Abstract: This paper deals with introduction to classification of building and structure and reviewing basic Engineering

mechanics and behaviors of structure or structural member loads or forces. Accordingly, structural modeling, supports,
connections, analysis, loads and combinations of loads are described. Structural materials and properties i.e. timber, steel
and concrete are mentioned. Elastic and Strength method including load factor, combination of loads, strength reduction
factor as well as serviceability are presented. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are drawn.
1.

(Building)
(A usually roofed and walled structure built for permanent use) (Build)
(To form a fashion of structure)
Construct, Erect, Put up, Raise, Rear, Up-rear Erect

Fabricate
Prefabricate

Fashion Frame
Manufacture Run up
Throw up
(Components)
(Structural component)
(Structural Member )
(Non-structural component) (Decorating)

2.

( )
(Physical and mechanical properties)
(Chemical properties) (Engineering properties)

(Capability to resist load or forces) (Save) (Safe) (Durable)
()

 (Repetition of loading) (Impact)

3.

(
) (Length i.e. span or height) (Cross sectional area)
(Moment of inertia) (Radius of gyration) (Section modulus)
(Torsional modulus) (Weight)
(Force, P ) ( )
(Self weight) (Live load)
(Compression or tension) (Shear)
(Torsion) (-Bending moment) (Support)
(Boundary condition) (Hinge)
(Roller) (Fixed)
(Determinate structure)
(Axial stress, =

P
) (Elongation i.e. lengthening or shortening, l
A

(Strain, =

l
)
l

V
or =
A
M c.
V Q
V L
) (Flexural stress, =
) (Shear modulus, G =
)
I b
A
I.

(Youngs modulus or modulus of elasticity,

(Torsional shear, =

E =

(Shearing

stress, v =

T L
)
GJ

4.

(Structural member) (Structure) (
)

(Model) (A set of plans
for a building or a pattern of something to be made) (A
description or analogy used to help visualize something that cannot be directly observed)
(A system of postulates, data, and inferences presented as a
mathematical description of an entity or state of affairs) Example, Exemplar, Pattern
Ideal (Something set before one for guidance or
something taken or proposed as worthy of imitation) (Modeling)

2551 - 2

 (To plan or form after a pattern or to produce a representation or simulation or

to construct or fashion in imitation of a particular model or to work or act as a fashion model)

(Analysis) (Separation of a whole

into its component parts)
(Proof of a mathematical proposition by assuming the result and deducing a valid
statement by a series of reversible steps) (A method in
philosophy of resolving complex expressions into simpler or more basic ones)
(Clarification of an expression by an elucidation of its use in discourse)
(Assumption)
(A fact of statement taken for granted that something is true)
(Transform) (
) ( )
( Quantitative) (
)


(Self weight)
(Superimposed dead load) (Live load) (Wind load) (Earthquake)
(Temperature change) (Earth or fluid pressure)
(Differential settlement) (Axial force) (Tension)
(Compression) (Shear) (Bending moment or moment) (Torsion)

(Deflection) (Crack) (Sway) (Rotation)
(Failure) (Rupture) (Collapse)

5.

(
) (Super Structure)
(Sub Structure) (Truss)
(Frame) (Plate) (Shell) (Pre-cast or
Prefabricated) (Cast-in-place or Cast-in-situ) (Driven pile) (Bored pile)
(Pre-auger pile)

2551 - 3

6.

1 4

()

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Pla nk
Joist

Lam inated beam

Box beam
Sla bs
Beam s

Be am

Pan-joist

(On e- wa y sy stem)

Preca st plank s
Preca st T ees
Decking

Wid e-flange s

Tim ber

Ply w ood

Pla nk g ri der s
F olded plates

Conc rete

T russ rafter s
Tim ber

Steel
Tim ber
Ar ches

Steel
Conc rete

Cable

Open -we b
Special d esign

Tru sses

( Two- wa y sy stem)

Castr -in-p al ce

Steel

Open -we b
Special d esign

Lam inated
*

Built- up
F orm ed c oncre te
Cable

F al t plate
F lat plate

Conc rete

Wa ffle slab
Steel

Sh ells

T wo- way s al b & bea m

Conc rete
Steel

Special fr ame
Dome
Ribbe d dom e
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

