. 2. Calculate the exterior angle of the polygon by dividing 360? by the number of sides. in this casa the exterior angle is 3607/7 = 61 3/7. 3. Draw the exterior angle PBC so that BC = AB. 4. Bisect AB and BC to intersectin O. 5. Draw acitcle, centre O and radius OA (= 08 = OC). 6. Stop off the sides of the figure from C to D, D to E, etc. ABCDEFG is the required heptagon.Method 2 (Fig. 2/32) 1. Draw a line AB equal in length to one of the sides. 2. From A étect 8 semi-circle, redius AB to meet BA pro- ducedin P, 3. Divide the semi-circle into the same number of equal paris as the proposed polygon has sides. This may be done by trial and error or by calculation (180'/7 = (25. 6°/7 for each arc). 4, Draw aline from A to point 2 {for ALL polygons). This forma w second sida t0 the polygon. 6. Bisect AB and A210 intersectin O. 6. With centre O draw acircle, radius OB (= 0A = 02). 7. Step off the sides of the figure from 8 to C, C ta D ete. ABCDEFG isthe required septagon. Method 3 (Fig. 2/33) 1. Draw a line GA equal in length to one of the sides. 2. Bisect GA. 3. From A construct an angle of 45° 10 intersectthe bisec- tor atpoint 4 4, From G construct an angle of 60" to intersect the bisector at point 6, 6. Bisect between points 4 and 6 to give point 6. Point 4 is the centre of a circle containing a square. Point 5 is the centre of a circle containing a pentagon. Point 6 is ‘the centre of acircle containing a hexagon. By marking off points at similar distances the contres of circles containing ‘any regular palygon can be obtained. 6. Mark off point 7 80 that 6 107 = 5106 (= 4105) 7. With centre at point 7 draw a circle, radius 7 t0.A (= 7 to). 8. Stepoff the sides of the figure from A to B. B10, etc. ABCDEFG is the required heptagon. 18 1. Draw the given circle and insert a diameter AM. 2. Divide the diameter into the same number of divisions asthe polygon has sides. ‘3. With centre M draw an are, radius MA. With centre A Graw another arc of the seme radius to intersect the first arc in W. 4. Drow N2 and produce to intersect the circle in B (lor any polygon). 5. AB is the first side of the polygon. Stop out the other sides BC, CD. etc. the required polygon. B Fig. 2/38‘To construct # regular polygon given = diamater (Fig. 2/38) 1. Draw a line MN. 2. From some point A on theline desw a somi-circla.of any convenient radius, 3, Divide the somi-circie into the same number of equal sectors 4a the polygon has sides (in this case 9, i.¢: 20° intervals). 4. From A draw radial lines through points 1 to 8. 5. If the polygon has an even number of sides, there is only one digmeter passing through A. In this case, bisect the known dismeter to giva canta O. If, as in this case, there are two diameters passing through A (there can never be more than two), then bisect both diameters to intersect in O. 6. With centre O andvadius GA, draw a circle to intersect the radial linesin C, D, E, F, G and H. 7. From A mark off AB end AJ equal to CD, DE, atc. ABCDEFGHJ is the required polygon. ‘The constructions shown above are by no means all ‘the constructions that you may be required to do, but they _ar9 representative of the type that you may moat If your geometry needs 2 little extra practice, it is well ‘worth while proving these constructions by Euciidesn proots. & knowledge of some geometric theorems is need- ad when answering many of the questions shown below, and proving the above constructions will make sure that you ace familiar with them. Exercises 2 1. Construct an equilateral triangle with sides 60 mm tong. 2. Construct an isosceles triangle thet has a perimeter of 136 mm and an altitude of 55 mm. 3. Construct s tisngte with base angles 60° end 45* ‘and an altitude of 76 rom. 4. Construct a triangle with a base of 55 mm, an altitude of 62 mm and # vertical angle of 373". 5. Construct a triangle with a perimeter measuring 160 mm and sides in the rave 3:6:6 10. ". 12. 13, 14, 16. 16. 17. 2, 22. 