ASNT Level ITT Study Guide Liquid Penet Testing Meth by Bernie Boisvert and Chuck FickTublishied by The A\ Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1711 Arlingate Lane Coluubus, OF 43226-0518 (800) 222-2768 inant Suviety for © 1998 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc ‘All rights reserved. Published 1998 Printed in the United States of America No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by any means electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording, or other permission of the publisher. without the expressed prior written ASNT is not responsible for the authonticity or accuracy of information herein, and published opinions or statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products and/or services. that may appear in this book do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT. ASNT ccoumeo no reeponcibility for the cafety of percone ueing the information in thie book. ISBN 1 $7117 059 6 First Printing 1998 iced and reprinted April 2000Contents Foreword References. Chapter 1, Introdu Overview of Liquid Penetrant Inspection Personnel Requirements.. Classification of Penetrant Materials... Advantages and Capabilities of Penetrant Inspection . Disadvantages and Limitations of Penetrant Inspection Review Ouction it inntns minima nnin Chapter 2, Materials and Properties.. Qualified Products Listing (QPL)... Penetrant Properties, Safety. : Corrosive Properties Color... i Visible Dyes. Fluorescent Dyes Viscosity Flash Point. Storage Stability Temperature Stability Sensitivity Fluorescent Brightness. Ultraviolet Stability Thermal Stability... Tank Life Water Tolerance. Removebility Emulsifier/Remover Properties. Developer Properties Special Purpose Materials... Oxygen Compatible Penetrants ‘Water-based 1 OX-cnmpatihin Panetvants Volatile Penetrants Nonreactive LOX Penetrant Systems... Tow Snifir and Tow Chlorine Penetrant Systems High Temperature Penetrant Materials Dye Precipitation Penetrant Systems... Reversed Fluorescence Mathad ‘Thixotropie Penetratt...: Dilution-expansion Developers See sve 26 Plastic Film Developers z ae eas Review Questions ..crurmnennnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn a Chapter 3, Mechanism of Penetration, Emulsiti Penetration Wetting Ability Comact Angle: Capillary Action Effect of Temperature Emulsification...n Lipophilic Emulsifier Action Hydrophilic Remover Action Solvent Remaval, Mothav Developer Action. Review Questions nnn Hon, and Developmen Chapter 4, Basic Penetrant Processing. Pre-cleaning of Parts Effect of Surface Contaminants... Effect of Contaminants Within Discontinuities ‘Types of Contaminants. Cleaning Methods Penetrant Application Application by Immersion... Application by Spraying ‘Application py istushing, Penetrant Dwell a Factors that Influence Peneirant Dwell anni Wid Size. : Penetrant Material ype of Discontinuity Penetrant Viscosity Cleanliness of the Discontinuity Types of Dwell Removal of Surface Pe: Factors Influencing Removability Part Surface Condition Part Shape or Geometry Discontinuity Size and Shape Penetrant Removal Processes. Spray Rinse Recommended Rinsing Procedure... Post Sea Processes Lipophilic Method. Hydrophilic Method Solvent Remover Process Drying of Parts Developer Application Developer Dwells Inspection Post-cleaning of Pars... Requirements for Post-cleaning Developer Removal Entrapped Penetrant Removal Post-inspection Treatment of Parts Review Questions... Chapter 5, Inspection, Interpretation, and Evaluation... Observation/Inspection Interpretation of Indications False Indications Nonrelevant Indications... = i Relevant Indications, : Discontinuities. Evaluation of Relevant Indications... ‘Avceptanes and Rejection Crit Recording of Indications... Review Questions Chapter 6, Test Equipment. Overview of Penetrant Test Equipment... Portable Test Equipment Stationary Test Equipment Automated Test Equipment Seteton of Penetrant Inspection Equipment ighting Review Questions Chapter 7, Selection of the Liquid Penetrant ‘Testing Method... Penetrant Testing Compared with Other NDT Methods Penetrant as a Complimentary Method. Selection of Penetrant Method Review Questions Chapter 8, Process Conti a Overview of Process Control Performance Testing. Reference Penetrant Materials. Standards/Test Samples, Process Variables 5 Eres reas saieeeney Process Cantial Frequency! eo ‘Testing and Maintenance of Penetrant Equipment and Materials 69 Portable Equipment... 7 Stationary Fqnipment ‘Automated Equipment Lighting Review Questions Chapter 9, Safety, Health, and Disposal..‘ General Safety Precautions .mnnsnnnnnensnnnnn 1 Flammability. : Ty, Dermatological Considerations - 80 Respiratory Considerations 80 Physiological Effeets of Ultaviolet Radiation 80 Disposal of Penetrant Materials - cag Review Questions. . i eet Chapter 10, Test Procedure Controlling Penetrant Insp. Standards. Specifications... Reference Documents Section of a Specification. Materials Scction of a Specification Equipment Section of @ Specification... oe Personnel Qualification Section of a Specification ...um Process Control Section of a Specification. Wiiten Procedure Requirement Section ofa Specification Written Practices socnennnnnrnn Review Questions Appendix 1, Sample Specification — Penetrant ‘lesting Process... Appendix 2, Answers to Review Questions Te ornssnreeneesnenForeword ‘The American Society for Nondestructive esting, Inc. (ASIN) has prepared a series ot Level ITI study guides that are intended to present major areas in cach nondestructive testing (NDT) method. The Level IIT candidate should use this study guide only as a review, because it ves not contain all of the information necessary to pass a typical Level III examination. In this study guide, specific references will be cited, including page numbers, where detailed information can be obtained. A listing of the references used in this study guide can be found in References on page 0. Typical Laval Lil questions are available at the and af aach gection ta serve as a benchmark for determining comprehension of the material A typical use of this study guide might include the following sequence: 1.” Review the questions at the end of each section in the study guide to determine if your comprehension of the liquid penetrant method is adequate. The questions will serve as an indicator of your ability to pass a Level III examination. 2. If you find questions in a certain section of the study guide to be difficult, itis suggested that you carerully study the information presented in that section. This review oF the information in the study guide will refresh your memory of theory and facts long. forgotten. 3. Ifyou encounter information that is new or not elearly understood, then itis important to note the specific references given throughout the study guide and carefully read this information. In memory of Bernie Boisvert, 1923-1996,References ‘The references used to develop this study guide are: 1. Reference A McMaster, R. C., editor. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Volume 2, Liquid Penetrant Tests Cohumbus. OH: The American Society for Nondestnetive Testing. Ine. 1982 Reference B Boisvert, Bernie, Principles and Applications of Liquid Penetrant Testing: A Classroom Training Text. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Ine. 1993 3. Reference Liquid Penetromt Classroom Training Book (CT-6.2). Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondesinuctive Testing, Inc. 1977 4. Reference D Recommended Practice No, SNT-TC-14, 1996 Edition. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive ‘Testing, Inc,” 1996. 