: *

2551 - 4

80

90

 ()

(l -=) 0

Plank

l/25 - l/35

Joist

l/18 - l/20

tressed skin panel

l/24 - l/30

Laminated beam

l/14 - l/20

Box beam

l/18 - l/20

Truss rafters

10

20

30

40

50

10

20

30

40

50

l /5 - l/7

Open-w eb joints

l/18 - l/20

Flat trusses

l/10 - l/15

Shaped trusses

l /7 - l/10

Ply wood fol ded pl ates

l /7 - l/12

Laminated arches

l /4 - l/6
0

2
8 ( )

(l = ) 0

Slabs *

Be am s*

(1)

l/25

(2)

l/30

(3)

l/35

(4)

l/12

(1)

l/20

(2)

l/23

(3)

l/26

(4)

l/2 0 - l/ 25

F olde d p late*

l/8 - l/15

Barr el s hell*

l/8 - l/15

Plank **

l/2 5 - l/ 40

Ch anne ls**

l/2 0 - l/ 28

T ee**

l/2 0 - l/ 28

30

40

50

10

20

30

40

50

l/3 0 - l/ 40

F lat s labs*

l/3 0 - l/ 40

T wo -w ay s lab & bea m*

Waffle s lab*

l/3 0 - l/ 40
l/2 3 - l/ 35

Dom e*

l/ 4 - l/ 8
0

20

l/10

Pan- joist sy stem *

F lat p late*

10

( Cas t in- situ)

**

(Prec ast)

2551 - 5

(l = ) 0

Deck

10

20

30

40

50

10

20

30

40

50

l/ 30 - l/ 50

Wide f langes

l/ 18 - l/ 28

P lane girders

l/ 15 - l/ 20

Open-web joist

l/ 18 - l/ 22

F ink truss

l/ 4 - l/ 5

Howe truss

l/ 4 - l/ 5

B ow-s tring truss

l/ 6 - l/ 10

S pec ial truss

l/ 4 - l/ 15

A rches

l/ 3 - l/ 5

Ribbed dom e

l/ 3 - l/ 5

Cables
S pac e frame

( )

l/ 5 - l/ 11
##

l/ 12 - l/ 20

##

l/ 12 - l/ 20
0

(1)

(C olumn-supported)

(2)

(Wall-supported)

4 3
7.

7.1

(Topping)
(Precast plank) (10 12 )



(Hollow core Slab) ( 5)

2551 - 6

 5

(
)







()

(Overhanging)


6

6
(Composite metal deck)
(Shear stud)
(
)

2551 - 7


( 7)

7
7.2

(Steel deck)



(vermiculite) (Composite deck)
( 8)

8
7.3

(Cast in place slab)

(Oneway slab)
(Two-way Slab)
(Cantilever slab)
9

2551 - 8


10

10
7.4

(Flat plate)
( )
(Post-Tensioned)

(Drop panel) (Capital)

( 11)

11

2551 - 9

7.5

(One-way joist)
()
(Waffle slab)



( 12)

.
12
7.6

(Staircase)
(Landing)

2551 - 10





(Free standing or Dog-leg or
Jack-knife staircase)
()


( 13)

. ..
13

2551 - 11

.
13 ()
7.7

(Beam)

(Tee beam)
...
(Flange)







...
...

(
) ...
(Prestressing wire or tendon)
(Girder) (Composite beam)

14

2551 - 12

. ..

.
14 ..
7.8

(Pier or Pedestal) (Column)

( 6 )

6



(Built-up
section)

2551 - 13


...
( 15)

. ..
15

2551 - 14

.
15
7.9

(Spread footing)

(Piled foundation)
(Friction)
(Hard strata)
(Bearing) ()


(Strip footing)

(Isolated footing)
(Common footing)

( ) (Strap
footing)

2551 - 15

(Overturn) (Strap beam)

(Common)
(Raft or mat foundation - )


( 16)

. ( )

. ( )
16
(Pile) (Friction)
(End bearing) 17
( )

I Y

(End bearing)
(Solid)
(Hollow)
(Vertical load)

(Uplift) ( 18)