2. Construct a triangle with a perimeter of 170mm end sides in the ratio 73:5. Construct a triangle given thet the porimeter i6 115 men, the attitude is 40 mm and the vertical angie is 45". Construct a triangle with 8 base measuring 62mm, an attitude of 50 mm and a vertical angle of 60°. Now draw a similar triangle with a perimeter of 250mm. Construct @ tangle with a perimeter of 125mm, whose sides ate in the ratio 2:4:5. Now draw a similar triangle whose perimeter is 170 mm. Constructa square of side 50 mm. Find the mid-paint of gach side by construction end join up the points with straight lines to produce @ second square. Construct » square whase diagonal is 68 mm, Construct @ square whose diagonal is 8S mm. Construct a parallelogram given two sides 42.mm and 90 mm long. and tha angle between them 67°. Construct a rectangle which has # diagonal 55 mm Jong and one side 35.mm long. Construct 8 rhombus if the diagonal is 75 mm long and one side is 44 mm tong. Construct a trapezium given that the parallel sides are 50mm and BO mm long and are 45mm apart. ‘Construct a regular hexagon, 45 mm side. ‘Construct a regular hexagon if the diameter is 75 mm. ‘Construct # regular hexagon within an BO mm dia- meter circle. The comers of the hexagon must alll lie ‘on the circumference of the circle ). Construct a square, side 100 mm. Within the square. construct a regular octagon. Four ahenate sides of the octagon must lio on the sides of the square. Construct the following regular polygons: ‘a pentagon, side 65 me, ‘a hoptagon, side 65 mm, nonegon, side 45 mm, a docagon. side 35 mm. Construct # regular pentagon, diemeter 62 mm. Construct # regular heptagon within a circle, radius 60 mm. The comers of the heptagan must lie on the circumference of the circle 193 Isometric projection Engineering drawings are always drawn in orthographic projection. For the presentation of detailed drawings, this system has baen found to be tar superior to all others. The system has, however, the disadvantage of being very difficult to understand by people not trained in its usage. It is slways essential that an engineer be able to com- municete his ides to anybody, particularly people who: ‘are not engineers, and it is therefore an advantage to be 2 5 4 2 FS a 3 able to draw using 2 system of projection that is more ‘easily understood. There are many systems af pictorial Projection and this book deals with two: isometic and ‘oblique projections. Of these twa, isometic presents the ‘more natural looking view of an object. True isomeitic projection is an application of ortho- graphic projection and is dealt with in greater detail later Fig. 3/1in this chapter. The most common form of isometric pro- jection is called ‘conventional isometiic’. This is the method that is set in G.C-E, “O" tevel and C.S.£. examina- tion papers, although # knowledge of true isometric: is sometimes assumed. Conventions! isometric projection (Isometric drawing) If you were to make a freehand drawing of a row of houses, the house furthest away from you would be the smallest house on your drawing. This is called the ‘par- spective’ of the drawing and. in @ perspective drowing. none of the lines are parallel. Isometric drawing ignores perspective altogether. Lines are drawn paraliel to each ‘other and drawings can be made using 4 tee square and ‘a Set square. This is much simpler than perspective draw- Fig. 3/1 shows # shaped block drawn in conventional isometric projection. You will note that there ara three isometric axes, These ‘re inclined st 120° 16 each other. Ona axis is vertical and the other two sxas are therefore at 20° to the horizontal. Dimensions measured slong these axes. or parallel tothem, are true lengths. The faces of the shaped block shawn in Fig. 3/1 are all at 90° to each other. The result of thie is that all of the lines in the isometric drawing are parallel to tha isometric axes. If the lines are not parsifel to any of the isometric axes, they are no longer true lengths. An example of this is ‘shown in Fig. 3/2 which shows an isometric drawing of a regulér hexagonal prism. The hexagon is first drawn as a plane figure and a simple shape, in this case 8 rectangle, is. ‘drawn around the hexagon. The rectangle is easily drawn in isometric: and the positions of the comers of the hexagon can be transferred from the plane figure to the isometric drawing with a pair of dividers, The dimensions of the hexagon should all be 25 mm and you can see from Fig. 3/2 that lines not paraliel ta the isometric axes do not have true lengths. Fig, 3/2Fig. 3/3 shows another hexagonal prism. This prism has been cut at an incline and this means that two extra views must be drawn so that sufficient information to dtaw the prism in isometric can be transfeered from the plana views to the isometric drawing. This figure shows that, when making an isomewic drawing, all dimensions must be messured parallel to one Of the isometric axes. Ha | ft Circles and curves