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Physics - EM Field Theory PDF
Physics - EM Field Theory PDF
Bo Thid
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELD T HEORY
Bo Thid
Also available
Electromagnetic
Field Theory
Bo Thid
Swedish Institute of Space Physics
and
Department of Astronomy and Space Physics
Uppsala University, Sweden
AB
Contents
Preface
xi
1 Classical Electrodynamics
1.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Coulombs law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 The electrostatic field . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Ampres law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 The magnetostatic field . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Equation of continuity for electric charge
1.3.2 Maxwells displacement current . . . . .
1.3.3 Electromotive force . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Faradays law of induction . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Maxwells microscopic equations . . . .
1.3.6 Maxwells macroscopic equations . . . .
1.4 Electromagnetic Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1
1
2
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15
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Electromagnetic Waves
2.1 The Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 The wave equation for E . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 The wave equation for B . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 The time-independent wave equation for E
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2.2
Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Telegraphers equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Waves in conductive media . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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23
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ii
C ONTENTS
Electromagnetic Potentials
3.1 The Electrostatic Scalar Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 The Magnetostatic Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 The Electrodynamic Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Electrodynamic gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lorentz equations for the electrodynamic potentials . .
Gauge transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Solution of the Lorentz equations for the electromagnetic potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The retarded potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 3.1 Electromagnetodynamic potentials . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Relativistic Electrodynamics
4.1 The Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 The Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Lorentz space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radius four-vector in contravariant and covariant form
Scalar product and norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Invariant line element and proper time . . . . . . . . .
Four-vector fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lorentz transformation matrix . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lorentz group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 Minkowski space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Covariant Classical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Covariant Classical Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 The four-potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 The Linard-Wiechert potentials . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 The electromagnetic field tensor . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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47
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iii
5.2
Other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6 Electromagnetic Fields and Matter
6.1 Electric Polarisation and Displacement . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Electric multipole moments . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Magnetisation and the Magnetising Field . . . . . . .
6.3 Energy and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 The energy theorem in Maxwells theory . .
6.3.2 The momentum theorem in Maxwells theory
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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107
. 107
. 108
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. 113
. 113
. 117
. 118
. 119
. 120
. 121
. 123
. 125
. 130
iv
C ONTENTS
8.3.3
8.3.4
Vavilov-Cerenkov
radiation . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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141
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F Formulae
F.1 The Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.1.1 Maxwells equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constitutive relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.1.2 Fields and potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vector and scalar potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lorentz gauge condition in vacuum . . . . . . . . . .
F.1.3 Force and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Poyntings vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maxwells stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.2 Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.2.1 Relationship between the field vectors in a plane wave
F.2.2 The far fields from an extended source distribution . .
F.2.3 The far fields from an electric dipole . . . . . . . . . .
F.2.4 The far fields from a magnetic dipole . . . . . . . . .
F.2.5 The far fields from an electric quadrupole . . . . . . .
F.2.6 The fields from a point charge in arbitrary motion . . .
F.2.7 The fields from a point charge in uniform motion . . .
F.3 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.1 Metric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.2 Covariant and contravariant four-vectors . . . . . . . .
F.3.3 Lorentz transformation of a four-vector . . . . . . . .
F.3.4 Invariant line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.5 Four-velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.6 Four-momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.7 Four-current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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157
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F.3.8 Four-potential . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.9 Field tensor . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.4 Vector Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.4.1 Spherical polar coordinates . . . .
Base vectors . . . . . . . . . . .
Directed line element . . . . . . .
Solid angle element . . . . . . . .
Directed area element . . . . . .
Volume element . . . . . . . . .
F.4.2 Vector formulae . . . . . . . . . .
General vector algebraic identities
General vector analytic identities .
Special identities . . . . . . . . .
Integral relations . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Appendices
161
161
161
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162
162
162
162
162
162
163
163
163
164
157
M Mathematical Methods
M.1 Scalars, Vectors and Tensors
M.1.1 Vectors . . . . . . .
Radius vector . . . .
M.1.2 Fields . . . . . . . .
Scalar fields . . . . .
Vector fields . . . .
Tensor fields . . . .
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Example M.1 Tensors in 3D space .
M.1.3 Vector algebra . . . . . . . . . .
Scalar product . . . . . . . . . .
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Example M.2 Inner products in complex vector space .
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165
165
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173
173
173
Dyadic product .
Vector product .
M.1.4 Vector analysis .
The del operator
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Example M.5 The four-del operator in Lorentz space .
The gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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175
176
176
176
177
178
vi
C ONTENTS
The divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example M.7 Divergence in 3D . . . . . . . . . .
The Laplacian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example M.8 The Laplacian and the Dirac delta . .
The curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example M.9 The curl of a gradient . . . . . . . .
Example M.10 The divergence of a curl . . . . . .
M.2 Analytical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M.2.1 Lagranges equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M.2.2 Hamiltons equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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179
179
179
179
180
180
181
182
182
182
183
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
1.3
Coulomb interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ampre interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Moving loop in a varying B field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.1
7.1
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
Loop antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radiation from a moving charge in vacuum . . . . . .
An accelerated charge in vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angular distribution of radiation during bremsstrahlung
Location of radiation during bremsstrahlung . . . . . .
Radiation from a charge in circular motion . . . . . . .
Synchrotron radiation lobe width . . . . . . . . . . . .
The perpendicular field of a moving charge . . . . . .
Vavilov-Cerenkov
cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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110
121
124
137
138
142
144
147
153
vii
Preface
This book is the result of a twenty-five year long love affair. In 1972, I took
my first advanced course in electrodynamics at the Theoretical Physics department, Uppsala University. Shortly thereafter, I joined the research group there
and took on the task of helping my supervisor, professor P ER -O LOF F R MAN , with the preparation of a new version of his lecture notes on Electricity
Theory. These two things opened up my eyes for the beauty and intricacy of
electrodynamics, already at the classical level, and I fell in love with it.
Ever since that time, I have off and on had reason to return to electrodynamics, both in my studies, research and teaching, and the current book is the
result of my own teaching of a course in advanced electrodynamics at Uppsala
University some twenty odd years after I experienced the first encounter with
this subject. The book is the outgrowth of the lecture notes that I prepared
for the four-credit course Electrodynamics that was introduced in the Uppsala University curriculum in 1992, to become the five-credit course Classical
Electrodynamics in 1997. To some extent, parts of these notes were based on
lecture notes prepared, in Swedish, by B ENGT L UNDBORG who created, developed and taught the earlier, two-credit course Electromagnetic Radiation at
our faculty.
Intended primarily as a textbook for physics students at the advanced undergraduate or beginning graduate level, I hope the book may be useful for
research workers too. It provides a thorough treatment of the theory of electrodynamics, mainly from a classical field theoretical point of view, and includes such things as electrostatics and magnetostatics and their unification
into electrodynamics, the electromagnetic potentials, gauge transformations,
covariant formulation of classical electrodynamics, force, momentum and energy of the electromagnetic field, radiation and scattering phenomena, electromagnetic waves and their propagation in vacuum and in media, and covariant
Lagrangian/Hamiltonian field theoretical methods for electromagnetic fields,
particles and interactions. The aim has been to write a book that can serve
both as an advanced text in Classical Electrodynamics and as a preparation for
studies in Quantum Electrodynamics and related subjects.
In an attempt to encourage participation by other scientists and students in
the authoring of this book, and to ensure its quality and scope to make it useful
in higher university education anywhere in the world, it was produced within
a World-Wide Web (WWW) project. This turned out to be a rather successful
xi
xii
P REFACE
B O T HID
1
Classical
Electrodynamics
Classical electrodynamics deals with electric and magnetic fields and interactions caused by macroscopic distributions of electric charges and currents.
This means that the concepts of localised electric charges and currents assume
the validity of certain mathematical limiting processes in which it is considered
possible for the charge and current distributions to be localised in infinitesimally small volumes of space. Clearly, this is in contradiction to electromagnetism on a truly microscopic scale, where charges and currents are known to
be spatially extended objects. However, the limiting processes used will yield
results which are correct on small as well as large macroscopic scales.
In this chapter we start with the force interactions in classical electrostatics and classical magnetostatics and introduce the static electric and magnetic
fields and find two uncoupled systems of equations for them. Then we see how
the conservation of electric charge and its relation to electric current leads to
the dynamic connection between electricity and magnetism and how the two
can be unified in one theory, classical electrodynamics, described by one system of coupled dynamic field equationsthe Maxwell equations.
At the end of the chapter we study Diracs symmetrised form of Maxwells
equations by introducing (hypothetical) magnetic charges and magnetic currents into the theory. While not identified unambiguously in experiments yet,
magnetic charges and currents make the theory much more appealing for instance by allowing for duality transformations in a most natural way.
1.1 Electrostatics
The theory which describes physical phenomena related to the interaction between stationary electric charges or charge distributions in space is called electrostatics.1 For a long time electrostatics was considered an independent phys1 The
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
ical theory of its own, alongside other physical theories such as mechanics and
thermodynamics.
1
qq0
qq0 x x0
=
3
0
40 |x x |
40
|x x0 |
(1.1)
where we have used results from Example M.6 on page 178. In SI units, which
we shall use throughout, the force F is measured in Newton (N), the electric
charges q and q0 in Coulomb (C) [= Ampre-seconds (As)], and the length
|x x0 | in metres (m). The constant 0 = 107 /(4c2 ) 8.8542 1012 Farad
per metre (F/m) is the vacuum permittivity and c 2.9979 108 m/s is the
speed of light in vacuum. In CGS units 0 = 1/(4) and the force is measured
in dyne, electric charge in statcoulomb, and length in centimetres (cm).
F
q0 q
Estat lim
(1.2)
1.1
E LECTROSTATICS
x x0
q0
x0
O
F IGURE 1.1: Coulombs law describes how a static electric charge q,
located at a point x relative to the origin O, experiences an electrostatic
force from a static electric charge q0 located at x0 .
not influence the field, the expression for Estat does not depend explicitly on q
but only on the charge q0 and the relative radius vector x x0 . This means that
we can say that any net electric charge produces an electric field in the space
that surrounds it, regardless of the existence of a second charge anywhere in
this space.1
Using formulae (1.1) and (1.2), we find that the electrostatic field Estat at
the field point x (also known as the observation point), due to a field-producing
electric charge q0 at the source point x0 , is given by
Estat (x) =
1
q0
q0 x x 0
=
40 |x x0 |3
40
|x x0 |
(1.3)
In the presence of several field producing discrete electric charges q0i , located at the points x0i , i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , respectively, in an otherwise empty space,
the assumption of linearity of vacuum2 allows us to superimpose their individ1 In
the preface to the first edition of the first volume of his book A Treatise on Electricity
and Magnetism, first published in 1873, James Clerk Maxwell describes this in the following,
almost poetic, manner [6]:
For instance, Faraday, in his minds eye, saw lines of force traversing all space
where the mathematicians saw centres of force attracting at a distance: Faraday
saw a medium where they saw nothing but distance: Faraday sought the seat of
the phenomena in real actions going on in the medium, they were satisfied that
they had found it in a power of action at a distance impressed on the electric
fluids.
2 In
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
x x0i
1
q0i
x x0 3
40 i
(1.4)
If the discrete electric charges are small and numerous enough, we introduce the electric charge density located at x0 and write the total field as
Estat (x) =
1
40
(x0 )
1
x x0 3 0
d x =
3
0
4
|x x |
0
(x0 )
1
d3x0 (1.5)
|x x0 |
where, in the last step, we used formula Equation (M.68) on page 178. We
emphasise that Equation (1.5) above is valid for an arbitrary distribution of
electric charges, including discrete charges, in which case can be expressed
in terms of one or more Dirac delta distributions. Since, according to formula Equation (M.78) on page 181, [(x)] 0 for any 3D 3 scalar field
(x), we immediately find that in electrostatics
1
1
(x0 )
d3x0
40
|x x0 |
V
1
1
(x0 )
=
d3x0
40 V
|x x0 |
=0
Estat (x) =
(1.6)
Estat (x) =
(1.7)
1.2
M AGNETOSTATICS
1.2 Magnetostatics
While electrostatics deals with static electric charges, magnetostatics deals
with stationary electric currents, i.e., electric charges moving with constant
speeds, and the interaction between these currents. Let us discuss this theory
in some detail.
F(x) =
(1.8)
Here dl and dl0 are tangential line elements of the loops C and C 0 , respectively,
and, in SI units, 0 = 4 107 1.2566 106 H/m is the vacuum permeability. From the definition of 0 and 0 (in SI units) we observe that
107
1
(F/m) 4 107 (H/m) = 2 (s2 /m2 )
(1.9)
2
4c
c
which is a useful relation.
At first glance, Equation (1.8) above may appear unsymmetric in terms
of the loops and therefore to be a force law which is in contradiction with
Newtons third law. However, by applying the vector triple product bac-cab
Formula (F.54) on page 162, we can rewrite (1.8) as
0 0 =
1
0 JJ 0
dl
dl0
4 C C 0
|x x0 |
0 JJ 0
x x0
dl dl0
4 C C 0 |x x0 |3
F(x) =
(1.10)
Recognising the fact that the integrand in the first integral is an exact differential so that this integral vanishes, we can rewrite the force expression, Equation (1.8) above, in the following symmetric way
F(x) =
0 JJ 0
4
C0
x x0
dl dl0
3
0
|x x |
(1.11)
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
J
C
dl
x x0
dl0
x
C0
J0
x0
O
dBstat (x)
0 J 0 0 x x 0
dl
4
|x x0 |3
(1.12)
which expresses the small element dBstat (x) of the static magnetic field set
up at the field point x by a small line element dl0 of stationary current J 0 at
the source point x0 . The SI unit for the magnetic field, sometimes called the
magnetic flux density or magnetic induction, is Tesla (T).
If we generalise expression (1.12) to an integrated steady state electric
current density j(x), we obtain Biot-Savarts law:
Bstat (x) =
0
4
j(x0 )
V
x x0 3 0
0
d x =
3
0
4
|x x |
j(x0 )
1
d3x0 (1.13)
|x x0 |
Comparing Equation (1.5) on page 4 with Equation (1.13), we see that there exists a close analogy between the expressions for Estat and Bstat but that they dif-
1.2
M AGNETOSTATICS
fer in their vectorial characteristics. With this definition of Bstat , Equation (1.8)
on page 5 may we written
F(x) = J
C dl B
stat
(x)
(1.14)
Bstat (x) =
(1.15)
x
|x
V
1
0
j(x0 )2
d3x0
=
4 V
|x x0 |
0
1
[j(x0 ) 0 ]0
+
d3x0
4 V
|x x0 |
Bstat (x) =
(1.16)
In the first of the two integrals on the right hand side, we use the representation
of the Dirac delta function Equation (M.73) on page 180, and integrate the
second one by parts, by utilising Formula (F.59) on page 163 as follows:
1
d3x0
|x x0 |
V
1
1
= x k 0
j(x0 ) 0
d3x0
0 j(x0 ) 0
d3x0
0
xk |x x |
|x x0 |
V
V
1
1
dS
0 j(x0 ) 0
d3x0
= x k j(x0 ) 0
0|
0|
x
x
|x
|x
S
V
k
[j(x0 ) 0 ]0
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
(1.17)
Then we note that the first integral in the result, obtained by applying Gausss
theorem, vanishes when integrated over a large sphere far away from the localised source j(x0 ), and that the second integral vanishes because j = 0 for
stationary currents (no charge accumulation in space). The net result is simply
Bstat (x) = 0
(1.18)
1.3 Electrodynamics
As we saw in the previous sections, the laws of electrostatics and magnetostatics can be summarised in two pairs of time-independent, uncoupled vector
differential equations, namely the equations of classical electrostatics
(x)
0
stat
E (x) = 0
Estat (x) =
(1.19a)
(1.19b)
stat
(x) = 0 j(x)
(1.20a)
(1.20b)
Since there is nothing a priori which connects Estat directly with Bstat , we must
consider classical electrostatics and classical magnetostatics as two independent theories.
However, when we include time-dependence, these theories are unified
into one theory, classical electrodynamics. This unification of the theories of
electricity and magnetism is motivated by two empirically established facts:
1. Electric charge is a conserved quantity and electric current is a transport
of electric charge. This fact manifests itself in the equation of continuity
and, as a consequence, in Maxwells displacement current.
2. A change in the magnetic flux through a loop will induce an EMF electric field in the loop. This is the celebrated Faradays law of induction.
1.3
E LECTRODYNAMICS
= 0 j(t, x) + 0 0 E(t, x)
t
0
4 t
(t, x0 )0
1
d3x0
|x x0 |
(1.22)
where, in the last step, we have assumed that a generalisation of Equation (1.5)
on page 4 to time-varying fields allows us to make the identification
1
40 t
(t, x0 )0
1
d3x0 =
0
t
40
|x x |
= E(t, x)
t
(t, x0 )
1
d3x0
|x x0 |
(1.23)
Later, we will need to consider this formal result further. The result is Maxwells
source equation for the B field
B(t, x) = 0 j(t, x) +
0 E(t, x)
t
(1.24)
10
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
where the last term 0 E(t, x)/t is the famous displacement current. This
term was introduced, in a stroke of genius, by Maxwell in order to make the
right hand side of this equation divergence free when j(t, x) is assumed to represent the density of the total electric current, which can be split up in ordinary conduction currents, polarisation currents and magnetisation currents.
The displacement current is an extra term which behaves like a current density
flowing in vacuum. As we shall see later, its existence has far-reaching physical consequences as it predicts the existence of electromagnetic radiation that
can carry energy and momentum over very long distances, even in vacuum.
(1.25)
where is the electric conductivity (S/m). In the most general cases, for instance in an anisotropic conductor, is a tensor.
We can view Ohms law, Equation (1.25) above, as the first term in a Taylor
expansion of the law j[E(t, x)]. This general law incorporates non-linear effects
such as frequency mixing. Examples of media which are highly non-linear are
semiconductors and plasma. We draw the attention to the fact that even in cases
when the linear relation between E and j is a good approximation, we still have
to use Ohms law with care. The conductivity is, in general, time-dependent
(temporal dispersive media) but then it is often the case that Equation (1.25) is
valid for each individual Fourier component of the field.