2551 - 16

17

Lateral force
eg. wind or earthquake

Bending

Tension due to bending

Compression due to bending

18
(Driven pile)

(Diesel hammer)
(Bored pile) (Dry process) (Wet process)
(Percussion rig)
(Casing)

Bentonite
Bentonite
(Micro Pile) 25
(Pump)
(Grouting)

Barrette
H L T Clamp shell ( Grab bucket)

2551 - 17

(Auger Press)
(Spun Pile)




(Timber pile)


(Concrete pile)



(Steel
pile) H


(Galvanized) Raymon step


Mono tube Helicoil 19

.
19

2551 - 18

. (Pre-auger driving pile)

. Raymon step Monotube

. Diaphragm wall Bartette

19 ()

2551 - 19

7.10

(Retaining Wall)

...
(Free cantilever)
(Counter fort) (Buttress)
(Water stop) ( 20)

20
(Sheet Pile)
()



( Z )

(Soldier Beam) (Wale) (Tie Rod
and Anchorage) (Dead-man end)
(Batter Pile)
(
I)


(Strut) 21
(Diaphragm Wall)


( 22)
( Secant pile Contiguous pile)

2551 - 20


( 22)

21

22 Diaphragm Wall
(Shear wall)

(Panel) ( 23)

23

2551 - 21

7.11

(Flat roof) (Sloped plane-roof) (Complex roof
system) .. (
)



( 24)
(Lean to)
(Butterfly) (Gable) (Hip)
(Metal sheet)
(Rafter and purlin) (King post or post)
(Ridge) ()
( 25) (Queen post)
( 25) (Valley rafter) (Hip rafter)

()
26
( - Truss)


( 27)



(Plate or shell) (Folded) (Halfspherical) (Barrel) Hyperbolic-Paraboloid (Umbrella like)
(Grid or plate roof) (Cable roof) Arch
(Membrane)
( 28)

2551 - 22

 24

25

2551 - 23

.
26

2551 - 24

.
26 ()

2551 - 25

Pratt

Pratt

Warren

Warren

Howe

Howe

Pratt

Warren

Sub-divided warren

Howe

Three-hinge arch

Paker

Bow string

Ribbed bow string

Saw tooth

Fink

French (Compounded fink)

Fan

Whipple

Whipple

North Light

Sub-divided Pratt (Baltimore)

.
27

2551 - 26

Howe

Sag

Saw tooth

Scissors

Camel back

.
28

2551 - 27

.
28 ()
7.12

(Bridge)
1)
(Skew)
2)
(Steady) (Whirls)
(Cross current) 3)
4)
5)

6)
7)
8) (Detour)

9)

2 (Super and substructure) (Slab or girder system)

2551 - 28

 (Cross beam) (Pier)

(Spread footing) (Pile footing)
(Bearing wall)
(Bracer) ()
(Combined or mat footing)
(Plinth) (Elastomeric
bearing or elastomer)
(Slab type)
( 10 )

(Unbalanced span)
20 10
(2 @ 10 = 20 ) 5 + 10 + 5 = 20

() (Edge beam)

(Rigid edge)


(One-way girder)

(Box-girder)


0.6 0.8 14
16


Pre-tensioned Posttensioned Post-tensioned ( 40 )
(Steel girder) Vierendeel (Steel
truss)
(Cable-stayed or suspension)
29

2551 - 29

. ..

.
29

2551 - 30

. Vierendeel

. Arch
29 ()

2551 - 31

8.

(Joint or connection)

(Monolithic casting) (Weld)
(Connector) (Mechanical devices) (Nail)
(Split or toothed ring) (Rivet) (Rod) (Bolt &
nut)
(Expansion joint)


( 29)
(Support) (Boundaries)

(Hinged) (Roller)
(Fixed) (Dash pot)

( 30)
(Bracer) (Secondary members) (Stud or tie)
(Diaphragm) ..
( 31)
..

( 32)

2551 - 32

.
29

2551 - 33

.
30

2551 - 34

 31

32
9.