drawn in isometric projection All of the faces of a cube are square. If a cubs is drawn in fsomettic projection, each square side becomes rhombus. If @ circle is drawn on the face of a cubs, the circle will change shape when the cube is drawn in isometric pro- jection. Fig. 3/4 shaws how to plot the new shape of the circle. Fig. 3/3 Fig. 3/4 22The circle is first drawn as a plane figure, and is then ‘divided into an even number of equal strips. Tha face of the ‘cube is then divided into the same number of equal strips. Contre tines era added and the measurement from the ‘centre line of the circle to the point where strip 1 crosses ‘the circle is transferred from the plane drawing to the isometric drawing with « pair of dividers. This measure- ‘ment is applied above and below the centre line. This (process is repeated for strips 2,3, etc. ‘The points which have been plotted should then be ‘carefully joined together with s neat freehand curve. Fig. 3/5 illustrates how this system is used in practice. Since a circle can be divided into four symmetrical ‘quadrants, itis reaity necessary to draw only a quarter of a circle instead of a whole plane circle, ‘The dimensions which are transterred from the plane circle to the isometric view are called ordinstes and the system of transferring ordinates from plane figures to isometric views is not confined to circies. It may be used for any regular or irregular shape. Fig. 3/6 shows a shaped plate. ‘There are several points worth nating from Fig. 3/6. (a) Since the plate is symmetrical about its centre line, ‘nly half has been divided into strips on the plane figure. (b) in proportion to the plate, the holes are small. They ‘have, therefore, ordinates much closer together so ‘that they can be drawn accurately. (e) The point where the vee cut-out meets the elliptical outline has its own ordinate so that this point can be ansferred exactly to the isometric view. (d) Since the plate has a constant thickness, the top and bottom profiles are the same. A quick way of platting ‘the bottom profile is to draw a number of vertical {ines dawn from the top profile and, with dividers set ai the required thickness of plate, follow the top curve with the dividers, marking the thickness of the plate on each ventcalline.It it sometimes necessary to draw circles oF curves on faces which are not paraitet to any of the three isometric axes. Fig. 3/7 shows a cylinder cut at 46°. Two views of the cylinder have to be drawn: a plan view and an eleva- tion. The plan view is divided imo strips and the positions of these strips are projected onto the elevation. The base of the cylinder is drawn in isometric in the usual wey. Points 1 10 20, where the strips cross the Circla, aru projected vertically upwards and the height of the cylinder, measured from the base with dividers, is twansterred for each point in tum from the elevation to the isometric view. These paints are then carefully joined together with a nest freehand curve, ‘True isometric projection Isometric projection i a method of drawing with instru- ments which gives a pictorial view of an abject. It is not often used in industry and, when it is used, the vast majonty of drawings would be med using corventond Conventional isomatric is o distoried Sas simclnes Torn of woe eomette: Tv tematic I found by taking a particular view from an orthographic auprojection of an object. Fig. 3/8 shows a cube, about 26 mms side, drawn in onhographic projection with the ‘cube so positioned that the front elevation is a true iso- metric projection of the cube. The three isometric. axes are ‘still at 120" to each other. In conventional isometric. distances measured parallel to these axes. are trua lengths. In true itometric projection they are na longer true lengths although they are proportional to their tua lengths. How- Fig. 3/8 True isometric projection ‘ever, the horizontal distances on a trveisomettic projection are true lengths. The reduction of lengths measured paral: Jel to the isometric axes makes the overall size of the true isometric drawing appesr to look more netursl, particularly when directly compared with an orthographic or plane view of the same abject (compare the relative sizes of the prism in Fig. 3/2). if the horizontal length and the tength parallel to the isometiic axes were both ta be true lengths, the isometric ‘axes would have to be at 45* (Fig. 3/9). Sines the iso- matric axes are at 30%, the 45° lengths