5. Reference E Military specification, MIL-1-25135 E.Ce Chapter 1 Introduction Overview of Liquid Penetrant Inspection The liquid penetrant testing (PT) method is defined as a physical-chemical nondestructive testing (NDT) procedure designed to detect and expose surface discontinuities in nonporous materials. The method will also reveal void type subsurface discontinuities that are open to the surface “The objective ot the PI is to locate cracks, porosity, laps, seams, and other surface discontinuities rapidly and economically. Crreny Personnel Requirements The success of a PT inspection is dependent primarily upon the personnel who perform the various processing steps and those who interpret the cause and severity of indications produced by the inspection process. Quaniricanion, skill, and excelience in performance are important for reliable penetrant inspection. The apparent simplicity of the pro deceptive. Very slight processing variations during penetrant application, removal of excess surface penetrant. application of developer. or examination of the part can produce large differences in inspection results. Further complicating the process is that it is not always possible to determine the ettectiveness of processing merely by examining the part in the inspection booth. The operator who is respousible fur processing the patts must be trained, must have some experience in processing requirements, and must be aware of the detrimental effects of processing variations Individuals responsible for examining and evaluating indications must also be trained and ‘must have experience in the processing requirements. Also, they should be aware of the detrimental effects of processing variations. Inalviduals responstote for evaluating indications not only must have these characteristics, but they must be capable of making decisions based on the interpretation of indications. The penetrant process is highly dependent on the operator's skill. knowledge. vigilance and integrity. Unlike the operator who produced the part, there is no tangible evidence {no permanent record) of the quality of the inspection. Ihe reliability of and confidence in the inspection is totally dependent upon the ‘operator. Tor reliable PT iuspectivns, the petsunisel performing the processing and examination are requited to be: 1. physically and mentally qualified to perform the required processing steps, 2. trained and have the required experience in performing the actual processing steps, 3. alert to consistent processing and resultant indications, 4, motivated to perform with vigilance at the required detection and reliability level, and 5, cupable of eonsictent, independent, and unbiased decisions based on interpretation of resultant penetrant indications Recommended requirements for personnel training and experience are detailed in Recommended Practice No. SNI-IC-IA available from The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT). Peete Pe eee Lea a eeR PEP Ae kd ‘Classification of Penetrant Materials Since 1055, classification or designation of penetrant materials has followed the military specification, MIL-I-25135, At that time, penetrant materials were listed as six “family groups.” In 1964, a seventh group, Group VIL, Consisting of aerosol-packaged Group VI penetrants, was added. In 1982, another change in designation occurred when Group VI was subdivided into Group VIA, high-sensitivity and Group VIB, ultra-high sensitivity penetrant was added. Tubie 1.1 is a listing of the original groups. This table is being provided because there are a number of outdated process specifications sfill in use with these designations. By 1980, it became apparent that additional designations were necessary to include: types of penetrant dye, methods of removal, penetrant sensitivities fons uf developers, aud classes of solvent removers. 7 rs 5 ‘The MIL-I-25135D revision, released in June of 1985, incorporated these designations. ‘A subsequent revision, MIL-L-28135E, war released in June of 1989 and is still in effect. A ‘consensus document (SAE/AMS), which will supersede MIL-1-25135E, is currently being balloted: however, the designations are identical, The revisions also eliminate the family group” (penetrant, emulsifier, and ‘developer) and substitute the “system concept’ for post-emulsifiable penetrants, The system ‘concept is based on the fact that manufacturers formulate their penetrants and cemulsifiers/removers to be used together, The use of one manufacturer's penetrant with another mamfactires's lipophilic ermulsifier a hydrophilic remover may not produce optimum résulls. Therefore, a manufacturer's penetrant and emulsifier/temover are considered to be a “system” and the components are not inierchangeable from manufacturer to manufacturer. Developers and solvent removers, aie Ut paut UF ie systern wind, dherefore, any qualified material may be used. However, since Table 1.1: MIL | 26186C family group classifica MIL-1-25135 C Designation Penetrant Developer GenupT Salwent-remawahle solvent Gry, wee, oF | visible dye nonaqueous (wet) Group IT postemulsifiable, ‘emulsifier dry, wet, or visible uye nonaqueous (wet) Group UL water-washable, none dry, wet, or visible dye Nonaqueous (wet) Group IV water-washable, none dry, wet, or fluorescent nonaqueous (wet) Group vy medium sensiiviry, | emulsifier Gry, wel, oF post-emulsitiable nonaqueous (Wet) | Group VI high-sensitivity. post- | emulsifier dry. wel. or emulsifiable fluorescent omiaqueous (wet) Group VIA. high-sensitivity, post- | hydrophilic dry, water-soluble or emulsifiable, uo nonaqueous (wet) Group VIB ultrwhigh-sensitvity, | hydrophilic dry, water-soluble or post-emulsifiable nonaqueous (wet) Group VII high sensitivity, solvent- | solvent remover nonaqueous (wet) temovable, fluorescentCanna ke eee) 13 Table 1.2: Categories and designations contained in MIL-I-25135E MIL-1-25135 E Description Designation Type l Tiaoresvent dye ponctrant Type tt visible dye penetrant ‘Type UL visible and fluorescent dve penewant (dual mode) Method A water-washable Method B post-emulsifiable, lipophilic Method C solvent-removable Method D postemulsifiable, hydrophilic Sensitivity Level 12 | uluwlow vensitivig Sensitivity Level 1 sitivity Level Sensitivity Level 3 Sensitivity Level 4 Tow sensitivity normal sei high sensitivity ultra-high sensitivity iy halogenated (nonflammable) solvent remover nonhalogenated (flammable) solvent remover Form @ ‘dry powder developer Fon b ‘water-soluble developer Tome Wwatsi-aunpeinieal developer Form d nonaqueous developer Form € pecific application developer Class ()* Class (2) Chass Specific application solvent remover *Class (1) was deleted in 1992 due to the ban on chlorofluorocarbons. each manufacturer has its own proprietary formula, the specification prohibits the mixing or combining of developers or solvent removers? of different manufacturers. Table 1.2 isa listing ‘of material designations and their descriptions. Advantages and Capabilities of 3 Penetrant Inspection ‘operation even though the abject may have a complex shape; PT inspection can detect very small discontinuities and the penetrant bleed- ‘out magnifies the apparent size of discontinuities, making them easier to penetrant indications are formed directly over discontinuities on the surface of the par, providing PT offers a number of advantages and. capabilities when compared to other NDT methods, Some advantages are that: 1, PT inspection is capable of examining 4, the entire exterior surface in one information on location, orientation, and approximate length of the continuity: rocess Is relatively simple and rapid, and it can easily be automated4 CEP ae eee ee red where large volume of paris are to be inspected; PT iuspectiou cau Ue used us a wide variety of materials including ferrous and nonferrous metals, ceramics, 8, glass, and many typos of plasties; and 6. the process sensitivity can be varied by selection of materials and processing procedures — a range of sensitivities are possible, allowing suppression of small, inconsequential discontinuities while indicating large discontinuities of concern Tea mS) Disadvantages and Limitations of Penetrant Inspection There are 4 number of disadvantages and limitations associated with PT. Some Visadvantages ate hat, 1. PT inspection will not reveal discontinuities that are not open to the surface — subsurface discontinuities cannot be detected by penetrant inspection; 2. the part surface and the interior of any discontinuities must be clean and free of contaminants, soils, and moisture — organic and inorganic materials of the surface Of the part, at me discontinulty edges or inside the discontinuity, can interfere with the penetrant entering and filling the discontinuity void: 3. porous materials, materials with interconnecting subsurface networ ‘materials with seeped-in penetrant that is not removed during post-cleaning cannot be inspected by the PT process — the penetrant will emter the pores and. migrate through the network, producing an overall fluorescence or color background that would mask any incenatinui 4, penetrants usually contain petroleum- based liquids that can soften, craze, or attack came nonmetallic materials ouch as certain plastic and rubber compounds; and penetrants, emulsifiers, and developers all contain chemicals that have good welling aid detergent prosporticn, however, they can dissolve and remove the natural oils from human tissue if thay pome inte eontact with and remain oon Skin surfaces for any length of time. This causes drying and cracking, which is a source for secondary infections Pee oe Rererence Review Questions Mi 13 14 PT inspection is defined as: an electromagnetic process. a physical-mechanical process. a physical-chemical process, a méchanical-chemical process, The superseded classification of “Groups” inelude which of the following? Type of penerrant, sensitivity, emulsifier/remover, and developer. b. Removal method, type of penetrant, ivity, emulsifier and developer. al method, type of penetrant, and developer. 