If the current is caused by an applied electric field E(t, x), this electric field
will exert work on the charges in the medium and, unless the medium is superconducting, there will be some energy loss. The rate at which this energy is
expended is j E per unit volume. If E is irrotational (conservative), j will
decay away with time. Stationary currents therefore require that an electric
field which corresponds to an electromotive force (EMF) is present. In the
presence of such a field EEMF , Ohms law, Equation (1.25) above, takes the
form
j = (Estat + EEMF )
(1.26)
1.3
11
E LECTRODYNAMICS
C (E
stat
+ EEMF ) dl
(1.27)
CE
EMF
dl
(1.28)
E(t, x) dl =
d
dt
d
m (t, x)
dt
B(t, x) dS =
dS
B(t, x)
t
(1.29)
where m is the magnetic flux and S is the surface encircled by C which can be
interpreted as a generic stationary loop and not necessarily as a conducting
circuit. Application of Stokes theorem on this integral equation, transforms it
into the differential equation
E(t, x) =
B(t, x)
t
(1.30)
which is valid for arbitrary variations in the fields and constitutes the Maxwell
equation which explicitly connects electricity with magnetism.
Any change of the magnetic flux m will induce an EMF. Let us therefore
consider the case, illustrated if Figure 1.3.4 on the following page, that the
loop is moved in such a way that it links a magnetic field which varies during
the movement. The convective derivative is evaluated according to the wellknown operator formula
12
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
dS
B(x)
v
C
dl
B(x)
= +v
(1.31)
dt t
which follows immediately from the rules of differentiation of an arbitrary
differentiable function f (t, x(t)). Applying this rule to Faradays law, Equation (1.29) on the previous page, we obtain
d
B
(v )B dS
B dS = dS
(1.32)
dt S
S t S
During spatial differentiation v is to be considered as constant, and Equation (1.15) on page 7 holds also for time-varying fields:
E(t, x) =
B(t, x) = 0
(1.33)
(1.34)
1.3
13
E LECTRODYNAMICS
allowing us to rewrite Equation (1.32) on the facing page in the following way:
E(t, x) =
d
dt
EEMF dl =
S
B
dS
t
B dS
(1.35)
(B v) dS
EEMF dl =
B
dS
t
B
dS
t
(B v) dl
(1.36)
(EEMF v B) dl =
(1.37)
where EEMF is the field which is induced in the loop, i.e., in the moving
system. The use of Stokes theorem backwards on Equation (1.37) above
yields
(EEMF v B) =
B
t
(1.38)
(1.39)
(1.40)
(1.41)
Hence, we can conclude that for a stationary observer, the Maxwell equation
E =
B
t
(1.42)
14
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
(t, x)
0
(1.43a)
B
=0
t
B = 0
E
B 0 0
= 0 j(t, x)
t
E+
(1.43b)
(1.43c)
(1.43d)
In these equations (t, x) represents the total, possibly both time and space dependent, electric charge, i.e., free as well as induced (polarisation) charges,
and j(t, x) represents the total, possibly both time and space dependent, electric current, i.e., conduction currents (motion of free charges) as well as all
atomistic (polarisation, magnetisation) currents. As they stand, the equations
therefore incorporate the classical interaction between all electric charges and
currents in the system and are called Maxwells microscopic equations. Another name often used for them is the Maxwell-Lorentz equations. Together
with the appropriate constitutive relations, which relate and j to the fields,
and the initial and boundary conditions pertinent to the physical situation at
hand, they form a system of well-posed partial differential equations which
completely determine E and B.
(1.44a)
H = H[t, x; E, B]
(1.44b)
1.4
15
E LECTROMAGNETIC D UALITY
Under certain conditions, for instance for very low field strengths, we may
assume that the response of a substance to the fields is linear so that
D = E
(1.45)
(1.46)
H= B
i.e., that the derived fields are linearly proportional to the primary fields and
that the electric displacement (magnetising field) is only dependent on the electric (magnetic) field.
The field equations expressed in terms of the derived field quantities D and
H are
D = (t, x)
B
E+
=0
t
B = 0
D
H
= j(t, x)
t
(1.47a)
(1.47b)
(1.47c)
(1.47d)
and are called Maxwells macroscopic equations. We will study them in more
detail in Chapter 6.
e
0
B
= 0 jm
t
B = 0 m
E
= 0 je
B 0 0
t
E+
(1.48a)
(1.48b)
(1.48c)
(1.48d)
16
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
( B) 0 jm 0
t
(1.49)
where we used the fact that, according to Formula (M.82) on page 181, the
divergence of a curl always vanishes. Using (1.48c) to rewrite this relation, we
obtain the equation of continuity for magnetic monopoles
m
+ jm = 0
t
(1.50)
which has the same form as that for the electric monopoles (electric charges)
and currents, Equation (1.21) on page 9.
We notice that the new Equations (1.48) on the preceding page exhibit the
following symmetry (recall that 0 0 = 1/c2 ):
E cB
(1.51a)
cB E
e
(1.51b)
(1.51c)
c
e
cj j
(1.51d)
j cj
(1.51e)
(1.51f)
which is a particular case ( = /2) of the general duality transformation (depicted by the Hodge star operator)
?
E = E cos + cB sin
(1.52a)
c B = E sin + cB cos
(1.52b)
c = c cos + sin
(1.52c)
? m
(1.52d)
? e
= c sin + cos
? e
c j = cj cos + j sin
(1.52e)
? m
(1.52f)
j = cj sin + j cos
which leaves the symmetrised Maxwell equations, and hence the physics they
describe (often referred to as electromagnetodynamics), invariant. Since E and
je are (true or polar) vectors, B a pseudovector (axial vector), e a (true) scalar,
then m and , which behaves as a mixing angle in a two-dimensional charge
space, must be pseudoscalars and jm a pseudovector.
1.4
17
E LECTROMAGNETIC D UALITY
FARADAY S LAW AS
E XAMPLE 1.1
0
4
m (x0 )
x x0 3 0
0
d x =
4
|x x0 |3
m (x0 )
1
d3x0 (1.53)
|x x0 |
0
4
jm (x0 )
x x 0 3 0 0
dx =
4
|x x0 |3
jm (x0 )
1
d3x0
|x x0 |
(1.54)
Taking the curl of the latter and using the operator bac-cab rule, Formula (F.67) on
page 163, we find that
0
1
jm (x0 )
d3x0
4
V
|x x0 |
1
0
d3x0
=
jm (x0 )2
4 V
|x x0 |
1
0
d3x0
[jm (x0 ) 0 ]0
4 V
|x x0 |
Estat (x) =
(1.55)
We assume that Formula (1.54) is valid also for time-varying magnetic currents. Then,
with the use of the representation of the Dirac delta function, Equation (M.73) on
page 180, the equation of continuity for magnetic charge, Equation (1.50) on the facing page, and the assumption of the generalisation of Equation (1.53) above to timedependent magnetic charge distributions, we obtain, formally,
E(t, x) = 0
V
= 0 jm (t, x) B(t, x)
t
0
4 t
m (t, x0 )0
1
d3x0
|x x0 |
(1.56)
18
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
magnetodynamic result by rotating into the electric realm of charge space, thereby
letting jm tend to zero, yields the electrodynamic Equation (1.48b) on page 15, i.e.,
the Faraday law in the ordinary Maxwell equations.
By postulating the indestructibility of an hypothetical magnetic charge, we have
thereby been able to replace Faradays experimental results on electromotive forces
and induction in loops as a foundation for the Maxwell equations by a more appealing
one.
E ND
E XAMPLE 1.2
OF EXAMPLE
1.1C
1
= (E cos + cB sin ) +
?E +
E sin + B cos
t
t
c
B
E
1
= 0 jm cos
cos + c0 je sin +
sin
t
c t
B
1 E
sin +
cos = 0 jm cos + c0 je sin
c t
t
= 0 (cje sin + jm cos ) = 0 ?jm
1
e
?B = ( E sin + B cos ) =
sin + 0 m cos
c
c0
= 0 ce sin + m cos = 0 ?m
?E = (E cos + cB sin ) =
?B
(1.57)
(1.58)
(1.59)
1 ?E
1
1
= ( E sin + B cos ) 2 (E cos + cB sin )
2
c t
c
c t
1 m
1 B
1 E
= 0 j sin +
cos + 0 je cos + 2
cos
c
c t
c t
(1.60)
1 E
1 B
2
cos
sin
c t
c t
1 m
= 0 j sin + je cos = 0 ?je
c
QED
E ND
OF EXAMPLE
1.2C
1.4
19
E LECTROMAGNETIC D UALITY
E XAMPLE 1.3
(1.61a)
(1.61b)
=
cos
cos
? m
= ce sin + ce tan cos = ce sin + ce sin = 0
1 e
1 e 2
? e
(j cos + je sin2 ) =
j
j = je cos + je tan sin =
cos
cos
? m
j = cje sin + cje tan cos = cje sin + cje sin = 0
? e
(1.62a)
(1.62b)
(1.62c)
(1.62d)
Hence, a fixed mixing angle, or, equivalently, a fixed ratio between the electric and
magnetic charges/currents, hides the magnetic monopole influence ( m and jm ) on
the dynamic equations.
We notice that the inverse of the transformation given by Equation (1.52) on page 16
yields
E = ?E cos c?B sin
(1.63)
(1.64)
Furthermore, from the expressions for the transformed charges and currents above, we
find that
?e
1 e
?E =
=
(1.65)
0
cos 0
and
?B = 0 ?m = 0
(1.66)
so that
E =
e
1 e
cos 0 =
cos 0
0
(1.67)
QED
EXAMPLE
1.3C
20
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
The invariance of Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations under the similarity transformation means that the amount of magnetic monopole density
m is irrelevant for the physics as long as the ratio m /e = tan is kept constant. So whether we assume that the particles are only electrically charged or
have also a magnetic charge with a given, fixed ratio between the two types
of charges is a matter of convention, as long as we assume that this fraction is
the same for all particles. Such particles are referred to as dyons. By varying
the mixing angle we can change the fraction of magnetic monopoles at will
without changing the laws of electrodynamics. For = 0 we recover the usual
Maxwell electrodynamics as we know it.
E XAMPLE 1.4
T HE
where E, B
and hence F
(1.68)
3,
(1.69)
is conserved. I.e.,
E 2 c2 B2 = Const
E B = Const
(1.70a)
(1.70b)
(1.71)
= E E c2 B B + ic(E B) + ic(B E)
= 0 + 0 + ic(E B) ic(E B) = 0
(1.72)
= E E + c2 B B ic(E B) + ic(B E)
= 0 + 0 ic(E B) ic(E B) = 2ic(E B)
(1.73)
E ND
OF EXAMPLE
1.4C
1.4
21
B IBLIOGRAPHY
D UALITY EXPRESSED IN
E XAMPLE 1.5
Expressed in the complex field vector, introduced in Example 1.4 on the preceding
page, the duality transformation Equations (1.52) on page 16 become
?
(1.74)
while
?F 2 = ei F ei F = |F|2
(1.75)
F ?F = e2i F F
(1.76)
Furthermore, assuming that = (t, x), we see that the spatial and temporal differentiation of ?F leads to
?F
t ?F
= i(t )ei F + ei t F
(1.77a)
t
?F ?F = iei F + ei F
(1.77b)
?F ?F = iei F + ei F
(1.77c)
EXAMPLE
1.5C
Bibliography
[1] R. B ECKER, Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions, Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9.
[2] W. G REINER, Classical Electrodynamics, Springer-Verlag, New York, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 1996, ISBN 0-387-94799-X.
[3] E. H ALLN, Electromagnetic Theory, Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1962.
[4] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
[5] L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd.,
Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
[6] J. C. M AXWELL, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, third ed., vol. 1,
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1954, ISBN 0-486-60636-8.
22
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
[7] D. B. M ELROSE AND R. C. M C P HEDRAN, Electromagnetic Processes in Dispersive Media, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge . . . , 1991, ISBN 0-52141025-8.
[8] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[9] J. S CHWINGER, A magnetic model of matter, Science, 165 (1969), pp. 757761.
[10] J. S CHWINGER , L. L. D E R AAD , J R ., K. A. M ILTON , AND W. T SAI, Classical
Electrodynamics, Perseus Books, Reading, MA, 1998, ISBN 0-7382-0056-5.
[11] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
[12] J. VANDERLINDE, Classical Electromagnetic Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, and Singapore, 1993, ISBN 0-47157269-1.
2
Electromagnetic
Waves
B = 0 j(t, x) + 0 0
(2.1a)
(2.1b)
(2.1c)
E
t
(2.1d)
can be viewed as an axiomatic basis for classical electrodynamics. In particular, these equations are well suited for calculating the electric and magnetic
fields E and B from given, prescribed charge distributions (t, x) and current
distributions j(t, x) of arbitrary time- and space-dependent form.
However, as is well known from the theory of differential equations, these
four first order, coupled partial differential vector equations can be rewritten
as two un-coupled, second order partial equations, one for E and one for B.
We shall derive these second order equations which, as we shall see are wave
equations, and then discuss the implications of them. We shall also show how
the B wave field can be easily calculated from the solution of the E wave
equation.
23
24
E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
( B) = 0 j + 0 E
t
t
t
(2.2)
(2.3)
(2.4)
and since EEMF = 0, Ohms law, Equation (1.26) on page 10, yields
j = E
(2.5)
E + 0 t E = 0
t
(2.6)
E 1 2 E
=0
t c2 t2
(2.7)
( E) = 0 E + 0 0 ( E) (2.8)
t
t
2.1
25
T HE WAVE E QUATIONS
which, with the use of Equation (F.67) on page 163 and Equation (2.1c) on
page 23 can be rewritten
( B) 2 B = 0
2
B
0 0 2 B
t
t
(2.9)
Using the fact that, according to (2.1c), B = 0 for any medium and rearranging, we can rewrite this equation as
B 1 2 B
=0
t c2 t2
2 B 0
(2.10)
This is the wave equation for the magnetic field. We notice that it is of exactly
the same form as the wave equation for the electric field, Equation (2.7) on the
facing page.
(2.11)
and insert this into Equation (2.7) on the preceding page. This yields
1 2
E0 (x)eit 2 2 E0 (x)eit
t
c t
1
= 2 E 0 (i)E0 (x)eit 2 (i)2 E0 (x)eit
c
1
2
2
= E 0 (i)E 2 (i) E =
c
2
E=0
= 2 E + 2 1 + i
c
0
2 E 0
(2.12)
2
c2
1+
i
E=0
(2.13)
2
E=0
c2
(2.14)
26
E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
(2.15)
(2.16)
k=
c
=
=
=
0 0 ck k
0
= R0
0 k
(2.17)
where in the last step we introduced the characteristic impedance for vacuum
R0 =
E XAMPLE 2.1
0
376.7
0
WAVE EQUATIONS IN
(2.18)
ELECTROMAGNETODYNAMICS
Derive the wave equation for the E field described by the electromagnetodynamic
equations (Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations) [cf. Equations (1.48) on page 15]
E =
e
0
(2.19a)
E = 0 jm
B = 0
B
t
(2.19b)
(2.19c)
E
(2.19d)
t
under the assumption of vanishing net electric and magnetic charge densities and in
the absence of electromotive and magnetomotive forces. Interpret this equation physically.
B = 0 j e + 0 0
Taking the curl of (2.19b) and using (2.19d), and assuming, for symmetry reasons, that
there exists a linear relation between the magnetic current density jm and the magnetic
2.1
27
T HE WAVE E QUATIONS
(2.20)
1/c2 ,
( E) = 0 jm
that
1 E
( B) = 0 m B 0 je + 2
t
t
c t
= 0 m 0 e E +
1 2 E
1 E
e E
0
c2 t
t c2 t2
(2.21)
= ( E) 2 E,
m E 1 2 E
20 m e E = 0
c2 t c2 t2
(2.22)
2
c2
m
2
E + 2 E 20 m e E
2
c
c
1
1 0 m e
e + m /c2
+i
2
E=0
0
0
(2.23)
Realising that, according to Formula (2.18) on the preceding page, 0 /0 is the square
of the vacuum radiation resistance R0 , and rearranging a bit, we obtain the timeindependent wave equation in Diracs symmetrised electrodynamics
2 E +
2
c2
R20 m e
e + m /c2
1
+
i
* E=0
R2
2
!"#
0 $ 1 02 m e %'&)(
(2.24)
From this equation we conclude that the existence of magnetic charges (magnetic
monopoles), and non-vanishing electric and magnetic conductivities would lead to
a shift in the effective wave number of the wave. Furthermore, even if the electric
conductivity vanishes, the imaginary term does not necessarily vanish and the wave
might therefore experience damping (or growth) according as m is positive (or negative) in
a perfect electric isolator. Finally, we note that in the particular case that
= R0 m e , the wave equation becomes a (time-independent) diffusion equation
2 E + i0 e +
m
E=0
c2
(2.25)
EXAMPLE
2.1C
28
E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
(2.26)
E
n
B
n
B
n
=0
=
(2.27a)
B
t
(2.27b)
=0
(2.27c)
= 0 j(t, x) + 0 0
E
E
= 0 E + 0 0
t
t
(2.27d)
= n
0 + 0 0
E
t
(2.28)
which simplifies to the first-order ordinary differential equation for the normal
component En of the electric field
dEn
+ En = 0
dt
0
(2.29)
(2.30)
This, together with (2.27a), shows that the longitudinal component of E, i.e.,
the component which is perpendicular to the plane surface is independent of
and has a time dependence which exhibits an exponential decay, with a decrement given by the relaxation time in the medium.
Scalar multiplying (2.27b) by n,
we similarly find that
0 = n
n
E
B
= n
t
(2.31)
or
n
B
=0
t
(2.32)
2.2
29
P LANE WAVES
From this, and (2.27c), we conclude that the only longitudinal component of
B must be constant in both time and space. In other words, the only non-static
solution must consist of transverse components.