( Wi )
(Load factors, i )
(Combination of forces or loads) ( U i )
Ui

i Wi

i =1

(1)

(Impact) 4 1)
2)
3)

2551 - 35

 4) ()
( )
()
ACI 9.2.1 9.2.7
(ACI 9.2.1: 9-1)
=

Ui

1.4 D + 1.7 L

(2)

(ACI 9.2.2: 9-2, 9-3)

Ui

0 .75 ( 1.4 D + 17
. L + 17
. W )
1.4 D + 1.7 L

(3)

Ui

0.9 D + 1.3 W
1.4 D + 1.7 L

(4)

(ACI 9.2.3)

Ui

0.75 ( 1.4 D + 1.7 L + 1.7 1.1 E )

(5)

Ui

0.9 D + 1.3 (1.1 E )

(6)

(ACI 9.2.4: 9-4)

Ui

L
Ui

1.4 D + 1.7 L + 1.7 H

1.4 D + 1.7 L

(7)

0.9 D + 1.7 H
1.4 D + 1.7 L

(7)

() (ACI 9.2.5)

Ui

1.4 D + 1.7 L + 1.4 F

1.4 D + 1.7 L

(8)

Ui

0.9 D + 1.4 F
1.4 D + 1.7 L

(9)

(ACI 9.2.7: 9-5, 9-6)

Ui

0 .75 ( 1.4 D + 1.4 T + 17

. L)
1.4 ( D + T )

Ui

(Impact)
(2) (10) L L + impact (ACI

(10)

(Ultimate load)

9.2.6)

2551 - 36


H
:

T
:
(Differential settlement)
(Creep)
(Shrinkage)
(Temperature change)
F
:
(Fluid)

1 AASHTO
(Minimum requirement)
(Engineering judgment)
(McCormac, 1987; ) (Corresponding
Stress) (Enveloped)
:

Group ( N )

(AASHTO, 1994)

[ D D + L (L + I ) + C CF + E E
+ B B + S SF + W W + WL WL
+ LF LF + R (R + S + T ) + EQ EQ
+ ICE ICE ]

AASHTO: Table 3.22.1A ( 1)

AASHTO: Table 3.22.1A ( 1)
AASHTO: Table 3.22.1A ( 1)

(Superimposed dead load)

(11)

2551 - 37

 (Live load impact)

(Earth pressure)
(Buoyancy)
(Wind load on structure)
(Wind load on live load, 100 pounds

WL

LF

CF

(Centrifugal force)

Rib shortening

EQ

SF

ICE

(Shrinkage)

(Earthquake)
(Stream flow pressure)
(Ice pressure)

per linear foot)

(Longitudinal force from live load)

10.

( )
( )

0.15 x 0.30
0.15 0.15 0.15 (... 3100 ) 2 .213-2520
2 213-2520

C 10/ 8
C12.5/10
C 15/12
C 20/15
C 25/20
C 30/25
C 35/30
C 40/35
C 45/40

( 28 )

100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
450

80
100
120
150
200
250
300
350
400

ACI 10.2.7.3 R 11.1.2 (Normal concrete)
55

2551 - 38







28
(... 3101 28
) (Specification)
( )



28

- (Modulus of Elasticity, Ec )
(Ultimate compressive strength, fc' ) (Modulus of rupture, f r )
(Poissons ratio)
- - ( 33)
( f c )
(Characteristic strength, f cu )
0.002 (Rupture strength, f ult )
0.003 0.004 0.008 (ACI R10.2.3; 1995)
(Flexural Members)
0.003 (... 2534; ACI 10.2.3; 1995; AASHTO 8.16.2.3; 1994) 0.0035 (BS5400; BS8110)
(Yield Point)
(Ultimate Compressive Strength) -
30 ( f c 0.30 fc' ) (Micro cracks)
30 50
( 0.30 f c' < f c 0.50 f c' ) Bond cracks Stress concentration ( Confinement)
(Crack tip)
50 75 ( 0.50 fc' < f c 0.75 f c' ) Bond crack

75 ( f c > 0.75 f c' ) (Unstable)
(Crush failure) fc 0.85 fc'

2551 - 39

 33 ( Wang, 1997)