4. Type of penctrant, solvent remover, sand developer. The classification term “Type” refers to the type of developer removal. emulsifier, dye in the penetrant, Ihe classification term “method reters to the method of: applying penctrant removing penetrant applying developer incpreting the part negeORM eke heuer 15 Ls 16 In the “system concept.” a system consists of: a. penetrant, emulsifier, and developer. b. penetrant, solvent remover, and developer. . peneirant and developer. 4. penetrant and emulsifier. Whicts of dhe following is wt at advantage of PT inspection? a. Panstrant can be used on a wide variety of materials. b. Indications are formed directly over the discontinuity ¢. PT cannot detect subsurface discontinuities, d. PT inspection is simple and inexpensive. elopers in the military specification are listed by form. What is form d? Dry powder. Woter-saluble Water-suspendible. Nonaqueous. ee When penetrant materials are qualified, they are tested with set provisions. What are the provision requirements for ‘qualitying a lype I penetrant? a. Method A penetrants are tested using 2 wet developer b. Method B penetrants are tested using a dry developer. Method © penetrants are tested using a water-soluble developer. d, Method D penetrants are tested using a nonaqueous developer. 19 1a2 Per SNT-TC-IA, the mumber of training hours required for direct certification to Level Ili a. 6 hours, b. 12 hours, c. I6hours. 4. 20 hours. Peneuaint bleed-vut uf an indication ‘magnifies the apparent size of the discontinuity, making them easier to detect a. Tne, b. False. The ultimate reliability and confidence in PT inspection is based on the: a. penetrant material. b. developer material ©. quality of the part, 4d. operator of the process. Military specifications for penetrante lit penetrants by systems, Which of the following systems is the most sensitive? ‘Type I, Method A, level 1/2. ‘Type I. Method A and B, level 2. ‘Type 1, Method C, level 2. ype |, Method C: level 4. ‘The Groups listed in the military specifivativis have five levels uf sensitivity. The lowest sensitivity level is a. level 1/2. b. level 1. level 3 d. level 4es Chapter 2 Materials and Properties Qualified Products Listing (QPL) MIL requires qualification of all penetrant pendnets te he ised an military contracts. A set of commercial products with well documented properties are designated as “reference standards,” Many of the fest requirements (sensitivity, fluorescent brightness, and removability) are comparative. The material to be qualified and the “reference standard” matertal dre processed imultaneously under the same conditions and the results are compared. The material to be qualified must equal or oxeved the referen standard material's performance. Materials found to be acceptable are listed on a military aualified products list. OPL-25135 The listing of a material on the QPL does not guarantee that subsequent batches of product of the same formulation will be acceptable, Ihe isting only mdicates that the original raw materials, formulation, and compounding practice can result in an acceptable product. These ate miany La tuss aul conditions in compounding and manufacturing penetrant materials that can reduce their ferinemance Many sare routinely verify the performance of each incoming batch of enetrant materials, orate Penetrant Properties Formulation of « liquid penetrant is a complex process due to the numerous and frequent conflicting requirements. High on the list of requirements is the ability to enter or penetrate and fill voids that contain tight or small surface openings. This requirement includes the ability to entrap and hold the penetrant, which conflicts with the need for the ability to remove the excess surface penetrant Another requirement of equal importance is the Visibility or contrast between the penetrant indication an de surface backyround. Dye added to the penetrant solution helps to provide the necessary contrast between the indication and the surface background. To accept the dye into the penetrant solution, the penetrant must have a high solvent ability. This tenc conflict with the requirement of a point, 93 *C (200 °F), to permit its use in open tanks and a relatively low evaporation rate for long-time storage in open tanks. Unfortunately, there 1s neither a tixed rule for formulating a liquid penetrant nor a set of criteria that will provide a satisfactory product Tlowever, there are some fundamental prerequisites that are necessary for acceptable Performance. The penetrant must he eapahle of smoothly and evenly distributing itself over the surface of the part to be inspected — it must be able to wet the surfaces of the more ci metals: 2. be capable of entering and filling surface openings even though they may bbe very sina 3. resist removal and remain in discontinuities during removal of excess surface psnetrant on the cusface of the part: 4. be capable of exiting from the discontinuity after the excess surface penetrant has been removed: have high visibility or contrast in small quantities or thin films when viewed on the part surtace: 6. not etch, corrode or otherwise degrade the part: and/or 7._be nontoxic. Da oe18 ASNT Level Ill Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testin Safoty Safety is a concern because of the possible hazardous characteristics of each material used in compounding penetrants, emulsitiers, and developers. Federal law requires the ‘manufacturer to identity and define the hasardous charactetisiey yf eavle saterial used in its formulation. This information must be listed in a materials safety data sheet (MSDS) prepared in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.1200, section (2), Materials Safety Data Sheets. Whenever a change in materials is made, the manufacturer must update the material data sheet. For more information, see Chapter 9, Safety, Health, and Disposal. Corrosive Properties Penetrants, emulsifiers, and developers must not react with metals to cause pitting, etching, cracking, or tarnishing. Complicating this requirement is the fact that many of the parts inspected by the penetrant method are subsequently subjected ty vai ying temperatures ‘There may be no chemical attack at room temperature, but if traces of penetrant are left on the part and it is subjected to elevated temperatures, pitting, intergranular corrosion, or stress corrosion may occur. All penetrant materials must be subjected to three corrosion tests: moderate temperature corrosion: high- temperature stress corrosion; and high- temperature corrosion of nickel-based alloys Susceptibility to moderate temperature corrosion is tested by immersing polished specimens of aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy and chrome-moly steel in a covered vial or jar large enough to accommodate the specimenis and material to be tested. The material to be tested is added and should not cover more than 0.75 uf ie specimen, The covered vials are placed in an oven at 50°C + 2° (122 °F 4°) for 3 hours. At the end of the 3-hour period, the specimens are removed and washed with deionized water or suitable solvent. The specimens are examined, both visually and under 10x magnification. There should be no ‘evidence of pitting, etening, cracking, of tarnishing Another test performed on penetrant materials prior to qualification is for susceptibility to high-temperature stress corrosion, Four specimens of Ti 8Al-IMo-1V ‘are prepared and placed under a static stress ‘One specimen remains bare, one specimen is coated with a 3.5% NaCl solution, and the remaining two specimens are coated with the material fo be tested. The four stressed and coated specimens are placed in an oven at 538 °C 4° (1,000 °F + 10°) for 4.5 hours. ‘After heat soaking, all specimens arc examined for cracks under 10x magnification while under stress. When the specimen coated with NaCl does not show cracks, itis cleaned and etched and examined for pitting. If no pitting or eracks are observed, or if the uncoated specimen is cracked, the test is invalid and it must be repeated. The specimens coated with the material being tested are then cleaned and examined for cracking or pitting under 10x magnification. The final test for corrosion is to determine the material's susceptibility to high-temperature corrosion of cast nickel alloys. Four specimens of either IN 713C or B-1900 + HE are prepared, ‘Two specimens remain bare while the