=0
0
2
t c2 t2
(2.33)
=0
2 c2 t2
(2.34)
As is well known, each component of this equation has a solution which can
be written
Ei = f ( ct) + g( + ct),
i = 1, 2, 3
(2.35)
(2.36)
n = k
c
c
(2.37)
(2.38)
30
E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Let us consider the minus sign in the exponent in Equation (2.36) on the
previous page. This corresponds to a wave which propagates in the direction
of increasing . Inserting this solution into Equation (2.27b) on page 28, gives
n
E
= iB = ik n
E
(2.39)
k
1
1
n
E = k E = k E = 0 0 n
E
(2.40)
Hence, to each transverse component of E, there exists an associated magnetic field given by Equation (2.40) above. If E and/or B has a direction in
space which is constant in time, we have a plane polarised wave (or linearly
polarised wave).
E
+
i
E
=
+ K2E = 0
0
0
0
2
2
(2.41)
where
K 2 = 0 0 2 1 + i
2
= 2
0
c
1+i
= k2 1 + i
0
0
(2.42)
where, in the last step, Equation (2.16) on page 26 was used to introduce the
wave number k. Taking the square root of this expression, we obtain
K=k
1+i
= + i
0
(2.43)
= (2 2 ) + 2i
0
(2.44)
or
2 = 2 k2
(2.45)
(2.46)
k2
20
2.2
31
P LANE WAVES
Squaring the latter and combining with the former, one obtains the second
order algebraic equation (in 2 )
k 4 2
420 2
2 (2 k2 ) =
(2.47)
+,,
,
=k
-
+,,
,
-
=k
1+
+1
(2.48a)
2
1+
(2.48b)
(2.49)
With the aid of Equation (2.40) on the preceding page we can calculate the
associated magnetic field, and find that it is given by
B=
1
1
1
K k E = ( k E)( + i) = ( k E) |A| ei
(2.50)
K = k 1+i
0
= 0 0 (1 + i)
. 1 i 0 /
=k i
0
= (1 + i)
20
1
2
k(1 + i)
0
2
20
(2.51)
From this analysis we conclude that when the wave impinges perpendicularly upon the medium, the fields are given, inside this medium, by
E0 = E0 exp
B0 = (1 + i)
0
exp
i
2
0
( n
E0 )
2
0
t
2
0
(2.52a)
(2.52b)
32
E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
2
0
(2.53)
(2.55)
= F0 G0 + F0 G0 + F0 G0 e2it + F0 G0 e2it 4
43
(2.56)
1
= Re 1 F0 G0 + F0 G0 e2it 2
2
1
= Re 1 F0 eit G0 eit + F0 G0 e2it 2
2
1
= Re 1 F(t, x) G (t, x) + F0 G0 e2it 2
2
2.3
33
B IBLIOGRAPHY
Often in physics, we measure temporal averages (h i) of our physical observables. If so, we see that the average of the product of the two physical
quantities represented by F and G can be expressed as
1
1
hF Gi hRe {F} Re {G}i = Re 1 F G 2 = Re 1 F G 2
2
2
(2.57)
Bibliography
[1] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
[2] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
34
E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
3
Electromagnetic
Potentials
Instead of expressing the laws of electrodynamics in terms of electric and magnetic fields, it turns out that it is often more convenient to express the theory in
terms of potentials. In this chapter we will introduce and study the properties
of such potentials.
(3.1)
Taking the divergence of this and using Equation (1.7) on page 4, we obtain
Poissons equation
2 stat (x) = Estat (x) =
(x)
0
(3.2)
1
40
(x0 ) 3 0
d x +
|x x0 |
(3.3)
where the integration is taken over all source points x0 at which the charge
density (x0 ) is non-zero and is an arbitrary quantity which has a vanishing
gradient. An example of such a quantity is a scalar constant. The scalar function stat (x) in Equation (3.3) above is called the electrostatic scalar potential.
35
36
E LECTROMAGNETIC P OTENTIALS
(3.4)
0
4
0
x x0 3 0
d x =
3
0
4
|x x |
j(x0 ) 3 0
dx
|x x0 |
j(x0 )
0
=
4
j(x0 )
1
d3x0
|x x0 |
(3.5)
0
4
j(x0 ) 3 0
d x + a(x)
|x x0 |
(3.6)
where a(x) is an arbitrary vector field whose curl vanishes. From Equation (M.78) on page 181 we know that such a vector can always be written
as the gradient of a scalar field.
3.3
37
T HE E LECTRODYNAMIC P OTENTIALS
(3.7)
Inserting this expression into the other homogeneous Maxwell equation, Equation (1.30) on page 11, we obtain
E(t, x) +
A(t, x) = 0
t
(3.8)
(3.9)
A(t, x) = (t, x)
(3.10)
t
This means that in electrodynamics, E(t, x) can be calculated from the formula
E(t, x) +
E(t, x) = (t, x)
A(t, x)
t
(3.11)
and B(t, x) from Equation (3.7) above. Hence, it is a matter of taste whether we
want to express the laws of electrodynamics in terms of the potentials (t, x)
and A(t, x), or in terms of the fields E(t, x) and B(t, x). However, there exists
an important difference between the two approaches: in classical electrodynamics the only directly observable quantities are the fields themselves (and
quantities derived from them) and not the potentials. On the other hand, the
treatment becomes significantly simpler if we use the potentials in our calculations and then, at the final stage, use Equation (3.7) and Equation (3.11) above
to calculate the fields or physical quantities expressed in the fields.
Inserting (3.11) and (3.7) into Maxwells equations (1.43) on page 14 we
obtain, after some simple algebra and the use of Equation (1.9) on page 5, the
general inhomogeneous wave equations
(t, x)
( A) =
t
0
2A
1
1
2 A 2 2 A + 2
= 0 j(t, x)
c t
c t
2 +
(3.12a)
(3.12b)
38
E LECTROMAGNETIC P OTENTIALS
1
(t, x)
2 A + 2
=
2
2
c t
t
c t
0
2
1 A
1
2 A + A + 2
= 0 j(t, x)
2
2
c t
c t
(3.13a)
(3.13b)
1
=0
c2 t
(3.14)
because this condition simplifies the system of coupled equations Equation (3.13) above into the following set of uncoupled partial differential equa1 In
fact, the Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, who in 1903 demonstrated the covariance of Maxwells equations, was not the original discoverer of this condition. It had been
discovered by the Danish physicist Ludwig Lorenz already in 1867.
3.3
39
T HE E LECTRODYNAMIC P OTENTIALS
5
5
5
def
def
(t, x)
1 2
1 2
2
2 =
=
2
2
2
2
c t
c t
0
2
2
1
1 A
2 A = 2 2 2 A = 0 j(t, x)
c2 t2
c t
(3.15a)
(3.15b)
Gauge transformations
We saw in Section 3.1 on page 35 and in Section 3.2 on page 36 that in electrostatics and magnetostatics we have a certain mathematical degree of freedom,
up to terms of vanishing gradients and curls, to pick suitable forms for the
potentials and still get the same physical result. In fact, the way the electromagnetic scalar potential (t, x) and the vector potential A(t, x) are related to
the physically observables gives leeway for similar manipulation of them
also in electrodynamics. If we transform (t, x) and A(t, x) simultaneously into
new ones 0 (t, x) and A0 (t, x) according to the mapping scheme
(t, x)
t
A(t, x) 7 A0 (t, x) = A(t, x) (t, x)
(t, x) 7 0 (t, x) = (t, x) +
(3.16a)
(3.16b)
+
=
t
t
t
t
t
B0 = A0 = A () = A
E0 = 0
(3.17a)
(3.17b)
where, once again Equation (M.78) on page 181 was used. Comparing these
expressions with (3.11) and (3.7) we see that the fields are unaffected by the
gauge transformation (3.16). A transformation of the potentials and A which
leaves the fields, and hence Maxwells equations, invariant is called a gauge
transformation. A physical law which does not change under a gauge transformation is said to be gauge invariant. By definition, the fields themselves are,
of course, gauge invariant.
40
E LECTROMAGNETIC P OTENTIALS
The potentials (t, x) and A(t, x) calculated from (3.12) on page 37, with an
arbitrary choice of A, can be further gauge transformed according to (3.16)
on the previous page. If, in particular, we choose A according to the Lorentz
condition, Equation (3.14) on page 38, and apply the gauge transformation
(3.16) on the resulting Lorentz equations (3.15) on the previous page, these
equations will be transformed into
1 2
2 +
2
2
c t
t
2
1 A
2 A
c2 t2
(t, x)
1 2
2 =
2
2
c t
0
2
1
2 = 0 j(t, x)
c2 t2
(3.18a)
(3.18b)
We notice that if we require that the gauge function (t, x) itself be restricted
to fulfil the wave equation
1 2
2 = 0
c2 t2
(3.19)
these transformed Lorentz equations will keep their original form. The set of
potentials which have been gauge transformed according to Equation (3.16)
on the preceding page with a gauge function (t, x) which is restricted to fulfil
Equation (3.19) above, i.e., those gauge transformed potentials for which the
Lorentz equations (3.15) are invariant, comprises the Lorentz gauge.
Other useful gauges are
The radiation gauge, also known as the transverse gauge, defined by
A = 0.
The Coulomb gauge, defined by = 0, A = 0.
The temporal gauge, also known as the Hamilton gauge, defined by
= 0.
The axial gauge, defined by A3 = 0.
The process of choosing a particular gauge condition is referred to as gauge
fixing.
3.3
41
T HE E LECTRODYNAMIC P OTENTIALS
(one equation for and one equation for each of the three components of A).
Each of these four scalar equations is an inhomogeneous wave equation of the
following generic form:
(t, x) = f (t, x)
(3.20)
F 1 [ f (x)] f (t, x) =
def
f (x) eit d
(3.21a)
f (t, x) eit dt
(3.21b)
1
2
exists, and that the same is true for the generic potential component:
(t, x) =
(x) =
1
2
(x) eit d
(t, x) eit dt
(3.22a)
(3.22b)
Inserting the Fourier representations (3.21a) and (3.22a) into Equation (3.20)
above, and using the vacuum dispersion relation for electromagnetic waves
= ck
(3.23)
(3.24)
(3.25)
42
E LECTROMAGNETIC P OTENTIALS
and the solution of Equation (3.24) on the previous page which corresponds to
the frequency is given by the superposition
=
(3.26)
(3.27)
Away from r = |x x0 | = 0, i.e., away from the source point x0 , this equation
takes the form
d2
(rG) + k2 (rG) = 0
dr2
(3.28)
ik|xx |
eikr
eikr
eik|xx |
e
+
C
+ C
C+
r
r
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
(3.29)
G( x x0 ) C +
1
1
+ C
,
0
|x x |
|x x0 |
x x0 0
(3.30)
Equation (3.25) on the preceding page can under this assumption be approximated by
C+ + C 4
2
1
d3x0 + k2 C + + C 4
3
|x x0 |
0
3 0
1
d3x0
|x x0 |
(3.31)
( x x ) d x
3.3
43
T HE E LECTRODYNAMIC P OTENTIALS
In virtue of the fact that the volume element d3x0 in spherical polar coordinates
is proportional to |x x0 |2 , the second integral vanishes when |x x0 | 0. Furthermore, from Equation (M.73) on page 180, we find that the integrand in the
first integral can be written as 4(|x x0 |) and, hence, that
1
4
C+ + C =
(3.32)
Insertion of the general solution Equation (3.29) on the preceding page into
Equation (3.26) on the facing page gives
(x) = C +
f (x0 )
eik|xx | 3 0
d x + C
|x x0 |
f (x0 )
eik|xx | 3 0
dx
|x x0 |
(3.33)
(t, x) = C
f (x )
6
+ C
f (x0 )
6
|x x0 |
d d3x0
|
exp 7 i . t + k|xx
/98
(3.34)
|x x0 |
d d3x0
k |x x0 |
|x x0 |
= t
c
0
k |x x0 |
|x x0 |
0
0
= t+
tadv = tadv (t, x x ) = t +
c
0
0
tret
= tret
(t, x x0 ) = t
(3.35a)
(3.35b)
0 , x0 )
f (tret
d3x0 + C
|x x0 |
0 , x0 )
f (tadv
d3x0
|x x0 |
(3.36)
This is a solution to the generic inhomogeneous wave equation for the potential
components Equation (3.20) on page 41. We note that the solution at time t at
the field point x is dependent on the behaviour at other times t 0 of the source
at x0 and that both retarded and advanced t 0 are mathematically acceptable
solutions. However, if we assume that causality requires that the potential at
0 , x0 ), we must in
(t, x) is set up by the source at an earlier time, i.e., at (tret
44
E LECTROMAGNETIC P OTENTIALS
(t, x) =
(3.37a)
(3.37b)
Since these retarded potentials were obtained as solutions to the Lorentz equations (3.15) on page 39 they are valid in the Lorentz gauge but may be gauge
transformed according to the scheme described in subsection 3.3.1 on page 39.
As they stand, we shall use them frequently in the following.
E XAMPLE 3.1
E LECTROMAGNETODYNAMIC POTENTIALS
e
0
(3.38a)
E = 0 jm
B = 0
B
t
B = 0 j e + 0 0
(3.38b)
(3.38c)
E
t
(3.38d)
In this theory, one derives the inhomogeneous wave equations for the usual electric
scalar and vector potentials (e , Ae ) and their magnetic counterparts ( m , Am ) by
assuming that the potentials are related to the fields in the following symmetrised
form:
e
A (t, x) Am
t
B = 0 0 m (t, x) Am (t, x) + Ae
t
E = e (t, x)
(3.39a)
(3.39b)
3.3
45
B IBLIOGRAPHY
e (t, x)
Ae =
t
0
m (t, x)
2 m + A m =
t
0
1 2 Ae
1 e
2 e
e
A
+
A
+
= 0 je (t, x)
c2 t2
c2 t
(3.40b)
1 2 Am
1 m
2 Am + A m + 2
= 0 jm (t, x)
2
2
c t
c t
(3.40d)
2 e +
(3.40a)
(3.40c)
(3.41)
(3.42)
e (t, x)
1 2 e
2 e
=
(3.43a)
c2 t2
0
1 2 m
m (t, x)
2 m
=
(3.43b)
c2 t2
0
1 2 Ae
2 Ae = 0 je (t, x)
(3.43c)
c2 t2
1 2 Am
2 Am = 0 jm (t, x)
(3.43d)
c2 t2
exhibiting once again, the striking properties of Diracs symmetrised Maxwell theory.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
3.1C
Bibliography
[1] L. D. FADEEV AND A. A. S LAVNOV, Gauge Fields: Introduction to Quantum
Theory, No. 50 in Frontiers in Physics: A Lecture Note and Reprint Series. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1980, ISBN 08053-9016-2.
[2] M. G UIDRY, Gauge Field Theories: An Introduction with Applications, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1991, ISBN 0-471-63117-5.
[3] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
46
E LECTROMAGNETIC P OTENTIALS
4
Relativistic
Electrodynamics
The theory of relativity is not merely a scientific development of great importance in its own right. It is even more significant as the first stage of a radical
change in our basic concepts, which began in physics, and which is spreading
into other fields of science, and indeed, even into a great deal of thinking outside
of science. For as is well known, the modern trend is away from the notion of
sure absolute truth, (i.e., one which holds independently of all conditions, contexts, degrees, and types of approximation etc..) and toward the idea that a given
concept has significance only in relation to suitable broader forms of reference,
within which that concept can be given its full meaning.
47
48
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
vt
y
y0
v
P(t, x, y, z)
P(t0 , x0 , y0 , z0 )
O
z
O0
x0
z0
F IGURE 4.1: Two inertial systems and 0 in relative motion with velocity v along the x = x0 axis. At time t = t0 = 0 the origin O0 of 0
coincided with the origin O of . At time t, the inertial system 0 has
been translated a distance vt along the x axis in . An event represented
by P(t, x, y, z) in is represented by P(t 0 , x0 , y0 , z0 ) in 0 .
Postulate 4.1 (Relativity principle; Poincar, 1905). All laws of physics (except the laws of gravitation) are independent of the uniform translational motion of the system on which they operate.
Postulate 4.2 (Einstein, 1905). The velocity of light in empty space is independent of the motion of the source that emits the light.
A consequence of the first postulate is that all geometrical objects (vectors, tensors) in an equation describing a physical process must transform in a
covariant manner, i.e., in the same way.
4.1
T HE S PECIAL T HEORY
OF
49
R ELATIVITY
where v = |v|. In the following, we shall make frequent use of these shorthand
notations.
As shown by Einstein, the two postulates of special relativity require that
the spatial coordinates and times as measured by an observer in and 0 ,
respectively, are connected by the following transformation:
ct0 = (ct x)
(4.3a)
x = (x vt)
(4.3b)
y =y
(4.3c)
z0 = z
(4.3d)
Taking the difference between the square of (4.3a) and the square of (4.3b) we
find that
c2 t02 x02 = 2 c2 t2 2xct + x2 2 x2 + 2xvt v2 t2 4
c2 t 2
v2
c2
2 2
= c t x2
1
v2
v2
2
x
1
c2
c2
(4.4)
From Equations (4.3) above we see that the y and z coordinates are unaffected
by the translational motion of the inertial system 0 along the x axis of system
. Using this fact, we find that we can generalise the result in Equation (4.4)
to
c2 t2 x2 y2 z2 = c2 t02 x02 y02 z02
(4.5)
which means that if a light wave is transmitted from the coinciding origins
O and O0 at time t = t0 = 0 it will arrive at an observer at (x, y, z) at time t
in and an observer at (x0 , y0 , z0 ) at time t0 in 0 in such a way that both observers conclude that the speed (spatial distance divided by time) of light in
vacuum is c. Hence, the speed of light in and 0 is the same. A linear coordinate transformation which has this property is called a (homogeneous) Lorentz
transformation.
50
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
speed of light and t is time), and the remaining components are the components
of the ordinary 3 radius vector x defined in Equation (M.1) on page 166:
x = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ct, x, y, z) (ct, x)
(4.6)
(4.7)
This summation process is an example of index contraction and is often referred to as index lowering.