3 Empirical
90 155 (1.443 - 2.485 )
Secant Modulus 45 ( 45 - 50)
( 0.45 f c' 0.45 f c' 0.50 f c' ) Initial Tangent Modulus
Secant Modulus 10 (MacGregor, 1997)
(High Strength or High Performance Concrete, HSC or HPC)
ACI
3

Ec

1.45-2.48

ton/m3

f c (*) E c

... 4105()

4 ,270 1.5

f c 15 ,210 f c (3)

( 2.33 ton/m3)

Ksc

ACI 8.5.1;
1999

0.043 1.5

f c 4 ,700

1,500-2,500 kg/m3

MPa

AASHTO 8.7.1
BS 8110

0.0428 1.5

f c

f c 4 ,729.77

9 ,500 ( f cu + 8)

0 .33

(*)

(5)

f c

1.45-2.48 ton/m3

( 2.33 ton/m3)

MPa

MPa

(*) f cu , f c

11.

(Mild steel)
(Hot-rolled process)
(Residual stress)

2551 - 40



(.)
. 20 2543 () . 24 2536 ()
ASTM (Wire)
(Welded Wire Fabric) . 20 24

..) ASTM 4 5
4 SR 24 (. 20-2543)

(
)

(
)

235 (24 )

385 (39)

()

()

21

180

1.5

5 .. 24-2536

()

()

(
)

(
)

SD 30(*)

480 (49)

295 (30)

17

180

SD 40

560 (57)

390 (40)

15

180

SD 50

620 (63)

490 (50)

13

90

(*) SD 30 ()
SD 40 SD 50

(Proportional limit) (Yield strength) (Ultimate strength)
(Elongation)
(Upper and lower yield)
0.2 (Offset = 0.002 )

( 32)

2551 - 41

32 (Nawy, 1997)

( E s ) ... 4105
(), ... 6000 ... 6203 Es = 2,040,000 ACI 8.5.2, AASHTO 8.7.2 BS
8110 = 200,000 (Allowable or working strength, f s )
() (... 6103 -)
(Modular ratio; n ) ( n = E s / E c )
... 6001
n

2 ,040 ,000
w1.5 4 ,270

f c

(1)

( w ) 2.323 ( ... 6200)

n

2,040,000
15,120

f c

(2)

6
12.

C I H
C T

2551 - 42



( )


( )
( ) (
0.5 - 1.1 500 1,400 6
...
6 ..

78,900

94,100

112,300

136,300

189,000

12

45

60

16

60

80

22

75

100

10

30

90

120

12

40

110

150

15

13.

(Capacity

(Uncertainties in material or workmanship)

(ACI 9.3) ( 7)
reduction

factor)

7 ACI 9.3

,

0.90

0.90
()
:
0.75
0.70
:

0.85

0.80
( -Anchorage zone )
0.70

0.85
(Plain concrete)
0.65
1) (Development length) (ACI 9.3)
2) ACI 9.3.4 (a) (c)

2551 - 43

14.

(Resistance
( ) ( U )
R

or capacity of section, R )

Ui

(3)

() (Interaction between shear
and torsion) (Interaction between axial and bending)


(Elastic theory) 1)
2)
()
3)
4)
n
( n )

() (Slip)


15.

(Serviceability)
(Repetition) (Deflection) (Crack)
16.

2551 - 44

17.
1.

(2517), , .

2.

(2545) , 2, Library Nine, .

3.

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials - AASHTO (1996), Standard Specification for Highway Bridge,
6thEd, AASHTO, Washington
4. American Concrete Institute (1999), Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete; ACI 318-95, American Concrete Institute,
Washington.
5. GOODMAN L.J. and KAROL R.H. (1968), Theory and Practice of Foundation Engineering, Macmillan, New York.
6. LIN T.Y. and STOTESBURY S.D. (1981), Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers, John Wiley & Sins, New York.
7. NAWY A. (1997), Reinforced Concrete; Fundamental Approach, Prentice Hall, New York.
8. PARK R. and PAULAY T. (1975), Reinforced Concrete Structure, John Wiley & Son, New York.
9. SCHODEK D.L. (1980), Structures, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs.
10. WANG C.K., and SALMON, C.G. (1985), Reinforced Concrete Design, Harper & Rows Inc., New York.

2551 - 45