other two are coated with the material to be tested. The four specimens are then placed in an oven at 1,010 °C + 28° (1,850 °F + 50°) for 100 hours #4, The specimens are then sectioned, ‘mounted. polished. and examined at 200% magnification. Coated specimens shall show no more corrosion, oxidation, intergranular, or preferential attack than uncoated specimens. Color “The carrier or vehicle in liquid panatrant ie practically colorless and transparent. This, makes it very difficult to see when itis entrapped in small surface openings and voids. A dye or blend ot dies 1s dissolved in the vehicle to provide a high contrast, readily visible indication. Two types of dyes are usually used, color-contrast of visible fluorescent, Visible Dyes Visible dve penetrants. also called color- contrast penetrants, are available in red, orange, r purple when viewed under visible light. The most frequently used dyes are red because they provide hight conrast with many mecallic surfaces. They are inexpensive and they readily dissolve in the penetrant oil. When used with omuleifiors ar solvents to remove the excess surface penetrant, the small amount of penetrant trapped in the surface discontinuity is diluted byeee keene 9 spreading through the developer. To compensate for this, the deepest shade of red and the highest concentration of dye that can be dissolved in the oil without precipitation is, used. The red dyes are visible in very thin films; however, fluorescent dyes are Visible in even thinner trims. One of the basic reasons that a visible dye is considered to be less sensitive than a fluorescent dye is that fluorescent penetrants can locate an indication with a smaller, thinner volume of oil. The primary advantage of using a visible penetrant is thar it can he tised with nrdinary shops lighting and it can be applied from a small portable kit Fluorescent Dyes Some minerals and chemical compounds have the ability to emit visible light when exposed (o shor. wavelength energy (X-rays, ultraviolet light, and black light). This property of converting short wavelength energy to visible light ie termed “Huoresconee:” materials with this property are called “fluorescent.” The mechanism of fluorescence involves the atomic structure of the fluorescent material. and the energy level and quantity of the exciting radiation, A material will fluoresce only if it has a specific atomic structure. The energy holding the electrons in orbit in the outer shells must be low and there must be a vacant space in the outermost ring. When a photon of short wavelengtls sadiativn inputs a fluorescent material, some of the photon’s energy is transferred to an electron in the outer fing. displaoing it from is normal shall ta the next higher ring. This is an abnormal or unbalanced condition; the displaced electron quickly returns to its normal shell. In returning, to equilibrium, the electron releases the excess energy as electromagnetic radiation, Fluorescent penetrant dyes are designed 10 Muoresce when exposed (0 365 nm wavelength ultraviolet (UV) light. The released energy always has longer wavelength than the exciting radiation. Tho roloused onergy in fluorescent materials has a wavelength of 400 nm to 700 nm, which is in the visible light range. The wavelength of released enerey depends upon the type of dye used. Fluorescent penetrant dyes are usually in the range of 475 nm to 575 nm, which is in the visible spectrum of green to yellow Viscosity Viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance fo 2 change in physical shape. Viscosity varies widely with temperature, decreasing when temperatures are raised and increasing when temperatures are lowered Viscosity 1s an important factor in the application process of both penetrant and lipophilic emulsifiers. Viscosity has no effect on penetrating ability; some very viscous fluids (i.c., molasses) have very good penetrating ability, while some law visaosity wide (e., pure water) have very poor penetrating ability. From an application viewpoint, viscosity affects the rate of penetration and higher viscosity fluids require a longer penetration time. [also determines how much penetrant or emulsifier remains on the part surtace at the end of the dwell time. High viscosit penetrants cling to the part surface and require cused effort in removal, which inereases drag-out loses. Very thin (low viscosity) penetrants may drain from the part so quickly that insulicient penetrant remains on the part surface to fill any discontinuities, High viscosity emulsifiers are slow to diffuse into penetrant and they require an increased emulsihier dwell time, Viscosity is measured in accordance with ASTM D 445, at 37.8 + 1°C (100 + 1.8 °F), There is no set value required for viscosity. The manufacturer tiust site Wie nominal viscosity of each penetrant and lipophilic emulsifier. This viscosity, + 15%, is required an each batch of lot of material delivered. Lee eae Flash Point Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off enough Nammable vapor that it could ignite when in the presence of a flame. ‘The flash point does not affect the performance of a penetrant Tt is important as 1 safety precaution. Flash point requirements have changed through the years. In 1975, it was as low as 66 °C (150 °F); however in 1977, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) established 2 minimum flash point of20 Pee ao eee de ee ed 93 °C (200 °F) for flammable liquids used in open tanks without special precautions and. equipment. These restrictions are quite severe, and 93 °C (200 °F) is now considered to be the norm for use in open tanks, Flash point is measured in accordance with Standard Proctice ASTM D 93. Penetrant packaged in aerosol containers are an exception and they must be labeled in accordance with CFR 173.115, ee Pee a eed Storage Stability ‘he penetrant matertals are required to meet all specification requirements after a L-year period of storage in fully closed containers Etoved at temperatures hotwieon 16 and 38 °C (60 and 100 °F). This is confirmed by testing samples submitted for qualification to the specification requirements ‘Temperature Stability Temperature stability is a requirement of the newer specification and should not be confused with “thermal stability.” Temperature stability refers to the resistance to separation of pencteans aud enulsifiers whew exjnised temperatures outside of the recommended processing range, Penetrants and emulsifiers shall show no senaration after being subiected {0 two complete temperature cycles as follows: 1. aminimum of 1 L (0.26 gal) should be cooled to 18 °C (0 °F) for 7 hours and thea warmed to room temperature. The sample should not be stirred or otherwise mixed until it is examined for evidence of separation 2. ‘A-minimum of 1 L (0.26 gal) should be ‘warmed to 66 °C (150 °F) for 7 hours. and then cooled to room temperature. The sample chould not be stirred or otherwise mixed until itis examined for evidence of separation. Sensitivity When used to describe a penetrant performance characteristic, the term Sensitivity” is defined as the ability to produce a visible indication from very small, tight surface openings. It involves both penetrating ability and contrast with surface backeround. ‘The penetrant must enter and exit the discontinuity with enough dye to produce a noticeable indication While visible dye (Type I) penetrants are not classified by sensitivity level, they do have to meet certain minimum requirements. The test depends on the visual comparison of indications on thermal-cracked aluminum blocks. Half of the block is processed with the reference standard penetrant system and the other half is processed with the material that is being evaluated. After processing, the two halves are visually compared and the penetrant under evaluation must produce indications equal to or greater than tne standard. Figure 2.1 is a photograph of the indications from two visible dye penetrants, TFnorescrnt penatrant systems (Type 1) are classified into 5 sensitivity levels sensitivity level 1/2 - ultra-low, sensitivity level 1 - low. sensiuivity level 2 - normal, sensitivity level 3 - igh, and sensitivity level 4 - ultrachigh. The test for sensitivity level involves the use of the selected reference standard material. Test panels are & series of titanium and nickel alloy panels containing vety sital, alanawny- generated fatigue cracks. The panels are first processed using the applicable reference Standard penetrant system, The brightness of the resulting indications are measured using a 1 dye (Type ll) penetrants on a cracked aluminum blockGoes photometer. This procedure standardizes the {esting equipment. The panels are then cleaned