(4.8)
4.1
T HE S PECIAL T HEORY
OF
51
R ELATIVITY
of the norm in a 4D Riemann space, then the explicit expression for the scalar
product of x with itself in this space must be
x x = c2 t 2 x 2 y2 z2
(4.9)
We notice that our space will have an indefinite norm which means that we deal
with a non-Euclidean space. We call the four-dimensional space (or spacetime) with this property Lorentz space and denote it ; 4 . A corresponding real,
linear 4D space with a positive definite norm which is conserved during ordinary rotations is a Euclidean vector space. We denote such a space 4 .
Metric tensor
By choosing the metric tensor in ;
g =
>
<=
=?
as
1
if = = 0
1 if = = i = j = 1, 2, 3
0
if =
6
(g ) =
@AAB
(4.10)
CEDD
1 0
0
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1 0 F
0 0
0 1
(4.11)
i.e., a matrix with a main diagonal that has the sign sequence, or signature,
{+, , , }, the index lowering operation in our chosen flat 4D space becomes
nearly trivial:
x = g x = (ct, x)
(4.12)
CEDD
@AAB
x0
x1
x2 F
x3
CEDD
@AAB
1 0
0
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1 0 F
0 0
0 1
@AAB
CEDD
x0
x1
x2 F
x3
CEDD
@AAB
x0
x1
x2 F
x3
(4.13)
Hence, if the metric tensor is defined according to expression (4.10) the covariant radius four-vector x is obtained from the contravariant radius four-vector
x simply by changing the sign of the last three components. These components are referred to as the space components; the zeroth component is referred
to as the time component.
52
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
As we see, for this particular choice of metric, the scalar product of x with
itself becomes
x x = (ct, x) (ct, x) = c2 t2 x2 y2 z2
(4.14)
(4.15a)
g = g
g g =
g g =
g
g
=
=
(4.15b)
(4.15c)
(4.15d)
1
0
if =
if 6=
(4.16)
(4.17)
4.1
T HE S PECIAL T HEORY
OF
53
R ELATIVITY
+,,
1
1 2
c
H
dx 1
dt
dx 2
+
dt
dx 3
+
dt
I
dt
1
v2
2 + (v )2 + (v )2 dt = c 1
dt
(v
)
x
y
z
c2
c2
:
c
= c 1 2 dt = dt = c d
= c 1
(4.18)
where we introduced
d = dt/
(4.19)
Since d measures the time when no spatial changes are present, it is called the
proper time.
Expressing Equation (4.5) on page 49 in terms of the differential interval
ds and comparing with Equation (4.17) on the preceding page, we find that
ds2 = c2 dt2 dx2 dy2 dz2
(4.20)
(4.21)
(4.22)
(4.23)
is a light-like interval; we may also say that in this case we are on the light
cone. A vector which has a light-like interval is called a null vector. The
time-like, space-like or light-like aspects of an interval ds is invariant under a
Lorentz transformation.
54
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
Four-vector fields
Any quantity which relative to any coordinate system has a quadruple of real
numbers and transforms in the same way as the radius four-vector x does, is
called a four-vector. In analogy with the notation for the radius four-vector we
introduce the notation a = (a0 , a) for a general contravariant four-vector field
in ; 4 and find that the lowering of index rule, Equation (M.20) on page 169,
for such an arbitrary four-vector yields the dual covariant four-vector field
a (x ) = g a (x ) = (a0 (x ), a(x ))
(4.24)
The scalar product between this four-vector field and another one b (x ) is
g a (x )b (x ) = (a0 , a) (b0 , b) = a0 b0 a b
(4.25)
CEDD
@AAB
0 0
0 0
0
0
1 0F
0
0
0 1
(4.26)
the linear Lorentz transformation (4.3) on page 49, i.e., the coordinate transformation x x0 = x0 (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ), from one inertial system to another
inertial system 0 , can be written
x0 = x
(4.27)
(4.28)
1 + 2
1 + 1 2
(4.29)
4.1
T HE S PECIAL T HEORY
OF
55
R ELATIVITY
X0
X 00
x01
x1
F IGURE 4.2: Minkowski space can be considered an ordinary Euclidean
space where a Lorentz transformation from (x1 , X 0 = ict) to (x01 , X 00 =
ict0 ) corresponds to an ordinary rotation through an angle . This rotation
2
2
leaves the Euclidean distance x1 + X 0 = x2 c2 t2 invariant.
(4.30a)
X 1 = x1
(4.30b)
(4.30c)
(4.30d)
X =x
X =x
dS = ids
(4.30e)
56
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
x0
= ct
x00
x0 = x 1
P0
ct
O=
O0
x01
x1 = x
F IGURE 4.3: Minkowski diagram depicting geometrically the transformation (4.34) from the unprimed system to the primed system. Here w
denotes the world line for an event and the line x0 = x1 x = ct the world
line for a light ray in vacuum. Note that the event P is simultaneous with
all points on the x1 axis (t = 0), including the origin O while the event
P0 , which is also simultaneous with all points on the x0 axis, including
O0 = O, to an observer at rest in the primed system, is not simultaneous
with O in the unprimed system but occurs there at time |P P0 | /c.
(4.31)
(4.32)
(4.33a)
(4.33b)
1 The
fact that our Riemannian space can be transformed in this way into an Euclidean one
means that it is, strictly speaking, a pseudo-Riemannian space.
4.2
57
(4.34a)
x = x cosh ct sinh
(4.34b)
(4.35a)
cosh =
(4.35b)
tanh =
(4.35c)
dx
= (c, v) =
d
B@ K
c
1
v2
c2
v
1
v2
c2
= (u0 , u)
(4.37)
which, when multiplied with the scalar invariant m0 yields the four-momentum
p = m0
dx
= m0 (c, v) =
d
B@ K
m0 c
1
v2
c2
m0 v
1
v2
c2
= (p0 , p)
(4.38)
58
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
(4.39)
where
m = m0 =
m0
(4.40)
1 vc2
We can interpret this such that the Lorentz covariance implies that the masslike term in the ordinary 3D linear momentum is not invariant. A better way to
look at this is that p = mv = m0 v is the covariantly correct expression for the
kinetic three-momentum.
Multiplying the zeroth (time) component of the four-momentum p with
the scalar invariant c, we obtain
cp0 = m0 c2 =
m0 c2
v2
c2
= mc2
(4.41)
Since this component has the dimension of energy and is the result of a covariant description of the motion of a particle with its kinetic momentum described
by the spatial components of the four-momentum, Equation (4.38) on the preceding page, we interpret cp0 as the total energy E. Hence,
cp = (cp0 , cp) = (E, cp)
(4.42)
(m0 c2 )2
2
1 vc2
(4.43)
v2
1 2 = (m0 c2 )2
c
Since this is an invariant, this equation holds in any inertial frame, particularly
in the frame where p = 0 and there we have
E = m 0 c2
(4.44)
4.3
59
dx
= 0 u = 0 (c, v) = (c, v)
d
(4.45)
where we introduced
= 0
(4.46)
= = =
1 2
2
c2 t2
(4.47)
Since it has the characteristics of a four-scalar, the dAlembert operator is invariant and, hence, the homogeneous wave equation is Lorentz covariant.
,A
c
(4.48)
where is the scalar potential and A the vector potential, defined in Section 3.3
on page 36, we can write the inhomogeneous wave equations (Lorentz equations) Equation (3.15) on page 39 in the following compact (and covariant)
way:
A = 0 j
(4.49)
With the help of the above, we can formulate our electrodynamic equations
covariantly. For instance, the covariant form of the equation of continuity,
Equation (1.21) on page 9 is
j = 0
(4.50)
60
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
and the Lorentz gauge condition, Equation (3.14) on page 38, can be written
A = 0
(4.51)
(4.52)
If only one dimension Lorentz contracts (for instance, due to relative motion along the x direction), a 3D spatial volume transforms according to
:
v2
1
dV = d3x = dV0 = dV0 1 2 = dV0 1 2
(4.53)
(4.54)
i.e., the charge in a given volume is conserved. We can therefore conclude that
the elementary charge is a universal constant.
A 4
=
0
,A
c
=
v=0
1
q0
,0
40 c |x x0 |0
(4.55)
where |x x0 |0 is the usual distance from the source point to the field point,
evaluated in the rest system (signified by the index 0).
Let us introduce the relative radius four-vector between the source point
and the field point:
R = x x0 = (c(t t0 ), x x0 )
(4.56)
2
(4.57)
4.3
61
We know that in vacuum the signal (field) from the charge q0 at x0 propagates to x with the speed of light c so that
x x0 = c(t t0 )
(4.58)
Inserting this into Equation (4.57) on the preceding page, we see that
R R = 0
(4.59)
R = ( x x 0 , x x 0 )
(4.60)
Now we want to find the correspondence to the rest system solution, Equation (4.55) on the preceding page, in an arbitrary inertial system. We note from
Equation (4.37) on page 57 that in the rest system
3u
B@ K
and
c
1
v2
c2
v
1
v2
c2
= (c, 0)
(4.61)
v=0
(R )0 = ( x x0 , x x0 )0 = ( x x0 0 , (x x0 )0 )
(4.62)
= (u )0 (R )0
= (c, 0) ( x x0 0 , (x x0 )0 ) = c x x0 0
(4.63)
q0
u
40 cu R
(4.64)
u R = (c, v) x x0 , (x x0 )4 = c x x0 v (x x0 )4
(4.65)
62
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
= v
v
c
(4.66)
and introducing
s x x0
def
v (x x0 )
x x0 (x x0 )
c
(4.67)
we can write
u R = cs
(4.68)
and
u
=
cu R
1 v
,
cs c2 s
(4.69)
q0
40
1 v
,
=
cs c2 s
,A
c
(4.70)
where in the last step the definition of the four-potential, Equation (4.48) on
page 59, was used. Writing the solution in the ordinary 3D-way, we conclude
that for a very localised charge volume, moving relative an observer with a
velocity v, the scalar and vector potentials are given by the expressions
1
q0 1
q0
=
0
40 s 40 |x x | (x x0 )
q0
v
q0 v
=
A(t, x) =
0
2
2
40 c s 40 c |x x | (x x0 )
(t, x) =
(4.71a)
(4.71b)
(4.72)
i, j 6= k
(4.73)
4.3
63
In other words, the pseudovector c = a b can be considered as an antisymmetric tensor of rank two.
The same is true for the curl operator . For instance, the Maxwell equation
B
(4.74)
E =
t
can in this tensor notation be written
E j Ei
Bi j
=
(4.75)
xi x j
t
We know from Chapter 3 that the fields can be derived from the electromagnetic potentials in the following way:
B = A
(4.76a)
E =
(4.76b)
A
t
In component form, this can be written
A j Ai
= i A j j Ai
(4.77a)
xi x j
Ai
Ei = i
= i t Ai
(4.77b)
x
t
From this, we notice the clear difference between the axial vector (pseudovector) B and the polar vector (ordinary vector) E.
Our goal is to express the electric and magnetic fields in a tensor form
where the components are functions of the covariant form of the four-potential,
Equation (4.48) on page 59:
Bi j =
A =
,A
c
(4.78)
Inspection of (4.78) and Equation (4.77) above makes it natural to define the
four-tensor
A A
F =
= A A
(4.79)
x x
This anti-symmetric (skew-symmetric), four-tensor of rank 2 is called the electromagnetic field tensor. In matrix representation, the contravariant field tensor can be written
3F
CEDD
@AAB
0
E x /c Ey /c Ez /c
E x /c
0
Bz
By
Ey /c
Bz
0
B x F
Ez /c By
Bx
0
(4.80)
64
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
The covariant field tensor is obtained from the contravariant field tensor in the
usual manner by index contraction (index lowering):
F = g g F = A A
(4.81)
3 F
CEDD
@AAB
0
E x /c Ey /c Ez /c
E x /c
0
Bz
By
Ey /c Bz
0
B x F
Ez /c By
Bx
0
(4.82)
(4.83)
E x Ey Ez
+
+
x
y
z
(4.84)
or, equivalently,
E = 0 c2 =
(4.85)
which is the Maxwell source equation for the electric field, Equation (1.43a)
on page 14.
For = 1, Equation (4.84) yields
F 01 F 11 F 21 F 31
Bz By
1 E x
+0
+
= 0 j1 = 0 v x (4.86)
+ 1 + 2 + 3 = 2
0
x
x
x
x
c t
y
z
or, using 0 0 = 1/c2 ,
By Bz
E x
0 0
= 0 j x
z
y
t
(4.87)
4.3
65
B IBLIOGRAPHY
E
= 0 j(t, x)
t
(4.88)
which is the Maxwell source equation for the magnetic field, Equation (1.43d)
on page 14.
The two Maxwell field equations
E =
B
t
B = 0
(4.89)
(4.90)
(4.91)
Hence, Equation (4.83) on the facing page and Equation (4.91) above constitute Maxwells equations in four-dimensional formalism.
Bibliography
[1] J. A HARONI, The Special Theory of Relativity, second, revised ed., Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1985, ISBN 0-486-64870-2.
[2] A. O. BARUT, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles,
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1980, ISBN 0-486-64038-8.
[3] R. B ECKER, Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions, Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9.
[4] D. B OHM, The Special Theory of Relativity, Routledge, New York, NY, 1996,
ISBN 0-415-14809-X.
[5] W. T. G RANDY, Introduction to Electrodynamics and Radiation, Academic
Press, New York and London, 1970, ISBN 0-12-295250-2.
[6] L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd.,
Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
[7] F. E. L OW, Classical Field Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . ,
1997, ISBN 0-471-59551-9.
66
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
[8] C. M LLER, The Theory of Relativity, second ed., Oxford University Press,
Glasgow . . . , 1972.
[9] H. M UIRHEAD, The Special Theory of Relativity, The Macmillan Press Ltd.,
London, Beccles and Colchester, 1973, ISBN 333-12845-1.
[10] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[11] J. J. S AKURAI, Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1967, ISBN 0-201-06710-2.
[12] B. S PAIN, Tensor Calculus, third ed., Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., Edinburgh and
London, 1965, ISBN 05-001331-9.
[13] A. N. W HITEHEAD, Concept of Nature, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge . . . , 1920, ISBN 0-521-09245-0.
5
Electromagnetic
Fields and
Particles
In previous chapters, we calculated the electromagnetic fields and potentials
from arbitrary, but prescribed distributions of charges and currents. In this
chapter we study the general problem of interaction between electric and magnetic fields and electrically charged particles. The analysis is based on Lagrangian and Hamiltonian methods, is fully covariant, and yields results which
are relativistically correct.
Lagrange formalism
Call the 4D Lagrange function L(4) and assume that it fulfils the variational
principle
1
0
L(4) (x , u ) d = 0
(5.1)
67
68
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
where d is the proper time defined via Equation (4.18) on page 53, and the
endpoints are fixed.
We must require that L(4) fulfils the following conditions:
1. The Lagrange function must be invariant. This implies that L(4) must be
a scalar.
2. The Lagrange function must yield linear equations of motion. This implies that L(4) must not contain higher than the second power of the fourvelocity u .
According to Formula (M.84) on page 182 the ordinary 3D Lagrangian is
the difference between the kinetic and potential energies. A free particle has
only kinetic energy. If the particle mass is m0 then in 3D the kinetic energy is
m0 v2 /2. This suggests that in 4D the Lagrangian for a free particle should be
1
free
L(4)
= m0 u u
2
(5.2)
For an interaction with the electromagnetic field we can introduce the interaction with the help of the four-potential given by Equation (4.78) on page 63 in
the following way
1
L(4) = m0 u u + qu A (x )
2
(5.3)
0
0
1 m (u u )
=
(5.4)
x d
20 u u + q A u + u A
x
0
1
m0 u u + q A u + u A x 4 d = 0
dx
d
(5.5)
which means that we can write the variation of u as a total derivative with
respect to :
u =
dx
d
=
x 4
d
d 3
(5.6)
5.1
C HARGED PARTICLES
IN AN
69
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELD
Inserting this into the first two terms in the last integral in Equation (5.4) on
the facing page, we obtain
1
L(4) (x , u ) d
d
d
m0 u
x 4 + qA
x 4 + qu A x d
d 3
d 3
(5.7)
Partial integration in the two first terms in the right hand member of (5.7)
gives
1
L(4) (x , u ) d
1
du
dA
m0
x q
x + qu A x d
d
d
(5.8)
where the integrated parts do not contribute since the variations at the endpoints vanish. A change of irrelevant summation index from to in the first
two terms of the right hand member of (5.8) yields, after moving the ensuing
common factor x outside the partenthesis, the following expression:
1
L(4) (x , u ) d
1
du
dA
m0
q
+ qu A x d
d
d
(5.9)
(5.10)
By inserting this expression (5.10) into the second term in right-hand member
of Equation (5.9) above, and noting the common factor qu of the resulting
term and the last term, we obtain the final variational principle expression
1
0
L(4) (x , u ) d
1
m0 du
+ qu A A 4
d
3
(5.11)
x d
Since, according to the variational principle, this expression shall vanish and
x is arbitrary between the fixed end points 0 and 1 , the expression inside
70
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
in the integrand in the right hand member of Equation (5.11) on the preceding
page must vanish. In other words, we have found an equation of motion for a
charged particle in a prescribed electromagnetic field:
m0
du
= qu A A 4
3
d
(5.12)
With the help of Equation (4.79) on page 63 we can express this equation in
terms of the electromagnetic field tensor in the following way:
m0
du
= qu F
d
(5.13)
This is the sought-for covariant equation of motion for a particle in an electromagnetic field. It is often referred to as the Minkowski equation. As the reader
can easily verify, the spatial part of this 4-vector equation is the covariant (relativistically correct) expression for the Newton-Lorentz force equation.