must be reduced.This operation is shown in Fig. 3/10, cf \ ‘The ratio between the true length and the isometric \ Jongth is iSOMETRIC LENGTH = TRUE LENGTH x 0-8165. \ This ratio is-constant for all lines messured parallel 10 any of the isometric axes. If you are asked 10 draw an ebject using an isometric scale, your scale may be con- structed as in Fig. 3/10 or you may construct # conven ional plain scale as shown in Fig. 3/11. The initial langth of this scale is 100 x 0.8165 = 81.65 mm. The scale is then completed as shown in Chapter 1. Fig. 3/11 A plain scale to mossure true isometric lengths. - ae (All questions in imperial units) 1. Duave fal sire an ometie projector ot the compon- ent shown in Fig. 1 looking in the direction of the arrow A. Hidden details are not to be shown. q DIMENSIONS IN mm Associated Lancashire Schools Examining Board al af beth2. Fig. 2 shows the front elevation and plan of an ink bottle stand. Make a full size isometric drawing of the. stand with comer A nearest to you. Hidden details should not be shawn. West Midlands Examinations Board DIMENSIONS in mm — Fig. 2 ‘3. Fig. 3 shows the development of @ hexagonal box, Draw, in isometric projection, the assembled box standing on its bass. Ignore the thickness of the material andiomit hidden detail. North Westem Secondsry School Examinations Board (See Ch. 14 for information not in Ch. 3) Fig. 3 4, Thvee views of a bearing are shown in Fig. 4. Make ‘an isgmetric drawing of the bearing. Comer A should ‘be the lowest point on your drawing. No hidden details are required South-East Regional Examinations Board 5. Two views of a plain shaft bearing are shown in Fig. 5. Make a full size isometric drawing of the bear- ing. Hidden details should not be shown. West Midlands Exeminetions Board cucnsina Nan Fg 5 Construct an isometric drawing of the casting shown in Fig. 6. Make point X thellowest point of your draw ing. Do not use an isometric scale University of Lendan Schoo! Examinations Fig. 8 7. Construct an isomatric scale and usa it to make a true isometric view of the casting shown in Fig. 7. Comer Xia to be the lowest corner of your drawing. University of London School Examinations ae | ae 1 DIMENSIONS IN mem Fig 7 a‘8. A plan and elevation of the base af a candlestick are ‘shawn in Fig. 8. Draw (a) another elevation when the bese is viewed in the direction of the arrow and (b) an accurate isometric view of that half of the candle- stick base indicated by the letters abed on the plan view. The edge ab is to be in the foreground of your drawing. Southern Universities’ Joint Board (See Ch. 8 for information nat in Ch. 3). OIMENSIONS IN man Fig. 8 9. Fig. 9 shows the plan and slevation of an angle block. Make @ full size isometric projection of the block, making the cadiused comer the lowest pert of your drawing. Do mot use an isometric scat. Hidden detail should be shown, Oxford and Combridge Schools Examinations Board a OMENSONS Mmm FG. D 10. Fig. 10 shows two views of @ cylindrical rod with @ circular hole. Make an isometric drawing of the rod in the direction of the arrows Rand S. Hidden detail isnotrequired, Associated Exanmning Board oY4 The construction of circles to satisfy given conditions About 6000 years 890, an unknown Mesopotamian made ‘one of the greatest inventions of all time, the wheel. This wes the most important practical application ever made of a shape that fascinated early mathematicians. The shape |s, of course, the circle, After the wheel had been invented, the Mesopotamians found many more applications for the circle than just for transport. The potter's wheel was developed and vessels were made much more accurately and quickly. Pulleys were invented and engineers and builders were able to raise heavy weights. Since that time, tha circle has been the mast important geometric shape in the development of all jorms of engineering ‘Apart from its practical applications, the circle has an aesthetic value which makes it unique amongst plane figures. The ancients called it ‘the pertect curve’ and its enone: ‘guise TER: symmetry and simplicity has led artists and craftsmen to use the circle as a basis for design far many thousands of years Definitions A circle is the locus of » point which moves so that it is always a fixed distance from another stationary point. Concentric circles are circles that have the same centre. Eccentric circles are circles that are not concentric. Fig. 4/1 shows some of the parts of the circle. Constructions The length of the circumference of a circle is [1D or 211A, whore D is the diamater and A the radius of the circle. 