tnd reprocessed using the penetrant system to be evaluated. The resulting brightness numbers must aqual ar exoned thace of tha tmference standard material There is only one set of qualification test panels. It is not presently possible to duplicate Tatigue cracks with identical penetrant system performance characteristics. The U.S. Air Force is the qualifying agency and maintains the test panels, Therefue, nonqualification eumpatisva {ests are accomplished by using a variety of test panels, such as cracked nickel-chromium pilates alternate fatigue cracked panels, and actual service-cracked parts Selection of the sensitivity level to be used depends upon potential flaw size, width and volume of the discontinuity, part size, shape, surface finish, residual stress, and intended function of the part. The general rule is to use the lowest sensitivity that will reveal the possible discontinuities. Difficulties can be experienced if the sensitivity is either too low ‘or too high, Low sensitivity levels may not reveal potentially harmful discontinuities, while a sensitivity level that is too high can result in a residual background that could obscure any ‘ascontinutty indications. Fluorescent Brightness Fluorescent brightness is the amount of visible light given off when fluorescent dye is exposed to UV light. There are a number of variables that influence fluorescent brightness. Suine of these aie 1. the thickness of the penetrant film, 2. the intensity of the UV light impinging of the surface 3. the amount or concentration of fluorescent dye in the penetrant, 4. the capability of the dye to absorb UV light (extinction coettictent), and the effici of the dye in converting the released electrons to visible light (quantum yicld). Variables that can be controlled by the ‘operator are the intensity of the UV impinging on the surface and the thickness of the penetrant film (emulsifying, washing, and (ene kee a4 developing). The other variables are controlled by tie periewam manufacturer. Tuereasing he amount of dye in solution proportionally increases the fluorescent brightness. The evtinotion enefficiant and quantum yield are characteristics of the dye system. These are controlled by the dye blends, since most penetrant systems contained a blended dye. An activator dye, which has an optimum extinction coefficient in the 365 nm wavelength region, may have a high quantum yield but not in the 475 10 575 am vange (yellow-zicen). A second dye can be selected that has @ good extinction coefficient where the activator dye has its peak emission. The second dye. called a color- forming dye, will emit in the 475 to 575 nm range. This interaction of different dye types is called cascading. ‘Measurement of tluorescent brightness 1s, accomplished in accordance with ASTM E 1135, Standard Test Method for Comparing the Brightness of Fluorescent Penetrants. Reference standard sensitivity level 4 penetrant is used as a baseline. A thin film is achieved by accurately diluting both the standard and material to be tested, Four small squares of filter paper are dipped into the diluted reference standard and four squares are Aipped Into the dttuted test marerial. The samples are then dried in a desiccator. This produces a thin, uniform film of penetrant on the filter paper rquarer. The fluorescent brightness on both the reference standard and (est material are measured using a fluorometer. For sensitivity level 4 penetrant. the fluorescent brightness of the test material must be at least ‘95% of the brightness of the reference standard. Sensitivity levels 1/2, 1, 2, and 3 petewant ate also Compared sgaliist sensitivity level 4 reference standard penetrant. Sensitivity level 1/2 must be at least 50%, sensitivity level 1 must be 65%, sensitivity level 2 must be 80% and sensitivity level 3 must be at least 90% of the brightness of the reference standard penetrant Reference A, p. 418 Peres ed Ultraviolet Stability The efficiency of fluorescent dyes in converting UV light to visible light is reduced2 PENT Ae he are by prolonged exposure to UY light. The test for UV stability is accomplished in a manner similar to the test for fluorescent brightnes: (ASTM E 1135} with the following changes. No reference standard specimens are necessary: Ten filter paper specimens are dipped into the diluted material fo be tested. Five of me dried specimens are then placed in a darkened area such as a desk drawer. The remaining five specimens are exposed to: 800 Wier? | 50 wWicm? UV hight for | hour. Afier the exposure period, the fluorescence of the specimens is measnred in the flhorometer in accordance with ASTM E. 1135, alternating between exposed and unexposed specimens, The minimum accepted averaged values are: 1. sensitivity levels 4 and 3 — 70% of unexposed brightness, 2. sensitivity levels 2, 1, and 1/2 — 50% OF the unieaposed specimens Thermal Stability Elevated temperatures can reduce the fluorescence of penetrant in open tanks. The test for thermal stability is similar to the fluorescent brightness tests and the UV stability tests previously described. Ten filter paper specimens are dipped into diluted Penetrant to be tested. Five of the test specimens are placed in 2 location away from strong light, heat, and air current. The femaining five specimens are placed on a clean metal plate and held in a dead air oven at 114 °C + 2° (237 °F £ 4°) for | hour. After axpacire, the flunrescent brightness i< measured according to ASTM E 1135. Alternating between exposed and unexposed samples is recommended. Average brightness of the exposed samples shall not be less than 60% for sensitivity levels 1/2, 1, and 2, and 80% for sensitivity levels 3 and 4 compared to the average fr the unexposed sanuples Tank Life It is possible that problems can occur when compounding penetrants and lipophilic emulsifiers. These problems usually result in separation, precipitation, or scum forming on the surface of the material after it has been in the tank. When problems occur, they result in degraded pertormance. Ihe test for tank lite involves placing a 50 ml sample in an uncovered 150 mm (5.9 in.) nominal diameter petri dish which is in tum placed in a convection oven, and maintained at a temperature of 50 °C + 3° (122 °F + 5°) for T hours. At the end of the period, the material is removed from the oven, allowed to cool, and then examined visually. Any evidence of separation, precipitation, or scum formation is cause for rejection. ‘Water Tolerance Woter-washable penetrants (Method A) are controlled mixtures of penetrant and emulsifier. Water contamination from adjacent wash stations van cause gelling, vepaation, or coagulation. Therefore, limiting water contamination is necessary, Method A. penetrants shall show no gelling, separating, or Coagulating, The wot fur waier tolerance is conducted at a temperature of 21 °C 3° (70 °F + 5°), A 20 ml +045 sample is placed in 2 50 ml beaker containing a magnetic stirring, bar 8 mm (0.3 in.) in diameter and 25 mm (1 in.) long. The beaker is placed on a magnetic stirrer and the stirring speed is adjusted to provide rapid mixing without entrapping air bubbles (about 60 rpm). Tap water is then added drop-by-drop from a 10 mL burette until the end point is reached. The end point is called when the sample turns and remai cloudy or thickens as noted by more than a temporury slowing of the magnetic bur. Water tolerance is then calculated by percentage. Remuvability Removability, commonly referred to as washability, is a common property applicable to water-washable (Method A) and post- emulsified penetrants (methods B and D). The manufacturers carefully formulate the cuuulsifiers depending upon dhe penetan 1 be used. Therefore, penetrants and emulsifiers are tested as a system, and emulsifier from one manufacturer may not perform adequately on a different manufacturer's penetrant. The surface roughness of the test item has an effect on the test. Smooth machined parts are easily emulsified, while rough surface parts require a more active emulsifier. Over-removal is tested during the sensitivity test since removal of entrappea penetrant Will decrease sensitivity on the relatively smooth panels. Under-removal,cae Ue iGe ke A 23 which causes excessive background, can obscure potential discontinuities and itis tested Special stainless steel test panels are produced by grit blasting under carefull controlled conditions. Procedures for producing and testing the panels and the type ot washing. apparatus to be used are detailed in MIL-1-25135 and the SAE Aeronautical Mororials Specification on ponotrant materials Four of the panels are processed in the applicable reference standard system and four are processed in the system