Hamiltonian formalism
The usual Hamilton equations for a 3D space are given by Equation (M.89)
on page 182 in Appendix M. These six first-order partial differential equations
are
H dqi
=
pi
dt
H
dpi
=
qi
dt
(5.14a)
(5.14b)
L(4)
u
(5.15)
(5.16)
5.1
C HARGED PARTICLES
IN AN
71
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELD
With the help of these, the radius four-vector x , considered as the generalised
four-coordinate, and the invariant line element ds, defined in Equation (4.18)
on page 53, we introduce the following eight partial differential equations:
H(4) dx
=
(5.17a)
p
d
dp
H(4)
=
(5.17b)
x
d
which form the four-dimensional Hamilton equations.
Our strategy now is to use Equation (5.15) on the preceding page and Equations (5.17) to derive an explicit algebraic expression for the canonically conjugate momentum four-vector. According to Equation (4.42) on page 58, c times
a four-momentum has a zeroth (time) component which we can identify with
the total energy. Hence we require that the component p0 of the conjugate fourmomentum vector defined according to Equation (5.15) on the facing page be
identical to the ordinary 3D Hamiltonian H divided by c and hence that this
cp0 solves the Hamilton equations, Equations (5.14) on the preceding page.
This later consistency check is left as an exercise to the reader.
Using the definition of H(4) , Equation (5.16) on the facing page, and the
expression for L(4) , Equation (5.3) on page 68, we obtain
1
(5.18)
H(4) = p u L(4) = p u m0 u u qu A (x )
2
Furthermore, from the definition (5.15) of the canonically conjugate fourmomentum p , we see that
p =
L(4)
=
u
u
1
m0 u u + qu A (x ) = m0 u + qA
2
(5.19)
(5.20)
u =
1
p qA 4
m0 3
(5.22)
72
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
H(4) =
1
1
p qA 4
p qA 4
m0 3
m0 3
3p
3p
qA 4
3 p qA
(5.23)
p 2qA p + q2 A A 4
That this four-Hamiltonian yields the correct covariant equation of motion can
be seen by inserting it into the four-dimensional Hamiltons equations (5.17)
and using the relation (5.22):
H(4)
q
A
= (p qA )
x
m0
x
A
q
= m0 u
m0
x
A
= qu
x
du
A
dp
= m0
q u
=
d
d
x
(5.24)
where in the last step Equation (5.19) on the previous page was used. Rearranging terms, and using Equation (4.80) on page 63, we obtain
m0
du
= qu A A 4 = qu F
3
d
(5.25)
(5.26a)
(5.26b)
(5.26c)
Inserting these explicit expressions into Equation (5.23) above, and using the
fact that for H(4) is equal to the scalar value m0 c2 /2, as derived in Equa-
5.1
C HARGED PARTICLES
IN AN
73
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELD
(5.27)
2q 0
q2
p L (p)2 2qpMEN A + q2 (A)2O + 2 2 m20 c2 = 0
c
c
(5.28)
(pqA)2
(p qA)2 + m20 c2
(5.29)
H cp = q + c
(p qA)2 + m20 c2
(5.30)
(5.31)
Using the explicit expressions (Equation (5.30) above) and (Equation (5.31)),
we obtain the explicit expression for the ordinary 3D Lagrange function
L = p v q c
(p qA)2 + m20 c2
(5.32)
(5.33)
where the quantity mv is the usual kinetic momentum, we can rewrite this expression for the ordinary Lagrangian as follows:
L = qA v + mv2 q c
2
m2 v2 + m20 c2
2
= mv q( A v) mc = q + qA v m0 c
v2
1 2
c
(5.34)
74
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
i1
m
k
a
k
a
AND
PARTICLES
i+1
k
a
k
a
m
x
F IGURE 5.1: A one-dimensional chain consisting of N discrete, identical mass points m, connected to their neighbours with identical, ideal
springs with spring constants k. The equilibrium distance between the
neighbouring mass points is a and i1 (t), i (t), i+1 (t) are the instantaneous deviations, along the x axis, of positions of the (i 1)th, ith, and
(i + 1)th mass point, respectively.
5.2
75
oscillatory motion along x . Let us denote the deviation for mass point i from
its equilibrium position by i (t) x .
The solution to this mechanical problem can be obtained if we can find a
Lagrangian (Lagrange function) L which satisfies the variational equation
L(i , i , t) dt = 0
(5.35)
L=
(5.36)
L = aP
(5.37)
i=1
Here,
i+1 i
1 m 2
i ka .
/
2 a
a
(5.38)
is the so called linear Lagrange density. If we now let N and, at the same
time, let the springs become infinitesimally short according to the following
scheme:
a dx
m
dm
=
a
dx
ka Y
i+1 i
a
x
(5.39a)
linear mass density
(5.39b)
Youngs modulus
(5.39c)
(5.39d)
we obtain
L=
dx
(5.40)
where
PQ
, , , t = H
t x
2
t
x
I
(5.41)
76
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
Notice how we made a transition from a discrete description, in which the mass
points were identified by a discrete integer variable i = 1, 2, . . . , N, to a continuous description, where the infinitesimal mass points were instead identified by
a continuous real parameter x, namely their position along x .
A consequence of this transition is that the number of degrees of freedom
for the system went from the finite number N to infinity! Another consequence
is that P has now become dependent also on the partial derivative with respect
to x of the field coordinate . But, as we shall see, the transition is well
worth the price because it allows us to treat all fields, be it classical scalar
or vectorial fields, or wave functions, spinors and other fields that appear in
quantum physics, on an equal footing.
Under the assumption of time independence and fixed endpoints, the variation principle (5.35) on the preceding page yields:
L dt
=
=
P
R
RTSU
,
dx dt
t x
P
P
+
+
dx dt
t
x
VW
. t /
. x /
(5.42)
=0
The last integral can be integrated by parts. This results in the expression
R SU
B@
B@
F
VW
dx dt = 0
(5.43)
where the variation is arbitrary (and the endpoints fixed). This means that the
integrand itself must vanish. If we introduce the functional derivative
P
P
B@
B@
(5.44)
=0
(5.45)
5.2
77
Y
=
t2
x2
2
2
=0
Y t2 x2
(5.46)
i.e., the one-dimensional wave equation for compression waves which propa
gate with phase speed v = Y/ along the linear structure.
A generalisation of the above 1D results to a three-dimensional continuum
is straightforward. For this 3D case we get the variational principle
L dt =
=
=
X
d3x dt
PY
d4x
x
R SU
B@
F
VW
(5.47)
4
d x
=0
where the variation is arbitrary and the endpoints are fixed. This means that
the integrand itself must vanish:
P
B@
=0
(5.48)
=
i
B@
B@
xi
(5.49)
=0
(5.50)
78
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
(5.51)
Z
, ,
; t = PQ , , i
i
x
t
t x
(5.52)
If, as usual, we differentiate this expression and identify terms, we obtain the
following Hamilton density equations
t
Z
(5.53a)
(5.53b)
The Hamilton density functions are in many ways similar to the ordinary
Hamilton functions and lead to similar results.
tot
=P
mech
+P
inter
+P
field
(5.54)
where the mechanical part has to do with the particle motion (kinetic energy).
It is given by L(4) /V where L(4) is given by Equation (5.2) on page 68 and V is
the volume. Expressed in the rest mass density %0 , the mechanical Lagrange
density can be written
mech
1
= %0 u u
2
(5.55)
5.2
79
The P inter part which describes the interaction between the charged particles and the external electromagnetic field. A convenient expression for this
interaction Lagrange density is
inter
= j A
(5.56)
For the field part P field we choose the difference between magnetic and
electric energy density (in analogy with the difference between kinetic and
potential energy in a mechanical field). Using the field tensor, we express this
field Lagrange density as
field
1
F F
40
(5.57)
tot
1
1
= %0 u u + j A +
F F
2
40
(5.58)
E XAMPLE 5.1
B2
0 E 2
0
(5.59)
i.e., the difference between the magnetic and electric field energy densities.
From Formula (4.80) on page 63 we recall that
F
""#
0
E x /c
E y /c
E z /c
E x /c E y /c E z /c
0
Bz
By
Bz
0
B x *&
By
Bx
0
((
(5.60)
F
""#
0
E x /c
E y /c
E z /c
E x /c
0
Bz
By
E y /c
Bz
0
Bx
E z /c
By
B x *&
0
((
(5.61)
where denotes the row number and the column number. Then, Einstein summation
80
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
(5.62)
1 2
B2
1
E =
0 c 2 0
2
B2
0 E 2
0
(5.63)
QED
OF EXAMPLE
5.1C
EM
=P
inter
+P
field
= j A +
1
F F
40
(5.64)
inserted into the Euler-Lagrange equations, expression (5.48) on page 77, yields
two of Maxwells equations. To see this, we note from Equation (5.64) and the
results in Example 5.1 that
P
EM
= j
(5.65)
5.2
81
Furthermore,
P
(
1
F F 4
40
( A ) 3
A )
1
=
( A A )( A A )
40
( A )
EM
A A A A
40
( A )
(5.66)
A A + A A
=
1
A A A A 4
20
( A ) 3
'
But
A A 4 = A
A + A
A
( A ) 3
( A )
( A )
A + A
g g A
= A
( A )
( A )
= A
A + g g A
A (5.67)
( A )
( A )
= A
A + A
A
( A )
( A )
= 2 A
Similarly,
A A 4 = 2 A
( A ) 3
(5.68)
so that
P
(
EM
A )
1
1
A A 4 = F
0 3
0
(5.69)
This means that the Euler-Lagrange equations, expression (5.48) on page 77,
for the Lagrangian density P EM and with A as the field quantity become
P
EM
P
(
EM
A )
= j
1
F = 0
0
(5.70)
82
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
or
F = 0 j
(5.71)
Other fields
In general, the dynamic equations for most any fields, and not only electromagnetic ones, can be derived from a Lagrangian density together with a variational principle (the Euler-Lagrange equations). Both linear and non-linear
fields are studied with this technique. As a simple example, consider a real,
scalar field which has the following Lagrange density:
1
m2 2 4
23
(5.72)
m2 ) = 0
(5.73)
em|x|
|x|
(5.74)
which describes the Yukawa meson field for a scalar meson with mass m. With
=
1
c2 t
(5.75)
1 2 2
c + ()2 + m2 2
2
(5.76)
EM
=P
inter
+P
field
= j A +
1
F F + m2 A A
40
(5.77)
5.2
83
B IBLIOGRAPHY
(5.78)
Bibliography
[1] A. O. BARUT, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles,
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1980, ISBN 0-486-64038-8.
[2] V. L. G INZBURG, Applications of Electrodynamics in Theoretical Physics
and Astrophysics, Revised third ed., Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,
New York, London, Paris, Montreux, Tokyo and Melbourne, 1989, ISBN 288124-719-9.
[3] H. G OLDSTEIN, Classical Mechanics, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1981, ISBN 0-201-02918-9.
[4] W. T. G RANDY, Introduction to Electrodynamics and Radiation, Academic
Press, New York and London, 1970, ISBN 0-12-295250-2.
[5] L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd.,
Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
[6] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[7] J. J. S AKURAI, Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1967, ISBN 0-201-06710-2.
[8] D. E. S OPER, Classical Field Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, London, Sydney and Toronto, 1976, ISBN 0-471-81368-0.
84
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
6
Electromagnetic
Fields and
Matter
The microscopic Maxwell equations (1.43) derived in Chapter 1 are valid on all
scales where a classical description is good. However, when macroscopic matter is present, it is sometimes convenient to use the corresponding macroscopic
Maxwell equations (in a statistical sense) in which auxiliary, derived fields are
introduced in order to incorporate effects of macroscopic matter when this is
immersed fully or partially in an electromagnetic field.
(x0 ) d3x0
(6.1)
where the is the charge density introduced in Equation (1.7) on page 4, the
electric dipole moment vector
p=
(6.2)
85
86
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
M ATTER
(6.3)
q
1
1
(x x0 )i
+
pi
2
40 |x x0 | |x x0 |
|x x0 |
1
Qi j
+
|x x0 |3
3 (x x0 )i (x x0 ) j 1
i j + . . .
2 |x x0 | |x x0 | 2
(6.4)
x x0 3 0
1
d x =
0
3
|x x |
40
V
1
P(x0 ) 0
d3x0
|x x0 |
V
P(x0 )
p (x) =
P(x0 )
1
d3x0
|x x0 |
(6.5)
Using the expression Equation (M.71) on page 179 and applying the divergence theorem, we can rewrite this expression for the potential as follows:
1
40
1
=
40
p (x) =
P(x0 )
0 P(x0 ) 3 0
3 0
d
x
dx
|x x0 |
V
V |x x0 |
0
0
0
P(x ) n 2
P(x ) 3 0
d x
dx
0|
|x
x
S
V |x x0 |
0
(6.6)
6.1
E LECTRIC P OLARISATION
AND
87
D ISPLACEMENT
where the first term, which describes the effects of the induced, non-cancelling
dipole moment on the surface of the volume, can be neglected, unless there is
a discontinuity in P n at the surface. Doing so, we find that the contribution
from the electric dipole moments to the potential is given by
p =
1
40
0 P(x0 ) 3 0
dx
|x x0 |
(6.7)
Comparing this expression with expression Equation (3.3) on page 35 for the
electrostatic potential from a static charge distribution , we see that P(x)
has the characteristics of a charge density and that, to the lowest order, the
effective charge density becomes (x) P(x), in which the second term is a
polarisation term.
The version of Equation (1.7) on page 4 where true and polarisation
charges are separated thus becomes
E =
(x) P(x)
0
(6.8)
Rewriting this equation, and at the same time introducing the electric displacement vector (C/m2 )
D = 0 E + P
(6.9)
we obtain
(0 E + P) = D = true (x)
(6.10)
where true is the true charge density in the medium. This is one of Maxwells
equations and is valid also for time varying fields. By introducing the notation pol = P for the polarised charge density in the medium, and
total = true + pol for the total charge density, we can write down the following alternative version of Maxwells equation (6.23a) on page 90
E =
total (x)
0
(6.11)
Often, for low enough field strengths |E|, the linear and isotropic relationship between P and E
P = 0 E
(6.12)
88
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
M ATTER
(6.13)
where, approximately,
= 0 (1 + )
(6.14)
1
2
(6.15)
6.2
M AGNETISATION
AND THE
89
M AGNETISING F IELD
volume, M. Via the definition of the vector potential one can show that the
magnetisation current and the magnetisation is simply related:
jM = M
(6.16)
In a stationary medium we therefore have a total current which is (approximately) the sum of the three currents enumerated above:
jtotal = jtrue +
P
+M
t
(6.17)
P
+M
t
(6.18)
Moving the term M to the left hand side and introducing the magnetising
field (magnetic field intensity, Ampre-turn density) as
H=
B
M
0
(6.19)
and using the definition for D, Equation (6.9) on page 87, we can write this
incorrect equation in the following form
H = jtrue +
E
P
D
= jtrue +
0
t
t
t
(6.20)
(6.21)
where, approximately,
= 0 (1 + m )
(6.22)
90
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
M ATTER
E =
(6.23a)
(6.23b)
B
t
(6.23c)
H = j(t, x) +
D
t
(6.23d)
and are called Maxwells macroscopic equations. These equations are convenient to use in certain simple cases. Together with the boundary conditions and
the constitutive relations, they describe uniquely (but only approximately!) the
properties of the electric and magnetic fields in matter.
(6.24)
Integration over the entire volume V and using Gausss theorem (the divergence theorem), we obtain
t
1
(H B + E D) d3x0 =
2
j E d3x0 +
(E H) nd
2x0
(6.25)
(6.26)
j E d3x0 =
j2 3 0
dx
j EEMF d3x0
(6.27)
6.3
E NERGY
AND
91
M OMENTUM
L
j EEMF d3x0 =
MEN
L
j2 3 0
dx +
MEN O t L
1
2x0
(E D + H B) d3x0 + (E H) nd
2
MEN
O L S M[N
O
Joule heat
Field energy
Radiated power
(6.28)
which is the energy theorem in Maxwells theory also known as Poyntings
theorem.
It is convenient to introduce the following quantities:
1
E D d3x0
2 V
1
H B d3x0
Um =
2 V
S = EH
Ue =
(6.29)
(6.30)
(6.31)
where U e is the electric field energy, U m is the magnetic field energy, both
measured in J, and S is the Poynting vector (power flux), measured in W/m2 .
(D B) + D
t
t
= E( D) B ( H)
(D B) D ( E) + H(
L MEN BO )
t
E + j B = ( D)E + H
(6.32)
=0
(D B)
t
92
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
M ATTER
One verifies easily that the ith vector components of the two terms in
square brackets in the right hand member of (6.32) can be expressed as
[E( D) D ( E)]i =
1
D
E
E
D
+
2
xi
xi
x j
1
E i D j E D i j
2
(6.33)
and
[H( B) B ( H)]i =
1
B
H
H
B
+
2
xi
xi
x j
1
Hi B j B H i j
2
(6.34)
respectively.
Using these two expressions in the ith component of Equation (6.32) on
the preceding page and re-shuffling terms, we get
D
B
E
H
+ H
+ (D B)i
D
B
xi
xi
xi
xi ]
t
1
1
E i D j E D i j + Hi B j H B i j
2
2
(6.35)
(E + j B)i
=
x j
1
2
\
Introducing the electric volume force Fev via its ith component
(Fev )i = (E + j B)i
1
2
\
D
E
B
H
D
+ H
B
xi
xi
xi
xi 0
(6.36)
(6.37)
Fev + t (D B)
=
i
T i j
= ( T)i
x j
(6.38)
(6.39)
B = m 0 H = H
(6.40)
6.3
93
B IBLIOGRAPHY
(6.41)
i
where S is the Poynting vector defined in Equation (6.29) on page 91. Integration over the entire volume V yields
L
Fev d3x0 +
MEN
d
dt L
m 3 0
Sd x =
c2MEN
O
Field momentum
L
T nd2x0
MEN
(6.42)
Maxwell stress
which expresses the balance between the force on the matter, the rate of change
of the electromagnetic field momentum and the Maxwell stress. This equation
is called the momentum theorem in Maxwells theory.