1 is the ratio af the diometer to the circumference and may be taken 2s 22/7 of, more accuratal1 you need to draw the circumference of a circle (this is required quite often in subsequent chapters), you should: either calculate it, or use the construction shown in Fig. 4/2. This construction ix not exact but is accurate enough for most needs. For the sake of thoroughness, the cor responding construction, that of finding the diameter from the circumference. is shown in Fig. 4/3. ‘To construct the circumference of acircle, given ‘tha diamatar (Fig. 4/2) 1. Draw a semi-circle of the given diameter AB, contre ©. 2. From B mark off three times the diemeter, BC. 3. From © draw a line at 30° to OA to meet the semi- circle in OD. 4. From D draw a line perpendicular to OA to meat OA in E 5. Join EC. EC isthe required circumference. [L 3% GIVEN DIA Fig. 4/2 To construct the diameter of » circie, given the circumference (Fig. 4/3) GIVEN CIRCUMFERENCE1. Draw the given circumference AB. 2. Draw perpendicular bisectors through these lings to. 2. Bisect ABin¢, intersactin Q. 3, With cantre C, and radius CA, draw » semi-circle, is the centre of a circle which passes through ail three 4. With contre B, and radius BC. draw en arc to cut the points. semi-circle in D, 5. From D draw a perpendicularto AB, to cut AB in E. To construct the inscribed circle of any reguiar 6. With cantra E and radius ED draw an arcto cut AB in. polygon (in thin case, « triangle) (Fig. 4/6) AF is the required diameter. 1. Bisect any two of the interior angles to intersect in O. ‘The rest of this chapter shows some of the consyuc- (the thirck angie is bisected h should also pass through tions for finding circles drawn to satisty certain given 0. conditions. O is the contre of the inseribed circle. Thit contre is called the incentee To find the centre of any circle (Fig. 4/4) 1. Draw any two chords, 2. Construct perpandicular bisectors to these chords to intersect in O. Olathe centre ofthe circle. Fig. 4/6 To construct the circumscribed circle of any regular polygon (in this case a triangle) (Fig. 4/7) Fig. s/t 1, Perpendicularly bisect any two sides to intersect in O. 7 {If the third side is bisected it should also pass through 0) To construct a circle to pass through three given —_— is the centre of the circumscribed circle. This centre is points (Fig. 4/5) called the circumcentre. 1. Draw straight ‘ines connecting the paints as shown. ‘These lines are, in tact, chords of the circle. Fig. 4/8 Fig 477To construct the escribed circle to any regular triangle) (Fig. 4/8) circle which touches a side and ‘the two adjacent tides produced. Thus, the first step is to produce the adjacent sides. 2. Bisect the exterior angles thus formed to intersect in O. O isthe centre of the ascribed circle. Fig. 4/8 To constructa circle which pesses through » fixed point A and touches a line at 8 given point B (Fig. 4/9) 1. Join AB. 2. From B erect a perpendicular BC. 3. From A construct angle BAO similar to angle CBA to Intersect the perpendicular in O. Oisthe centre of the required circle. Fo 49 To construct a circle which passes through two given points, A and B, and touches a given line (Fig. 4/10) 1, doin AB and produce this line to D (cutting the given lina in C) $0 that BC = CD 2. Construct a semi-circle on AD. 4. Moke CF = CE. 5. From F erecta perpendicular. ©. Perpendicularty bisect AB to meet the perpendicular from F in 0. Os the centre of the required circle. Fig. 4/10 a2To construct a circle which touches two given lines and passes through a given paint P. (There are two circles which satisty these conditions (Fig. any 1. Ifthe two lines do not meet, produce them to intersect ink 2. Bisect the angla thus formed. ‘To construct a circie, radius f, to touch another given circle radiuss, and a given line (Fig. 4/12) 1. Draw a line parallel to the given line, the distance betweon thellines equal to R. 2. With compass. point at the centre of the given circle and radius set at A+. diaw an arc to cut the paraitel HineinO. O isthe centre of the required circle. LX 3. From any point on the bisector draw a circle, centre B, to touch the two given lines. 4, Jain PA to cut the circle in Cand 0. 5. Draw PO, parallel to CB and PO, parallel to DB. 0, and O,, arethe centres of therequired circles. Fig. 4/12