to be tested. Procedures for immersing and draining. water- washable (Method A), post-emulsified lipophilic (Method B), and post-emulsified Iydrophilie (Method D) penctrants are the same, They consist of dipping the test samples and allowing them to drain for approximately 10 minutes while at a 60° angle. Procedures for washing, drying, emulsifying, and applying developer vary slightly, depending on the system being tested. After processing, the fluorescent background on the samples is measured using an electro-optical meter that is corrected for phototrophic response to visible light with neclisible response to UV light. Three measurements are made on each panel. The measurements are totaled and compared to the sum of the Ineasureiicnty UF the appr vpriate reference standard. Penctrant systems should leave 0 more residual penetrant than the same sensitivity level reference standard, Emulsifier/Remover Properties Peuleun-tased penetams are not soluble with water. However, there are chemicals that will combine with the penetrants to form a mixnire that can he removed with a water spray. These chemicals are called emulsifiers. Emulsifier/removers are a complex mixture of chemicals. Ideally, during removal of surface penetrant, all excess surface penetrant should be removed from all surface areas (ineluding fillets, corners, and recesses) without removing penetrant entrapped in elisenatinnitins Formulating the ideal emulsifier mixture is a delicate balancing act because a mixture that is too aggressive will leave a clean surface but it will also remove entrappea penetrant while a low aggressive mixture will leave an excessive background, Each manufacturer has its own formulation for penetrants and the emulsifiers ‘must be formulated for that specific penetrant (except fie solvent removers) Frnuleifiers fram one manufacturer may not perform satisfactorily on a different manufacturer’s penctrant. Generally, the emulsifiers are tested for sensitivity and femovabulity cunng the penetrant tests Water-washable or self-emulsifiable penetrants (Method A) contain emulsifier as an integral part of their formulation, Adding a lipophilic emulsifier to a post-emulsifiable penctrant will not produce a satisfactory water- ‘washable penetrant. Because water-washable penetrants already contain an emulsifier, they are susceptible to Water-contamination. A specification requirement is that water washable penetrants tolerate at least 5% water addition without gelling, separating, or coagulating. They must also meet the requirement for tank life without separation of emulsifier from the penetrant Lipophilic emulsifier (Method B) is a type of liguid soap that will diffuse into the penctrant, producing a mixture that can be removed with 4 water spray. They are required to be a distinctly different color than the penetrant. The three properties of lipophilic emulsifiers that control the washing characteristics are activity, viscosity, and Water tolerance. These prupertics ae facwned ayaiuse dhe characteristics of the oil-based penetrant. If a penetrant is highly resistant to water, an ‘emulsifier with a high activity is needed. The rate of diffusion of the emulsifier into the penetrant depends on the viscosity of the emulsifier. High-viscosity emulsifiers diffuse uve slowly dit low-viscosity emutsiiers, A highly-active emulsifier with a low viscosity can be adjusted by blending it with a more vviscenss emulsifier to provide the desired washing characteristics. Emulsifier stations are ‘generally located next to the wash/rinse stations and water contamination from over-spray or splashing can occur, As water is added to the emulsifier, the emulsifier gels, separates, or coagulates. A specification requirement is that the emulsifier rolerare 8% water by weight without gelling, separating, or coagulating and still be capable of passing the penetrant removability test. As parts are processed ‘through the emulsitie, some of the surtace penetrant dissolves in the emulsifier. Because Method B emulsifiers are 100% soluble ina ASNI Level iit Stuay Guide: Liquid Penetrant 1esung penetrant, a gradual build-up of penetrant slows the emulsification rate. With continued build up, the emulsifier begins to function as penetrant, Method B emulsifiers must tolerate at least une pait punctiant w four parts emulsifier and still pass the removability test. Method B emulsifiers are supplied in the ready- to-use form and do not require further mixing Hydrophilic emulsifiers are often called removers to differentiate them from lipophilic emulsifiers. They consist of a mixture of chemicals called surtactants, Ihey are supplred as concentrated liquids and are mixed with water either before or during the removal process. The concentrate is required to contai a maximum of 5% water Developer Properties Developers are A that assist in the withdrawal of entrapped penetrant from ‘ascontinultes and provide contrast between an indication and the part background. They must provide a smooth even coating covering the entire surface to be inspected. Their sensitivity and removability are tested using reference standard materials and they are compared only to the developer action of the material being tested. Dry powder (Form a) and nonaqueous developers are supplied in the ready-to-use form, Water-soluble (Form b) and water- suspended (Foun ©) Uevelupers ate supplied as concentrates to be mixed with water according to the manufacturer's instructions, They shall not contain compounds of hexavalent chromium, Developers for Type I penetrants (fluorescent) must not exhibit any green, yellow, or orange fluorescence and fluorescence of other colors shall not be greater than that of the reference standard developer. Developers for Type II penetrants (Visible dye) shall provide good contrast with the penetrant to be used. Solvent developers shall not contain any Class 1 ozone layer depleting substances (OLDS). Water-suspended developer must also he capable of redispersing after setting for a specified time. Special Purpose Materials ‘There are a number of penetrant materials that are different than those previously described. These materials are formulated for special applications and purposes. Because of their limited usage, they are not covered by either military or industry specifications. Some of these special purpose materials arc deseribed in the following paragraphs. Oxygen Compatible Penetrants Liquid oxygen (LOX) and gaseous oxygen are extremely chemically reactive, They can react explosively when they come ito contact with a combustible material or when they are subjected to shock, impact, or vibration. There is not too mich of an incpostion problom for simple disassembled parts from which all ‘races of penettant inspection residue is, removed. Difficulties are encountered with assemblies and complex-shaped parts that contain crevices, recessed areas, or faying surfaces where inspection residues become fenirapped and are not removed by cleaning. The test for LOX-compatible materials involves dropping a weight on the material while in contact with an oxygen environment If the material is not LOX-compatible, it will cause an audible explosion, or a visible flash in a darkened room, discolor the anvil, or leave evidence of charting. There are two ways of avoiding a LOX reaction from penetrant materials: 1. by conipletely seinuving all waves of inspection residues by cleaning, and 2. by using only process materials that are inert in an oxygen environment LOX-compatible materials must be formulated with: 1. materials that are soluble in water and. are easily removed by rinsing, 2. materials that are completely volatile tand that evaporate from parts without leaving a residue, and 3. nonreactive materials that maintain the dyestuffs in solution and are completely Wetted by the liquid at all times, Water-based LOX-compatible Penetrants There are dyestufis and developers that are soluble in water Wator-baced pontrante, if the water content is high, are LOX-insensitive. However, when the water evaporates, theCoe ae hareraces 25 residues can become LOX-sensitive. Some water-based penetrants have been approved for some LOX-related applications because their residues are water-soluble and act as surface agents similar to detergents that are easily rinsed! Approval for LOX applicarians is hased ‘on the ease of removal and 2 subsequent passing of the impact test. Oe] ar ence B, p. 138 Volatile Penetrants Dyostule of the Coumarin class have the abilily to sublime (evaporate from a solid to a gas without going through a liquid phase) at Toom temperature or up to 50-65 °C (130-150 °F). Penetrants developed from this chemical class will entirely evaporate