In vacuum (6.42) becomes
(E + v B) d3x0 +
1 d
c2 dt
S d3x0 =
V
T nd2x0
(6.43)
or
d mech d field
p
+ p
=
dt
dt
T nd2x0
(6.44)
Bibliography
[1] E. H ALLN, Electromagnetic Theory, Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1962.
[2] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
[3] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[4] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
94
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
M ATTER
7
Electromagnetic
Fields from
Arbitrary Source
Distributions
While, in principle, the electric and magnetic fields can be calculated from the
Maxwell equations in Chapter 1, or even from the wave equations in Chapter 2,
it is often physically more lucid to calculate them from the electromagnetic
potentials derived in Chapter 3. In this chapter we will derive the electric and
magnetic fields from the potentials.
We recall that in order to find the solution (3.36) for the generic inhomogeneous wave equation (3.20) on page 41 we presupposed the existence of a
Fourier transform pair (3.21a) on page 41 for the generic source term
(t, x) =
(x) =
1
2
(x) eit d
(7.1a)
(t, x) eit dt
(7.1b)
That such transform pairs exists is true for most physical variables which are
not strictly monotonically increasing and decreasing with time. For charges
and currents varying in time we can therefore, without loss of generality, work
with individual Fourier components. Strictly speaking, the existence of a single
Fourier component assumes a monochromatic source (i.e., a source containing
only one single frequency component), which in turn requires that the electric
and magnetic fields exist for infinitely long times. However, by taking the
proper limits, we can still use this approach even for sources and fields of
finite duration.
This is the method we shall utilise in this chapter in order to derive the
electric and magnetic fields in vacuum from arbitrary given charge densities
(t, x) and current densities j(t, x), defined by the temporal Fourier transform
95
96
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
M ATTER
pairs
(t, x) =
(x) eit d
1
2
(x) =
(7.2a)
(t, x) eit dt
(7.2b)
and
j(t, x) =
j (x) =
j (x) eit d
1
2
(7.3a)
j(t, x) eit dt
(7.3b)
under the assumption that only retarded potentials produce physically acceptable solutions.1
The temporal Fourier transform pair for the retarded vector potential can
then be written
(t, x) =
(x) eit d
1
(x) =
2
1
(t, x) e dt =
4
0
it
(7.4a)
0
eik|xx | 3 0
(x )
dx
|x x0 |
0
(7.4b)
where in the last step, we made use of the explicit expression for the temporal
Fourier transform of the generic potential component (x), Equation (3.33)
on page 43. Similarly, the following Fourier transform pair for the vector potential must exist:
A(t, x) =
1
A (x) =
2
A (x) eit d
(7.5a)
0
eik|xx | 3 0
0
j (x0 )
dx
A(t, x) e dt =
4
|x x0 |
it
(7.5b)
(7.6)
in order that all physical quantities be real. Similar transform pairs and requirements of real-valuedness exist for the fields themselves.
1 In
fact, John A. Wheeler and Richard P. Feynman derived in 1945 a fully self-consistent
electrodynamics using both the retarded and the advanced potentials [6]; See also [1].
7.1
97
T HE M AGNETIC F IELD
(7.7a)
i0 t
(7.7b)
(t, x) = 0 (x)ei0 t
(7.7c)
i0 t
(7.7d)
j(t, x) = j0 (x)e
A(t, x) = A0 (x)e
(7.8)
(7.9)
which provides a relation between (the Fourier transforms of) the vector and
scalar potentials.
Using the Fourier transformed version of Equation (7.8) and Equation (7.5b)
on the preceding page, we obtain
0
B (x) = A (x) =
4
eik|xx | 3 0
j (x )
dx
|x x0 |
V
0
(7.10)
98
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
FROM
eik|xx |
d3x0
|x x0 |
V
0
x x0
j (x0 )
eik|xx | d3x0
3
0
|x x |
V
x x0 ik|xx0 |
1
3 0
+ j (x0 ) ik
e
0
|x x |
|x x0 | d x
V
0
4
0
=
4
B (x) =
j (x0 )
(7.11)
0 ik|xx | (x x0 )
j (x )e
d3x0
|x x0 |3
V
0
(ik)j(x0 )eik|xx | (x x0 ) 3 0
+
dx
|x x0 |2
V
0
=
4
From this expression for the magnetic field in the frequency () domain,
we obtain the total magnetic field in the temporal (t) domain by taking the
inverse Fourier transform (using the identity ik = i/c):
B(t, x) =
=
0
4
B (x) eit d
1
+
c
=
0
L 4
V
|x x0 |3
d3x0
|x x0 |2
0 , x0 ) (x x0 )
j(tret
0
d3x0 +
03
4c
|xM[N x |
Induction field
O L
d3x0
(7.12)
0 , x0 ) (x x0 )
j(tret
d3x0
2
0
|xM[
N x|
O
Radiation field
where
def
0
j(tret
, x0 )
j
t
(7.13)
0
t=tret
The first term, the induction field, dominates near the current source but falls
off rapidly with distance from it, is the electrodynamic version of the BiotSavart law in electrostatics, Formula (1.13) on page 6. The second term, the
radiation field or the far field, dominates at large distances and represents energy that is transported out to infinity. Note how the spatial derivatives ()
gave rise to a time derivative ()!
7.2
99
T HE E LECTRIC F IELD
eik|xx | 3 0 i0
1
=
(x0 )
dx +
40 V
4
|x x0 |
0
(x0 )eik|xx | (x x0 ) 3 0
1
dx
=
40 V
|x x0 |3
ik
eik|xx | 3 0
j (x )
dx
|x x0 |
V
0
(7.14)
dx
c |x x0 |
|x x0 |
(7.15)
Doing so in the last term of Equation (7.14), and also using the fact that k =
/c, we can rewrite this Equation as
1
40
E (x) =
1
c L
(x0 )eik|xx | (x x0 ) 3 0
dx
|x x0 |3
0
0
0
x0 )
eik|xx | 3 0
0
ikj
(x
)
[ j|x(x)](x
x0 |
|x x0 | d xO
MEN
(7.17)
I
The last integral can be further rewritten in the following way:
I =
=
But, since
0
xm
[0 j (x0 )](x x0 )
eik|xx | 3 0
0
ikj
(x
)
|x x0 |
|x x0 | d x
0
jm xl xl0
eik|xx | 3 0
0
ik jl (x ) x l
0 |x x0 |
xm
|x x0 | d x
jm
xl xl0 ik|xx0 |
e
=
|x x0 |2
(7.18)
jm xl xl0 ik|xx0 |
e
0
xm
|x x0 |2
xl xl0 ik|xx0 |
+ jm 0
e
xm |x x0 |2
(7.19)
100
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
FROM
we can rewrite I as
I =
jm
0
xm
xl xl0
eik|xx | 3 0
ik|xx0 |
x
e
+
ikj
dx
l
2
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
xl xl0
0
x eik|xx | d3x0
jm
2 l
0
|x x |
0
xm
(7.20)
I =
ik
0
eik|xx |
2
j
j (x x0 ) (x x0 )eik|xx | d3x0
+
2
4
0
0
|x x |
|x x |
V^
j (x x0 ) (x x0 )
|x x0 |3
ik|xx0 |
eik|xx |
+ j
d3x0
|x x0 | _
(7.21)
Using the triple product bac-cab Formula (F.54) on page 162 backwards, and
inserting the resulting expression for I into Equation (7.17) on the preceding
page, we arrive at the following final expression for the Fourier transform of
the total E-field:
0
1
eik|xx | 3 0 i0
E (x) =
dx +
(x0 )
40 V
4
|x x0 |
0|
0
ik|xx
0
1
(x )e
(x x ) 3 0
=
dx
3
40 V
|x x0 |
0
dx
c V
|x x0 |3
+
1
c
eik|xx | 3 0
dx
j (x )
|x x0 |
V
0
(7.22)
Taking the inverse Fourier transform of Equation (7.22) above, once again
using the vacuum relation = kc, we find, at last, the expression in time do-
7.3
101
T HE R ADIATION F IELDS
E (x) eit d
1
L 40
0 , x0 )(x x0 )
(tret
d3x0
|xMEN x0 |3
O
1
4
L 0c
0 , x0 ) (x x0 )](x x0 )
[j(tret
d3x0
4
0
M[|xN x |
O
(7.23)
Intermediate field
1
L 40 c
0 , x0 ) (x x0 )] (x x0 )
[j(tret
d3x0
0 |4
x
|x
MEN
O
Intermediate field
1
+
L 40 c2
0 , x0 ) (x x0 )] (x x0 )
[j(tret
d3x0
0 |3
x
|x
M[N
O
Radiation field
Here, the first term represents the retarded Coulomb field and the last term
represents the radiation field which carries energy over very large distances.
The other two terms represent an intermediate field which contributes only in
the near zone and must be taken into account there.
With this we have achieved our goal of finding closed-form analytic expressions for the electric and magnetic fields when the sources of the fields
are completely arbitrary, prescribed distributions of charges and currents. The
only assumption made is that the advanced potentials have been discarded;
recall the discussion following Equation (3.36) on page 43 in Chapter 3.
102
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
FROM
Brad (t, x) =
Erad (t, x) =
it
Brad
d =
(x) e
it
Erad
d
(x) e
1
=
40 c2
0
4c
0 , x0 ) (x x0 )
j(tret
d3x0 (7.24a)
|x x0 |2
0 , x0 ) (x x0 )] (x x0 )
[j(tret
d3x0
|x x0 |3
(7.24b)
where
def
0
j(tret
, x0 )
j
t
(7.25)
0
t=tret
Instead of studying the fields in the time domain, we can often make a
spectrum analysis into the frequency domain and study each Fourier component separately. A superposition of all these components and a transformation
back to the time domain will then yield the complete solution.
The Fourier representation of the radiation fields Equation (7.24a) above
and Equation (7.24b) were included in Equation (7.11) on page 98 and Equation (7.22) on page 100, respectively and are explicitly given by
1 rad
B (t, x) eit dt
2
j (x0 ) (x x0 ) ik|xx0 | 3 0
k0
dx
= i
e
4 V
|x x0 |2
j (x0 ) k ik|xx0 | 3 0
0
e
dx
= i
4 V |x x0 |
1 rad
Erad
(x)
=
E (t, x) eit dt
2
[j (x0 ) (x x0 )] (x x0 ) ik|xx0 | 3 0
k
dx
e
= i
40 c V
|x x0 |3
1
[j (x0 ) k] (x x0 ) ik|xx0 | 3 0
= i
dx
e
40 c V
|x x0 |2
Brad
(x) =
(7.26a)
(7.26b)
If the source is located inside a volume V near x0 and has such a limited
spatial extent that max |x0 x0 | |x x0 |, and the integration surface S , centred
on x0 , has a large enough radius |x x0 | max |x0 x0 |, we see from Figure 7.1
on the next page that we can approximate
k x x0 k (x x0 ) k (x x0 ) k (x0 x0 )
k |x x0 | k (x0 x0 )
(7.27)
7.3
103
T HE R ADIATION F IELDS
S
dS = nd2x
k
x x0
x x0
x0
x0 x 0
x0
V
O
F IGURE 7.1: Relation between the surface normal and the k vector for
radiation generated at source points x0 near the point x0 in the source
volume V. At distances much larger than the extent of V, the unit vector
n, normal to the surface S which has its centre at x0 , and the unit vector
kof the radiation k vector from x0 are nearly coincident.
Recalling from Formula (F.48) and Formula (F.49) on page 162 that
dS = |x x0 |2 d = |x x0 |2 sin d d
and noting from Figure 7.1 that k and n are nearly parallel, we see that we can
approximate.
k dS
k n
=
dS d
2
|x x0 |
|x x0 |2
(7.28)
i
e
dx
e
40 c
|x x0 |2
V
0
1 eik|xx0 | (x x0 )
[j (x0 ) k] eik(x x0 ) d3x0
i
40 c |x x0 | |x x0 | V
(7.29b)
Brad
(x) i
104
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
FROM
hSi = hE Hi =
Using the far-field approximations (7.29a) and (7.29b) and the fact that 1/c =
(j k)e
ik(x0 x0 ) 3 0
dx
2
x x0
|x x0 |
(7.31)
dP
1
=
R0
2
d 32
(j k)e
ik(x0 x0 ) 3 0
dx
2
(7.32)
7.4
105
R ADIATED E NERGY
over the whole bandwidth. The total energy transmitted through a unit area is
the time integral of the Poynting vector:
S(t) dt =
=
(E H) dt
d
d0
(7.33)
(E H0 )ei(+ )t dt
If we carry out the temporal integration first and use the fact that
ei(+ )t dt = 2( + 0 )
(7.34)
S(t) dt = 2
= 2
2
0
2
=
0
= 2
= 2
(E H ) d
(E H ) d
(E H ) d +
(E H ) d +
(E H ) d
(E H ) d
(E H ) d
(7.35)
(E B + E B ) d
(E B + E B ) d
where the last step follows from the real-valuedness of E and B . We insert the Fourier transforms of the field components which dominate at large
distances, i.e., the radiation fields (7.26a) and (7.26b). The result, after integration over the area S of a large sphere which encloses the source, is
1
U=
4
0
0
S
j k ik|xx0 | 3 0 2
d x k ndS
d
e
|x x0 |
(7.36)
Inserting the approximations (7.27) and (7.28) into Equation (7.36) and
also introducing
U=
U d
(7.37)
and recalling the definition (2.18) on page 26 for the vacuum resistance R 0 we
obtain
1
dU
d R0
d
4
(j k)e
ik(x0 x0 ) 3 0
dx
2
(7.38)
106
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
FROM
Bibliography
[1] F. H OYLE , S IR AND J. V. NARLIKAR, Lectures on Cosmology and Action at a
Distance Electrodynamics, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd, Singapore,
New Jersey, London and Hong Kong, 1996, ISBN 9810-02-2573-3(pbk).
[2] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
[3] L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd.,
Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
[4] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[5] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
[6] J. A. W HEELER AND R. P. F EYNMAN, Interaction with the absorber as a mechanism for radiation, Reviews of Modern Physics, 17 (1945), pp. 157.
8
Electromagnetic
Radiation and
Radiating
Systems
In Chapter 3 we were able to derive general expressions for the scalar and vector potentials from which we then, in Chapter 7, calculated the total electric
and magnetic fields from arbitrary distributions of charge and current sources.
The only limitation in the calculation of the fields was that the advanced potentials were discarded.
Thus, one can, at least in principle, calculate the radiated fields, Poynting
flux and energy for an arbitrary current density Fourier component and then
add these Fourier components together to construct the complete electromagnetic field at any time at any point in space. However, in practice, it is often
difficult to evaluate the source integrals unless the current has a simple distribution in space. In the general case, one has to resort to approximations. We
shall consider both these situations.
107
108
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
j0 (x ) =
sin[k(L/2
I0 (x10 )(x20 )
0
x3 )]
sin(kL/2)
x 3
(8.1)
where the current amplitude I0 is a constant (measured in A). In order to evaluate Formula (7.32) on page 104 with the explicit monochromatic current (8.1)
inserted, we need the expression
(j0 k)e
=
=
ik(x0 x0 ) 3 0
dx
I02
2
sin[k(L/2 x30 )]
0
k sin eikx3 cos eikx0 cos dx30
I0
sin(kL/2)
L/2
L/2
2
= 4I02
L/2
0
2
(8.2)
Inserting this expression and d = 2 sin d into Formula (7.32) on page 104
and integrating over , we find that the total radiated power from the antenna
is
P(L) = R0 I02
1
4
sin d
(8.3)
lim P(L) =
kL0
12
L
R0 I02
(8.4)
8.1
R ADIATION
FROM
109
E XTENDED S OURCES
P(L) P(L)
= 1 2 = R0
2
6
Ieff
2 I0
L
197
L
(8.5)
R0 I02
1
4
cos2
3 2 cos
sin
(8.6)
cos2
3 2 cos
sin
cos2 2 v4
3 dv =
1 1 v2
`
1 + cos(u)
cos2 . v/ =
2
2
a
1
1 + cos(u)
1
=
du
2 1 (1 + u)(1 u)
(8.7)
1 1 1 + cos(u)
1 1 1 + cos(u)
=
du +
du
4 1 (1 + u)
4 1 (1 u)
1 1 1 + cos(u)
v
=
du = b 1 + u
2 1 (1 + u)
c
2
1
1 cos v
1
=
dv = [ + ln 2 Ci(2)]
2 0
v
2
1.22
d =
dcos vc =
where in the last step the Euler-Mascheroni constant = 0.5772 . . . and the
cosine integral Ci(x) were introduced. Inserting this into the expression Equation (8.6) we obtain the value Rrad (/2) 73 .
110
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
x3 = z = z 0
k
z0
x2
x0
x1
0
0
F IGURE 8.1: For the loop antenna the spherical coordinate system
(r, , ) describes the field point (the radiation field) and the cylindrical
coordinate system (0 , 0 , z0 ) describes the source (the antenna current).
i0 eik|x|
4 |x|
V0
d3x0 eikx j k
(8.8)
In our case
j = I0 cos 0 (0 a)(z0 ) 0
(8.9)
For the spherical coordinate system of the field point, we recall from subsection F.4.1 on page 161 that the following relations between the base vectors
hold:
r = sin cos x 1 + sin sin x 2 + cos x 3
= cos cos x 1 + cos sin x 2 sin x 3
= sin x 1 + cos x 2
8.1
R ADIATION
FROM
111
E XTENDED S OURCES
and
x 1 = sin cos r + cos cos sin
x 2 = sin sin r + cos sin + cos
x 3 = cos r sin
With the use of the above transformations and trigonometric identities, we
obtain for the cylindrical coordinate system which describes the source:
0 = cos 0 x 1 + sin 0 x 2
= sin cos(0 )r + cos cos(0 ) + sin(0 )
(8.10)
(8.11)
0 = sin 0 x 1 + cos 0 x 2
(8.12)
(8.13)
(8.14)
and
With these expressions inserted and d3x0 = 0 d0 d0 dz0 , the source integral
becomes
V0
d3x0 eikx j k = a
2
= I0 ak
2
0
+ I0 ak cos
2
0
(8.15)
Utilising the periodicity of the integrands over the integration interval [0, 2],
introducing the auxiliary integration variable 00 = 0 , and utilising standard
112
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
trigonometric identities, the first integral in the RHS of (8.15) can be rewritten
2
00
0
2
= cos
= cos
=
00
0
2
00
1 1
+ cos 200 d00
2 2
(8.16)
2
00
1
cos
eika sin cos d00
2
0
2
00
1
eika sin cos cos 200 d00
+ cos
2
0
00
2
00
1
sin
eika sin cos d00
2
0
2
00
1
sin
eika sin cos cos 200 d00
2
0
(8.17)
in
ei cos cos n d =
in
2
ei cos cos n d
(8.18)
00
00
00
V0
d3x0 eikx j k = I + I
(8.20)
8.2
113
M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION
i0 eikr
I + I 4
4r 3
(8.21)
To obtain the desired physical magnetic field in the radiation (far) zone we
must Fourier transform back to t space and take the real part and evaluate it at
the retarded time:
0
i0 e(ikrt )
4
B (t, x) = Re
4r
3 I + I
0
=
sin(kr t0 ) I + I 4
4r
3
I0 ak0
=
sin(kr t0 ) cos [J0 (ka sin ) J2 (ka sin )]
4r
rad
(8.22)
From this expression for the radiated B field, we can obtain the radiated E field
with the help of Maxwells equations.
(8.23)
= jtrue
t
(8.24a)
(8.24b)
114
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
and compare with Equation (8.23) on the previous page, we see that (t, x)
satisfies this continuity equation. Furthermore, if we compare with the electric
polarisation [cf. Equation (6.9) on page 87], we see that the quantity is
related to the true charges in the same way as P is related to polarised charge.
Therefore, is referred to as the polarisation vector.
We introduce a further potential e with the following property
e =
1 e
=A
c2 t
(8.25a)
(8.25b)
where and A are the electromagnetic scalar and vector potentials, respectively. As we see, e acts as a super-potential in the sense that it is a potential from which we can obtain other potentials. It is called the Hertz vector
or polarisation potential and, as can be seen from (8.24) and (8.25), it satisfies
the inhomogeneous wave equation
e =
1 2 e
2 e =
2
2
c t
0
(8.26)
This equation is of the same type as Equation (3.20) on page 41, and has
therefore the retarded solution
e (t, x) =
1
40
0 , x0 )
(tret
d3x0
|x x0 |
(8.27)
1
40
(x0 )eik|xx | 3 0
dx
|x x0 |
(8.28)
(8.29)
we see that we can calculate the magnetic and electric fields, respectively, as
follows
1 C
c2 t
(8.30a)
E = C
(8.30b)
B=
Clearly, the last equation is valid only outside the source volume, where
E = 0. Since we are mainly interested in the fields in the far zone, a long
distance from the source region, this is no essential limitation.
8.2
115
M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION
Assume that the source region is a limited volume around some central
point x0 far away from the field (observation) point x. Under these assumptions, we can expand expression (8.27) on the facing page the Hertz vector,
0 , x0 ) in the vicinity of x , in a formal
due to the presence of non-vanishing (tret
0
series. For this purpose we recall from potential theory that
0
eik|xx |
eik|(xx0 )(x x0 )|
|x x0 | |(x x0 ) (x0 x0 )|
(8.31)
n=0
where
0
eik|xx |
is a Greens function
|x x0 |
is the angle between x0 x0 and x x0
h(1)
n (k |x x0 |) is the spherical Hankel function of the first kind of order n
According to the addition theorem for Legendre polynomials, we can write
n
Pn (cos ) =
0 im( )
(1)m Pmn (cos )Pm
n (cos )e
0
(8.32)
m=n
where Pm
n is an associated Legendre polynomial and, in spherical polar coordinates,
x0 x0 = ( x0 x0 , 0 , 0 )
(8.33a)
x x0 = (|x x0 | , , )
(8.33b)
Inserting Equation (8.31) above, together with Equation (8.32), into Equation (8.28) on the preceding page, we can in a formally exact way expand
the Fourier component of the Hertz vector as
ik n
m
im
(2n + 1)(1)mh(1)
n (k |x x0 |) Pn (cos ) e
40 n=0
m=n
e =
(x ) jn (k x
(8.34)
0 im0 3 0
x0 ) Pm
dx
n (cos ) e
We notice that there is no dependence on x x0 inside the integral; the integrand is only dependent on the relative source vector x0 x0 .
116
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
We are interested in the case where the field point is many wavelengths
away from the well-localised sources, i.e., when the following inequalities
k x0 x0 1 k |x x0 |
(8.35)
eik|xx0 |
k |x x0 |
(8.36)
and replace jn with the first term in its power series expansion:
jn (k x0 x0 )
2n n!
k x0 x0 4
(2n + 1)! 3
(8.37)
Inserting these expansions into Equation (8.34) on the preceding page, we obtain the multipole expansion of the Fourier component of the Hertz vector
e
e(n)
(8.38a)
n=0
where
e(n) = (i)n
1 eik|xx0 | 2n n!
40 |x x0 | (2n)!
8.2
117
M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION
eik|xx0 |
40 |x x0 |
(x0 ) d3x0 =
1 eik|xx0 |
p
40 |x x0 |
(8.39)
where p = V (x0 ) d3x0 is the Fourier component of the electric dipole moment; cf. Equation (6.2) on page 85 which describes the static dipole moment.
If a spherical coordinate system is chosen with its polar axis along p , the
components of e(0) are
1 eik|xx0 |
p cos
40 |x x0 |
1 eik|xx0 |
e = e (0)
p sin
sin =
40 |x x0 |
e = 0
er = e (0)
cos =
(8.40a)
(8.40b)
(8.40c)
Evaluating Formula (8.29) on page 114 for the help vector C, with the
spherically polar components (8.40) of e (0)
inserted, we obtain
(0)
C = C,
=
1
40
1
eik|xx0 |
ik
|x x0 | p sin
|x x0 |
(8.41)
Applying this to Equation (8.30) on page 114, we obtain directly the Fourier
components of the fields
1
eik|xx0 |
0
ik
4 |x x0 |
|x x0 | p sin
1
1
x x0
ik
E =
2
cos
2
40
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
ik|xx0 |
1
ik
2
e
+
k
sin
|x x0 | p
|x x0 |2 |x x0 |
B = i
(8.42a)
(8.42b)
Keeping only those parts of the fields which dominate at large distances
(the radiation fields) and recalling that the wave vector k = k(x x0 )/ |x x0 |
where k = /c, we can now write down the Fourier components of the radiation
parts of the magnetic and electric fields from the dipole:
0 eik|xx0 |
(p k)
4 |x x0 |
1 eik|xx0 |
Erad
[(p k) k]
=
40 |x x0 |
Brad
=
(8.43a)
(8.43b)
118
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
These fields constitute the electric dipole radiation, also known as E1 radiation.
eik|xx0 |
k x0 x0 (x0 ) cos d3x0
40 |x x0 | V
1 eik|xx0 |
[(x x0 ) (x0 x0 )] (x0 ) d3x0
= ik
40 |x x0 |2 V
e(1) = i
(8.44)
(8.45)
and introducing
i = xi x0,i
0i
(8.46a)
xi0 x0,i
(8.46b)
(8.47)
i.e., as the sum of two parts, the first being symmetric and the second antisymmetric in the indices i, j. We note that the antisymmetric part can be written
as
1
1
i , j 0i ,i 0j 4 = [, j (i 0i ) 0j (i ,i )]
2 3
2
1
= [ ( 0 ) 0 ( )] j
2
1
= 1 (x x0 ) [ (x0 x0 )] 2
2
(8.48)
j
The utilisation of Equations (8.24) on page 113, and the fact that we are
considering a single Fourier component,
(t, x) = eit
(8.49)
8.2
119
M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION
allow us to express in j as
= i
(8.50)
Hence, we can write the antisymmetric part of the integral in Formula (8.44)
on the preceding page as
1
(x x0 ) (x0 ) (x0 x0 ) d3x0
2
V
1
= i (x x0 ) j (x0 ) (x0 x0 ) d3x0
2
V
1
= i (x x0 ) m
(8.51)
1
2
(8.52)
The final result is that the antisymmetric, magnetic dipole, part of e(1)
can be written
e,antisym
(1)
k eik|xx0 |
(x x0 ) m
40 |x x0 |2
(8.53)
In analogy with the electric dipole case, we insert this expression into Equation (8.29) on page 114 to evaluate C, with which Equations (8.30) on page 114
then gives the B and E fields. Discarding, as before, all terms belonging to the
near fields and transition fields and keeping only the terms that dominate at
large distances, we obtain
0 eik|xx0 |
(m k) k
4 |x x0 |
k eik|xx0 |
Erad
(x)
=
m k
40 c |x x0 |
Brad
(x) =
(8.54a)
(8.54b)
which are the fields of the magnetic dipole radiation (M1 radiation).
120
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
of the electric quadrupole tensor, which is defined in accordance with Equation (6.3) on page 86:
Q(t) =
(8.55)
Again we use this expression in Equation (8.29) on page 114 to calculate the
fields via Equations (8.30) on page 114. Tedious, but fairly straightforward
algebra (which we will not present here), yields the resulting fields. The radiation components of the fields in the far field zone (wave zone) are given
by
i0 eik|xx0 |
k Q 4 k
8 |x x0 | 3
i eik|xx0 |
Erad
k Q 4 k k
(x) =
80 |x x0 | 3
Brad
(x) =
(8.56a)
(8.56b)
(t, x) =
(8.57a)
(8.57b)
and consider a source region with such a limited spatial extent that the charges
and currents are well localised. Specifically, we consider a charge q0 , for instance an electron, which, classically, can be thought of as a localised, unstructured and rigid charge distribution with a small, finite radius. The part of this
charge distribution dq0 which we are considering is located in dV 0 = d3x0 in
the sphere in Figure 8.2 on the next page. Since we assume that the electron
(or any other other similar electric charge) is moving with a velocity v whose
direction is arbitrary and whose magnitude can be almost comparable to the
speed of light, we cannot say that the charge and current to be used in (8.57) is
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
x(t)
IN
121
A RBITRARY M OTION
dr
q0
dV 0
F IGURE 8.2: Signals which are observed at the field point x at time t
were generated at source points x0 (t0 ) on a sphere, centred on x and expanding, as time increases, with the velocity c outward from the centre.
The source charge element moves with an arbitrary velocity v and gives
rise to a source leakage out of the source volume dV 0 = d3x0 .
0 , x0 ) d3x0 and
0 , x0 ) d3x0 , respectively, because in the finite time
V (tret
V v(tret
interval during which the observed signal is generated, part of the charge distribution will leak out of the volume element d3x0 .
(x x0 ) v
dS dt
|x x0 |
(8.58)
where the last term represents the amount of source leakage due to the fact
that the charge distribution moves with velocity v. Since dt = dr/c and dS dr =
122
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
0
0
dq0 = (tret
, x0 ) d3x0 (tret
, x0 )
(8.59)
or
0
(tret
, x0 ) d3x0 =
dq0
(8.60)
)v
1 (xx
c|xx0 |
(8.61)
This is the expression to be used in the Formulae (8.57) on page 120 for the
retarded potentials. The result is (recall that j = v)
(t, x) =
1
40
A(t, x) =
0
4
dq0
|x x0 | (xxc0 )v
v dq0
0
|x x0 | (xxc )v
(8.62a)
(8.62b)
For a sufficiently small and well localised charge distribution we can, assuming
that the integrands do not change sign in the integration volume, use the mean
value theorem and the fact that V dq0 = q0 to evaluate these expressions to
become
1
q0 1
q0
=
0
40 |x x0 | (xxc )v 40 s
v
q0 v v
q0
A(t, x) =
=
= (t, x)
0
40 c2 |x x0 | (xxc )v 40 c2 s c2
(t, x) =
where
(x x0 ) v
c
0
x x0 v
= xx 1
|x x0 | c
x x0 v
= (x x0 )
|x x0 | c
s = x x0
(8.63a)
(8.63b)
(8.64a)
(8.64b)
(8.64c)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
123
A RBITRARY M OTION
is the retarded relative distance. The potentials (8.63) are precisely the LinardWiechert potentials which we derived in Section 4.3.2 on page 60 by using a
covariant formalism.
It is important to realise that in the complicated derivation presented here,
the observer is in a coordinate system which has an absolute meaning and the
velocity v is that of the particle, whereas in the covariant derivation two frames
of equal standing were moving relative to each other with v. Expressed in the
four-potential, Equation (4.48) on page 59, the Linard-Wiechert potentials
become
A (x ) =
q0
40
1 v
= (, cA)
,
s cs
(8.65)
(8.66a)
A(t, x)
E(t, x) = (t, x)
t
(8.66b)
(8.67)
(in the interest of simplifying our notation, we drop the subscript ret on t 0
from now on). This means that we know the trajectory of the charge q0 , i.e., x0 ,
for all times up to the time t0 at which a signal was emitted in order to precisely
arrive at the field point x at time t. Because of the finite speed of propagation
of the fields, the trajectory at times later than t 0 is not (yet) known.
The retarded velocity and acceleration at time t 0 are given by
v(t0 ) =
dx0
dt0
a(t0 ) = v (t0 ) =
(8.68a)
dv d2 x0
=
dt0 dt0 2
(8.68b)
124
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
?
|x x0 |
v
c
q0
x0 (t0 )
v(t0 )
x0 (t)
x x0
x x0
x(t)
F IGURE 8.3: Signals which are observed at the field point x at time t
were generated at the source point x0 (t0 ). After time t0 the particle, which
moves with nonuniform velocity, has followed a yet unknown trajectory.
Extrapolating tangentially the trajectory from x0 (t0 ), based on the velocity v(t0 ), defines the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 (t).
(8.69a)
d2
(x x0 (t0 )) = v(t0 )
dt0 2
(8.69b)
The retarded time t0 can, at least in principle, be calculated from the implicit
relation
t0 = t0 (t, x) = t
|x x0 (t0 )|
c
(8.70)
and we shall see later how this relation can be taken into account in the calculations.
According to Formulae (8.66) on the previous page the electric and magnetic fields are determined via differentiation of the retarded potentials at the
observation time t and at the observation point x. In these formulae the unprimed , i.e., the spatial derivative differentiation operator = x i /xi means
that we differentiate with respect to the coordinates x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) while keeping t fixed, and the unprimed time derivative operator /t means that we differentiate with respect to t while keeping x fixed. But the Linard-Wiechert
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
125
A RBITRARY M OTION
potentials and A, Equations (8.63) on page 122, are expressed in the charge
velocity v(t0 ) given by Equation (8.68a) on page 123 and the retarded relative
distance s(t0 , x) given by Equation (8.64) on page 122. This means that the
expressions for the potentials and A contain terms which are expressed explicitly in t0 , which in turn is expressed implicitly in t via Equation (8.70) on
the preceding page. Despite this complication it is possible, as we shall see
below, to determine the electric and magnetic fields and associated quantities
at the time of observation t. To this end, we need to investigate carefully the
action of differentiation on the potentials.
t0
x
x x0 (t0 ) =
x x0
|x x0 | t0
x x0 (t0 )4 =
(x x0 ) v
|x x0 |
(8.71)
t0
t
t0
|x x0 |
= 1 i 0
t x c
t
0
0
(x x ) v t
= 1+
t
c |x x0 |
x
= 1
(8.72)
x
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
=
s
|x x0 | (x x0 ) v/c
=
x
(8.73)
t
=
x
t0
t
t0
=
x
|x x0 |
s
t0
(8.74)
x
126
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
()t t0 = ()t
(8.75)
x x0
cs
(8.76)
which gives the following operator relation when ()t is acting on an arbitrary
function of t0 and x:
()t = ()t t0
t0
+ ()t0 =
x x0
cs
t0
+ ()t0
(8.77)
With the help of the rules (8.77) and (8.74) we are now able to replace t by t 0
in the operations which we need to perform. We find, for instance, that
1 q0
40 s
0
x x0 v x x0 s
q
=
t0
40 s2 |x x0 | c
cs
x
0 q0 v
A
A
=
t
t x t 4 s
0
0 s
q0
=
x
x
s
v
xx v 0
40 c2 s3
t
()t =
(8.78a)
(8.78b)
x
Utilising these relations in the calculation of the E field from the LinardWiechert potentials, Equations (8.63) on page 122, we obtain
A
t
q0
(x x0 ) |x x0 | v/c
=
40 s2
|x x0 |
E(t, x) =
(8.79)
(x x0 ) |x x0 | v/c
cs
s
t0
|x x0 | v
c2
Starting from expression (8.64a) on page 122 for the retarded relative distance
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
127
A RBITRARY M OTION
s(t0 , x), we see that we can evaluate (s/t 0 )x in the following way
s
t0
=
x
t0
0
x x0 (x cx ) v
1
x x0 (t0 )
0
t
c
x x0 (t0 )4
v(t0 )
3 0
v (x x0 )
t
t0 _
(8.80)
(x x0 ) v v2 (x x0 ) v
+
c
c
|x x0 |
where Equation (8.71) on page 125 and Equations (8.68) on page 123, respectively, were used. Hence, the electric field generated by an arbitrarily moving
charged particle at x0 (t0 ) is given by the expression
E(t, x) =
q0
|x x0 | v
0
j
(x
x
)
40 s3 L
MEcN
v2
c2 O
x x0
+ 2
L c
k
|x x0 | v
(x x )
c
v O
MEN
0
(8.81)
Radiation field
The first part of the field, the velocity field, tends to the ordinary Coulomb field
when v 0 and does not contribute to the radiation. The second part of the
field, the acceleration field, is radiated into the far zone and is therefore also
called the radiation field.