from entrapments in 24 hours when at room temperature, and they will evaporate in tew ‘minutes at elevated temperatures. However. some potential problems that may be encountered are that the materials may redeposit in another area and that the appearance of 100% evaporation does not mean rresichie-from surface ar viccantinnity ee ee) Perea Ey Nonreactive LOX Penetrant Systems. Another approach to formulating a LOX- compatible penetrant is to use materials that are inert in a LOX or gaseous environment. Ths selection is limited to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are several useful fluorinated hydrocarbon liquids available that may be employed as penetrants. These fluorolube oils are nonvolatile and they do not react with LOX. They also act to quench any LOX reactivity of dyestutt matenal that may be dissolved in or wetted by the fluorolube oil Unfortunately, fluorolube oils are not particularly good solvents, Care must be uscd when selecting indicator dyes that will remain in solution or at least colloidal suspension, One TOX-compatible penatrant system mives volatile chlorinated hydrocarbon with fluorolube oils. The chlorinated hydrocarbon is an excellent solvent for the dyestafls aind alles entrapment in a discontinuity evaporates concentrating the dye while the fluorolube oil nots to quench the TOY raactivity af the dyestuts Refere oA EI eee Low Sulfur and Low Chlorine Penetrant ‘Systems When small quantities of sulfur and chlorine are ionized and come into contact with stainless steels, high nickel alloys, s. and titanium alloys, corrosion ‘may result. This corrosiveness is accelerated when the alloys are used at elevated temperatures and/or under residual stress resulting in mtergranular corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, and stress corrosion, Sulfur and chlorine are not essential to penetrant systems but they do exist in ace amounts iu tie 1aw materials. The military and consensus specifications do not Set limits on chlorides or sulfur content but they do rely on corrosion tests. Materials listed on the QPL must meet several tests for susceptibility to corrosion at moderate temperature. high temperature. and ultra-high temperature of cast nickel alloy under sustained stress. Airframe and jet engine ‘manufacturers have agreed to accept these tests rather than formulate specitic fimuls on chlorides and sulfur There is a considerable difference of opinion concerning the allowable Hmits for chlorides and sulfur. Nuclear and boiler codes specify from 0.5 to 1% by weight as the maximums Many of the existing commercial materials will meet at least the upper limit. Penetrant ‘manu{acturers, on special order, can provide ‘materials meeting most of the power generation speciications Ronee a eee Pare Tea EE26 Cee ae eed High Temperature Penetrant Materials ‘The recommended upper limit for standard penetrant systems is 49 °C (120 °F). There are fluorescent and visible dyes that resist heat degradation at temperatures higher than this. In formulating a high-temperature penetrant, the vehicles and solvents are selected to remain liquid and resist evaporation at the desired operating temperature, Ine upper limit tor high-temperature penetrants is in the range of 177 to 204 °C (350 to 450 °F). The nonaqueous developer must be modified because standard developers will peel or curl at these temperatures. Applications for highs temperate penafrants inchide Ke steam lines and intermediate weld beads. Dye Precipitation Ponotrant Systems Dye precipitation penetrants are commonly referred to as high resolution penetrants because they are exuemtely setsitive wW Sl, tight discontinuities. These penetrants contain & high concentration of either fluorescent or sivible dyestutfs dissolved in a highly penetrating volatile solvent. The penetrant is applied by brushing, usually only in small areas, and it enters any surface discontinuities. During the penetrant dwell, the volatile solvent evaporates, precipitating the dye as a solid or gel in the discontinuity. After removal of the Excess surface penetrant, a two-step developer is used. The first developer is a solvent that redissolves the penetrant, expands its volume, fand extracts it from the discontinuity. The indication can he increased by applying additional layers of the solvent developer. When the indiontion reaches the desired size a plastic developer is applied as a top cost. This freezes the indication and allows it to be removed or stripped from the part surface for a permanent record. Reversed Fluorescence Method The reversed fluorescence method is similar to that of « photographic negative of the standard fluorescent penetrant. The penetrant is similar (o standard visible dye penetrant, which in some instances may be used. It is applied to the surface of the part. After a dwell period, the excess surface penetrant is removed in the standard manner. A special developer powder, containing a low intensity fluorescing dye, is then applied by spraying under a UV light. The entire part surface will fluoresce except where ‘an entrapment is present. The penetrant will quench the developer fluorescence and the indication appears as a dark line where the penetrant bleed-out occurs. Thi A thixotropic material is one that changes form or structure as a function of time or shear streaa. A thinotropie penetrunt is upplicd us a solid or gel that changes to a liquid after application. One example is a high-temperature penetrant in the form of a Crayon™ or stick that is used to inspect welds before they are cooled. Dilution-expansion Developers Dilution-expansion developers do not use the conventional blotter adsorption/absorption action. Powder of pigment particles are not requited in dilution-expansion developers and they may even interfere with the action. In ilution-expansion developers, the small film of penetrant that exudes from an entrapment is diluted and its volume is expanded into the liquid developer layer. Because no pigment particles are used, the resolution of the resulting indication is improved. ropic Penetrant eee en ECE Pee aE} Plastic Film Developers Plastic film developers are either one-part or two-part developer systems. One-pari plastic film developers consist of a variety of organic or resin polymers dispersed or dissolved in a Noluule Solver. hn soinie eaves, a powder is added to scatter the light and add contrast to the indication. Because adsorption/absorption is, not involved, the indication docs not spread, and the resolution is high. In two-part developers, the first part consists of, or is similar to, a solvent-suspended developer or a dilution-expansion developer that forms the indication. The second part is then sprayed on,nee ee 7 stopping the developer action, freezing the 5 indication, and forming a clear plastic layer that can be pacled from the part surface te form. a permanent record of the indication eee ae OE Reference B. p. 140 Review Questions 26 2a A liguid with good penetrating capabilities controls its rate of penetration by: viscosity, surface tension, contact angle. capillary action, A visible dye penetrant is not as 27 st Fluunescent dye penetrants because b c a, e. red visible dye needs a thicker threshold film, a visible dye does not emit light to attract the eye. a thick developer coat to provide good white background can mask an indication, all or te above. 28 and c above. Fluorescent dyes used in penetrants absorb photon energy at a wavelength of 356 nm, The approximate wavelength of ihe color that most fluorescent penetrants emit is a b. c a The proper 425 nm. 323 nm. 29 625 nm. 5 nm. that controls the rate of penetration is the: eose viscosity of the penetrant surface tension of the penetrant. volatility of the penetrant. welting action of the penetrant. ‘A penetrant must be lighter than water so that water contamination will always Sink 10 the hottom of the rank. This property is related to the viscosity. surface tension. volatility specific gravity. Rapid evaporation of a penetrant can affect the viscosity as well as the economic and safety axpects of a penetrant. The rate of evaporation is, controlled by: volatility. viscosity surface tension. specitic 1s gravity Flammability is a property of hydrocarbons and the types of oils and solvents that impact the safe use of a peneirant material. The best test (0 evahiate flammability is a. viscosity. b. flash point ¢. volatility dL specific gravity. Which of ue following is not compatible with chloride ions, total chlorine, and sulfur? Titanium. High nickel alloys. Austenitic steels. All of the above, Both b and c above. saege Its offen recommenced that chionide content be limited to what percentage of the penetrant? a. 0.01%, b. 01%. ere d. 11%.2B PEM Ae ed 2.10. Itis often recommended that sulfur 24 content be limited to what percentage ot the penetrant? 0.0 0. 1 1 cs nose 1 0 1 S23 Many specifications, including 25 MIL-I-25135. require corrosion tests of penetrant materials wit: a. aluminum. b. magnorivm. c. steel, d. all of the above. ¢. both a and b above. x6 Activity, viscosity, and water tolerance are the three properties of: a. lipophilic emulsifiers. b._postemulsified penetrants ©. hydrophilic emulsifiers d._ wet developers. Viscosity is measured with a viscometer. hydrometer. surface diffzactometer, Cleveland open cup. erre Which of the following properties of a fluorescent dye peneirant 1s the most important? a. Viscosity. b. Capillary action c. Fluorescent brightness, d. Contamination resistance. Evaporation of volatile constituents of liquid penetrant processing materials will result in: a. increased viscosity. bi changes in fluorescence, c. higher developer concentration, d._allof the above. Which of the following developers is purchased as a dry powder? a Diy developer b. Water-suspended developer c. Water-soluble developer. All of the ahoweA } Chapter 3 Mechanism of Penetration, Emulsification, and Development Penetration Liquid penetrant tests for detection of surface ulscomuiuities depends upon the ability of the penetrant to enter the discontinuities and remain there as a penetrant entrapment. Th requires the penetrant lo emoothly spread over the part and evenly coat the surface. The ability to spread over the surface is referred to as the spreading coefficient or wetting ability Wetting Ability Ine ability of a liquid to spread over a solid surface can be expressed by an equation: Ss, — wo ~ OL + 8.) where: Soq_i8 the wetting ability of liquid on aclean solid, ‘y, is the surface energy of the liquid-gas interface. Yor. iS the surface energy of the solid-liquid interface 746 is the surface energy of the solid-gas imtertuce WO Ke gael fa) ea Ca * O~S fae hose — A necessary, but not sufficient, condition for spreading of the liquid on the solid surface requires that the surface energy of the solid-gas liweitace, sg, enced the surface eueigy OF the solid-liquid interface, ys) as indicated by the inequality spreading condition = Yc Ysz Under this condition. as liquid spreads over the solid surface and displaces the prior solid- gas interface, the energy difference (Ys — Ys) per unit area is released to do the work needed to move the liquid over the solid surtace. eres oes bee Contact Angle The wetting ability and contact angle between the liquid-gas and solid-liquid are, inversely proportional. The higher the wetting ability the smaller the contact angle, as shown in Figure 3.1 Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of a liquid drop on an ideally smooth, clean Surface at equilibrium showing contact angle 0 otk ia — a Ay oweh so a i ) ern ye es. eL = Yar H 0088 Relative engihs of | SET SOT Yo ISL — 718090 (8) With poor wowing, guid deop as large contact angle 8 (b) With beter wetting, liquid drop has smaller contact angle 8,30 Pere Ca {he contact angle determines the wetting ability. It is also dependent upon the solid or surface to be wetted. The contact angle will vary with the cubstance to be wetted. The angle betiveen water and glass is nearly 0°; the angle between water and silver is 90°; and the angle between mercury and glass is 132° when pure liquid and clean surtaces are involved. Figure 3.2 shows the relationship between contact angle and wetting ability Capillary Action Capillary action is responsible for both penetrant entry and exit from discontinuities. Capillary action is the rise of a liquid in a small diameter tube as the result of wetting action and surface tension. The liquid rise will not occur unless the liquid wets the tube. When the liguid wets the tube, the liquid level inside tube wall rises. This is due to the low contact anale and surface tension of the liquid. The low contact angle causes the edge of the liquid to curve up the tube wall and the surface tension Of te liquid causes the figuid wy adthere ty the tube wall, atracting additional liquid to the wetted area, and causing the liquid to rise in the tube. When the contact angle approaches 90°, the liquid does not spread and the level of liquid in the tube remains level with the outside liquid. The reverse of this occurs when the comuace angle iy greater than 90°, The hight contact angle curves the liquid edge downward and the level is depressed. Figure 3.3 illustrates the relationship between contact angle and Jiquid level inside the tube cae eee ing Effect of Temperature The effects of temperature on penetrants varies with the type of penetrant and the method used. Generally speaking, satisfactory performance trom penetrants can be achieved between a low temperature of 4 °C (40 °F) and ‘a high temperature ot 40 °C (100 °F). ‘Temperatures below 4 °C (40 °F) have noticeable effects on the penetrant sensitivity. For inctance, using Method , an incpestor might find that the aerosol containers may not produce a spray. In addition, the viscosity of the penetrant will inerease and slow the capillary action of the penetrant. Peneirants can be affected by high temperatures by the evaporation of the lighter constituents, At part temperatures above 49 °C (120 °F), the evaporation of lighter constituents, ‘can affect the color brightness or the fluorescence of the penetrant and reduce the effectiveness of the inspection. The heating of parts to increase sensitivity is not recommended. The advantages that might tie gained by heating a past arc offsct by the disadvantages of heat on the carefully compounded penetrants in use today. Reference A, pp. 67-68 Reference B, pp. Emulsification Oil and water are mutually insoluble: however, if a very smal] amount of oil is added to water and the mixture is violently shaken, the oil will form small globules. Depending on Figure 3.2 Relationship between contact angle and wetting ability Contact Angle 8 8 Liquia >( Ma Liquid Liquid A. 6 Equals 90° Poor Wetting A, @ Less Than 90° Good Wettingon Figure 3.3 Relationship between contact angle and liquid level inside a small diameter tube Capillary Tubes | | ‘A, 0 Greater than 90° Results in Depression Ri A. 0 Equals 9 Results in neither ‘nor Depression A. 6 Less than 90° Results in Capillary Rise the droplet sigs, those small droplets sill remain in suspension, giving the mixture a cloudy or milky appearance. This mixture is called an emulsion. There are certain chemicals that have the ability to mix with oils and to form an easily emulsifiable mixture. This is the case with peneirants and emulsifiers. When a peuvlewin-baxed penetant Is cumbined W1U an emulsifier, the mixture can be removed with a water spray. There are two types of emulsifiers used in the removal process lipaphilie and hydrophilic. Lipophilic and hydrophilic processes have entirely different modes of action in removing penetrant from a part surface. Co ES Ceres ipophilic Emulsifier Action Lipophilic emulsifier works through a process called diffusion. Diffusion is the mixing of molecules due to their random motion, When two miscible liquids that do not react chemically are placed in the same vessel, their molecular motion allows them to penetrate each other and eventually become uniform throughout. The rate of diffusion increases with increased concentration and higher temperatures. For example, when a salt solution is placed in a container and plain swator is layered on top. the liquids remain separated at first. The molecular motion at the interface causes the Fiquids to mix. Over a period of time, the liquids will migrate or diffuse into each other. Eventually, the solution reaches equilibrium when the entire quantity of liquid is of uniform concentration. In the case of penecramt and eimulsifier, the peneurant Citfuses into the emulsifier and the emulsifier iffuses into the penetrant. This diffusion process ix responsible for the mixing of post emulsified penetrant that is covered with a layer of emulsifier. Figure 34 illustrates the mechanism of action of lipophilic emulsifiers. ea nee ee) Hydrophilic Remover Action Hydrophilic remover is a mixture of chemicals called surfactants. They are supplied as a concentrate and are mixed with water either betore of during the removal process, The surface active agent in the remover combines with a small quantity of penetrant from the surface and prevents the penetrant from recombining with the remaining surface penetrant. Unlike lipophilic emulsifier, hydrophilic remover is immiscible in penetrant and diffusion does not occur. All removal action takes place at the exposed surface and