From Figure 8.3 on page 124 we see that the position the charged particle
would have had if at t0 all external forces would have been switched off so that
the trajectory from then on would have been a straight line in the direction of
the tangent at x0 (t0 ) is x0 (t), the virtual simultaneous coordinate. During the
arbitrary motion, we interpret x x0 as the coordinate of the field point x relative to the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 (t). Since the time it takes from a
signal to propagate (in the assumed vacuum) from x0 (t0 ) to x is |x x0 | /c, this
relative vector is given by
x x0 = (x x0 )
|x x0 | v
c
(8.82)
q0
v2
(x x0 ) v
(x x0 ) 1 2 + (x x0 )
3
40 s
c
c2
(8.83)
128
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
x x0
0
cs
t
0
0
0
A
xx
q
xx
v
=
40 c2 s2 |x x0 |
c |x x0 |
t x
A
x
(8.84)
where we made use of Equation (8.63) on page 122 and Formula (8.74) on
page 125. But, according to (8.78a),
q0
x x0
x x0
()
=
v
t
c |x x0 |
40 c2 s2 |x x0 |
(8.85)
so that
x x0
A
()t
c |x x0 |
t
0
xx
=
E(t, x)
c |x x0 |
B(t, x) =
(8.86)
The radiation part of the electric field is obtained from the acceleration
field in Formula (8.81) on the preceding page as
Erad (t, x) =
=
lim E(t, x)
|xx0 |
q0
(x x0 )
3
k
(x x0 )
40 c2 s
q0
=
(x x0 ) [(x x0 ) v ]
40 c2 s3
|x x0 | v
c
v
(8.87)
where in the last step we again used Formula (8.82) on the previous page.
Using this formula and Formula (8.86), the radiation part of the magnetic field
can be written
Brad (t, x) =
x x0
Erad (t, x)
c |x x0 |
(8.88)
s (t , x) = x x
0 2
(x x0 ) v
(x x0 ) v
+
2 xx
c
c
0
(8.89)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
129
A RBITRARY M OTION
(x x0 ) v
c
(x x0 ) v
c
02 2
|x x0 |2 v2
2 0 |x x | v
cos
+
sin2 0
c2
c2
|x x0 |2 v2
|x x0 |2 v2
2 0
2 0
=
(cos
+
sin
)
=
c2
c2
(8.90)
we find that
(x x0 ) v
c
(x x0 ) v
|x x0 |2 v2
c2
c
(8.91)
Furthermore, from Equation (8.82) on page 127, we obtain the following identity:
(x x0 ) v = (x x0 ) v
(8.92)
which, when inserted into Equation (8.91) above, yields the relation
(x x0 ) v
c
(x x0 ) v
|x x0 |2 v2
=
c2
c
(8.93)
Inserting the above into expression (8.89) on the facing page for s2 , this
expression becomes
2
s = xx
0 2
(x x0 ) v |x x0 |2 v2
(x x0 ) v
2 xx
+
c
c2
c
= (x x0 )
|x x0 | v
c
(x x0 ) v
c
(x x0 (t)) v
= (x x0 (t))2
c
|x x0 |2
(x x0 ) v
c
(8.94)
130
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
time t, i.e., when we obtain the first knowledge of its existence at the source
point x0 at the retarded time t0 , and in the field coordinate x(t), where we make
our observations. We have, in other words, shown that all quantities in the definition of s, and hence s itself, can, when the motion of the charge is somehow
known, be expressed in terms of the time t alone. I.e., in this special case we
are able to express the retarded relative distance as s = s(t, x) and we do not
have to involve the retarded time t 0 or transformed differential operators in our
calculations.
Taking the square root of both sides of Equation (8.94) on the preceding
page, we obtain the following alternative final expressions for the retarded relative distance s in terms of the charges virtual simultaneous coordinate x 0 (t):
s(t, x) =
|x x0 |2
= |x x0 | 1
=
(x x0 ) v
c
(8.95a)
v2 2
sin 0
c2
|x x0 |2 1
(8.95b)
(x x0 ) v
v2
+
2
c
c
(8.95c)
v2
(x x0 ) v
2
c
c
v2
vv
(8.96)
+ 2 (x x0 )
2
c
c
v
v
= 2 7 (x x0 ) + . (x x0 )/98
c
c
which we shall use in the following example of a uniformly, unaccelerated
motion of the charge.
= 2 (x x0 ) 1
E XAMPLE 8.1
T HE
In the special case of uniform motion, the localised charge moves in a field-free, isolated space and we know that it will not be affected by any external forces. It will
therefore move uniformly in a straight line with the constant velocity v. This gives us
the possibility to extrapolate its position at the observation time, x0 (t), from its position at the retarded time, x0 (t0 ). Since the particle is not accelerated, v 0, the virtual
simultaneous coordinate x0 will be identical to the actual simultaneous coordinate of
the particle at time t, i.e., x0 (t) = x0 (t). As depicted in Figure 8.3 on page 124, the
angle between x x0 and v is 0 while then angle between x x0 and v is 0 .
We note that in the case of uniform velocity v, time and space derivatives are closely
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
131
A RBITRARY M OTION
v
t
(8.97)
Hence, the E and B fields can be obtained from Formulae (8.66) on page 123, with the
potentials given by Equations (8.63) on page 122 as follows:
A
1 v
v
= 2
= 2
t
c t
c t
v v
vv
= + $ % = $ 1 2 %
c c
c
vv
%
= $ 2 1
c
v
v
v
B = A = $ 2 % = 2 = 2
c
c
c
v
v
v
v
vv
m = 2 $ 2 1 %
= 2 l $ %
c
c
c
c
c
v
= 2 E
c
E =
(8.98a)
(8.98b)
Here 1 = xi xi is the unit dyad and we used the fact that v v 0. What remains is just
to express in quantities evaluated at t and x.
From Equation (8.63a) on page 122 and Equation (8.96) on the facing page we find
that
q0
1
q0
s2
=
40
s
80 s3
q0
l (x x0 ) + vc $ vc (x x0 )%
=
40 s3
(8.99)
When this expression for is inserted into Equation (8.98a) above, the following
result
vv
q0
%
1
$ vv 1% s2
c2
80 s3 c2
v
v
q0
(x x0 ) + $ (x x0 )%
=
40 s3 n
c
c
E(t, x) =
q0
v v
v2
%
(x
x
)
+
(x
x
)
(x
x
)
$
0
0
0
40 s3
c c
c2
v v
v
v
l $ (x x0 ) %
$ (x x0 )% vv
c c
c2 c
c
v v
$ (x x0 )%
c c
q0
40 s
(x x0 ) 1
3
mo
(8.100)
v2
c2
132
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
follows. Of course, the same result also follows from Equation (8.83) on page 127
with v 0 inserted.
From Equation (8.100) on the previous page we conclude that E is directed along
the vector from the simultaneous coordinate x0 (t) to the field (observation) coordinate
x(t). In a similar way, the magnetic field can be calculated and one finds that
B(t, x) =
0 q 0
4s3
v2
1
v (x x0 ) = 2 v E
c2
c
(8.101)
From these explicit formulae for the E and B fields we can discern the following cases:
1. v 0 E goes over into the Coulomb field ECoulomb
2. v 0 B goes over into the Biot-Savart field
3. v c E becomes dependent on 0
4. v c, sin 0 0 E (1 v2 /c2 )ECoulomb
E XAMPLE 8.2
T HE
OF EXAMPLE
8.1C
Let us consider in more detail the treatment of the radiation from a uniformly moving
rigid charge distribution.
If we return to the original definition of the potentials and the inhomogeneous wave
equation, Formula (3.20) on page 41, for a generic potential component (t, x) and a
generic source component f (t, x),
(t, x) =
1 2
2 (t, x) = f (t, x)
c2 t2
(8.102)
v2 2 2 2
+
+
= f (x)
c2 x21 x22 x23
(8.103)
(8.104a)
(8.104b)
(8.104c)
def
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
133
A RBITRARY M OTION
1 v2 /c2 1 , 2 , 3 ) f ()
(8.105)
in this space. This equation has the well-known Coulomb potential solution
() =
1
4
f ( 0 ) 3 0
0 d
(8.106)
1
4
f (x0 ) 3 0
dx
s
(8.107)
(x1 x01 )2 +
v2
1 2 [(x2 x02 )2 + (x3 x03 )2 ]
c
1
2
(8.108)
Applying this to the explicit scalar and vector potential components, realising that for
a rigid charge distribution moving with velocity v the current is given by j = v, we
obtain
1
(x0 ) 3 0
dx
40 V s
1
v(x0 ) 3 0 v
d x = 2 (t, x)
A(t, x) =
2
40 c V s
c
(t, x) =
(8.109a)
(8.109b)
(8.110a)
(8.110b)
(8.111)
With the help of Equation (8.101) on the preceding page and Equations (8.109), and
the fact that t = v [cf.. Formula (8.97) on page 131], we can rewrite expres-
134
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
v
E%
c2
=q
l$
v
v
v
v
%
$ %
c
c
c
c
(8.112)
Applying the bac-cab rule, Formula (F.54) on page 162, on the last term yields
v
v
v
v v2
$ % = $ %
c
c
c
c c2
(8.113)
(8.114)
where
= 1
v2
c2
(8.115)
The scalar function is called the convection potential or the Heaviside potential.
When the rigid charge distribution is well localised so that we can use the potentials
(8.110) the convection potential becomes
= 1
q0
v2
c2 40 s
(8.116)
x1 x01
1 v2 /c2
(8.117)
OF EXAMPLE
8.2C
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
135
A RBITRARY M OTION
s = x x0
(x x0 ) v
x x0 ,
c
vc
(8.118)
|x x0 | v
x x0 ,
c
vc
(8.119)
so that the radiation field Equation (8.87) on page 128 can be approximated by
Erad (t, x) =
q0
(x x0 ) [(x x0 ) v ],
3
2
0
40 c |x x |
vc
(8.120)
from which we obtain, with the use of Formula (8.86) on page 128, the magnetic field
Brad (t, x) =
q0
[v (x x0 )],
4c3 |x x0 |2
vc
(8.121)
(8.122)
x x = x x0
(8.123a)
(8.123b)
The power flux in the far zone is described by the Poynting vector as a
function of Erad and Brad . We use the close correspondence with the dipole
case to find that it becomes
S=
0
0 q0 2 (v)2
2 xx
sin
|x x0 |
162 c |x x0 |2
(8.124)
q0 2 v 2
0 q0 2 (v)2
=
6c
60 c3
(8.125)
where is the angle between v and x x0 . The total radiated power (integrated
over a closed spherical surface) becomes
P=
136
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
which is the Larmor formula for radiated power from an accelerated charge.
Note that here we are treating a charge with v c but otherwise totally unspecified motion while we compare with formulae derived for a stationary oscillating dipole. The electric and magnetic fields, Equation (8.120) on the
preceding page and Equation (8.121) on the previous page, respectively, and
the expressions for the Poynting flux and power derived from them, are here
instantaneous values, dependent on the instantaneous position of the charge
at x0 (t0 ). The angular distribution is that which is frozen to the point from
which the energy is radiated.
8.3.3 Bremsstrahlung
An important special case of radiation is when the velocity v and the acceleration v are collinear (parallel or anti-parallel) so that v v = 0. This condition
(for an arbitrary magnitude of v) inserted into expression (8.87) on page 128
for the radiation field, yields
Erad (t, x) =
q0
(x x0 ) [(x x0 ) v ],
40 c2 s3
v k v
(8.126)
from which we obtain, with the use of Formula (8.86) on page 128, the magnetic field
Brad (t, x) =
q0 |x x0 |
[v (x x0 )],
40 c3 s3
v k v
(8.127)
The difference between this case and the previous case of v c is that the
approximate expression (8.118) on the preceding page for s is no longer valid;
we must instead use the correct expression (8.64) on page 122. The angular
distribution of the power flux (Poynting vector) therefore becomes
S=
sin2
0 q0 2 v 2
162 c |x x0 |2 1 v cos 4
c
x x0
|x x0 |
(8.128)
It is interesting to note that the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields
are the same whether v and v are parallel or anti-parallel.
We must be careful when we compute the energy (S integrated over time).
The Poynting vector is related to the time t when it is measured and to a fixed
surface in space. The radiated power into a solid angle element d, measured
relative to the particles retarded position, is given by the formula
dU rad ()
0 q0 2 v 2
sin2
d = S (x x0 ) x x0 d =
dt
162 c 1 v cos 4
c
3
d (8.129)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
137
A RBITRARY M OTION
v = 0.5c
v = 0.25c
v=0
v
F IGURE 8.4: Polar diagram of the energy loss angular distribution factor
sin2 /(1 v cos /c)5 during bremsstrahlung for particle speeds v = 0, v =
0.25c, and v = 0.5c.
On the other hand, the radiation loss due to radiation from the charge at retarded time t0 :
dU rad
dU rad
d
=
dt0
dt
t
t0
(8.130)
(8.131)
(8.132)
The angular factors of this expression, for three different particle speeds, are
plotted in Figure 8.4.
Comparing expression (8.129) on the preceding page with expression (8.132), we see that they differ by a factor 1 v cos /c which comes
from the extra factor s/ |x x0 | introduced in (8.131). Let us explain this in
geometrical terms.
During the interval (t0 , t0 + dt0 ) and within the solid angle element d the
particle radiates an energy [dU rad ()/dt0 ] dt0 d. As shown in 8.5 this energy
138
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
dS
dr
x
d
0
q
0
x02 vdt x01
x x02 + c dt0
is at time t located between two spheres, one outer with its origin in x01 (t0 ) and
one inner with its origin in x01 (t0 + dt0 ) = x01 (t0 ) + v dt and radius c[t (t0 + dt0 )] =
c(t t0 dt0 ).
From Figure 8.5 we see that the volume element subtending the solid angle
element
d =
dS
2
x x02
is
(8.133)
2
d3x = dS dr = x x02 d dr
(8.134)
Here, dr denotes the differential distance between the two spheres and can be
evaluated in the following way
0
x x20 v dt0 x x02
L x MExN 2 O
dr = x x02 + c dt0
v cos
=
x x02
x x02
dt0 =
(8.135)
cs
dt0
x x02
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
139
A RBITRARY M OTION
where Formula (8.64) on page 122 was used in the last step. Hence, the volume
element under consideration is
s
dS c dt0
d3x = dS dr =
(8.136)
x x02
We see that the energy which is radiated per unit solid angle during the time
interval (t0 , t0 + dt0 ) is located in a volume element whose size is dependent.
This explains the difference between expression (8.129) on page 136 and expression (8.132) on page 137.
Let the radiated energy, integrated over , be denoted U rad . After tedious,
but relatively straightforward integration of Formula (8.132) on page 137, one
obtains
dU rad 0 q0 2 v 2
=
dt0
6c
. 1 vc /
2
2
(8.137)
If we know v(t0 ), we can integrate this expression over t 0 and obtain the total
energy radiated during the acceleration or deceleration of the particle. This
way we obtain a classical picture of bremsstrahlung (braking radiation). Often, an atomistic treatment is required for an acceptable result.
E XAMPLE 8.3
(8.138)
vdt
(8.139)
(8.140)
(8.141)
From the general expression (8.86) on page 128 we conclude that E B and that
it suffices to consider E Erad . According to the bremsstrahlung expression for
Erad , Equation (8.126) on page 136,
E=
q0 sin
v (t0 t0 )
40 c2 |x x0 |
(8.142)
140
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
B=
E
c
(8.143)
Fourier transforming expression (8.142) on the previous page for E is trivial, yielding
E =
q0 sin
v eit0
82 0 c2 |x x0 |
(8.144)
dUrad 0
dt =
dt0
1
0
S
E
1
0 c
EB dt0 d2x =
S
= 0 c
S E
B
dS dt0
0
E
dt0 d2x
(8.145)
dt0 d2x
According to Parsevals identity [cf. Equation (7.35) on page 105] the following equality holds:
E 2 dt0 = 4
0
|E |2 d
(8.146)
S |E |2 d2x
(8.147)
q0 2 (v)2
163 0 c3
q0 2
30 c
S
0
v
c
sin2 2
d x d
|x x0 |2
d
2
0
sin2 sin d d
(8.148)
d
2
We see that the energy spectrum Urad is independent of frequency . This means that
if we integrate it over all frequencies [0, ], a divergent integral would result.
In reality, all spectra have finite widths, with an upper cutoff limit set by the quantum
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
141
A RBITRARY M OTION
condition
1
(8.149)
h = m(v)2
2
which expresses that the highest possible frequency in the spectrum is that for which
all kinetic energy difference has gone into one single field quantum (photon) with
energy h. If we adopt the picture that the total energy is quantised in terms of N
photons radiated during the process, we find that
Urad d
= dN
h
or, for an electron where q0 = |e|, where e is the elementary charge,
dN =
2
e2
40 hc3
v
c
d
1 2
137 3
v
c
(8.150)
(8.151)
where we used the value of the fine structure constant e2 /(40 hc) 1/137.
Even if the number of photons becomes infinite when 0, these photons have
negligible energies so that the total radiated energy is still finite.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
8.3C
(8.152a)
0 0
x (t ) = a[ x 1 cos (t ) + x 2 sin (t )]
v(t0 ) = x 0 (t0 ) = a0 [ x 1 sin (t0 ) + x 2 cos (t0 )]
v = |v| = a0
a20
(8.152b)
(8.152c)
(8.152d)
(8.152e)
(8.152f)
x x0 = x x0 ( x 2 sin + x 3 cos )
(8.153)
142
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
x2
(t, x)
x x0
x
v
q0 0 0
(t , x )
v
(t0 )
x1
x3
F IGURE 8.6: Coordinate system for the radiation from a charged particle at x0 (t0 ) in circular motion with velocity v(t 0 ) along the tangent and
constant acceleration v(t0 ) toward the origin. The x1 x2 axes are chosen so
that the relative field point vector x x0 makes an angle with the x3 axis
which is normal to the plane of the orbital motion. The radius of the orbit
is a.
where is the angle between x x0 and the normal to the plane of the particle
orbit (see Figure 8.6). From the above expressions we obtain
(x x0 ) v = x x0 v sin cos
(x x0 ) v = x x0 v sin sin = x x0 v cos
(8.154a)
(8.154b)
where in the last step we simply used the definition of a scalar product and the
fact that the angle between v and x x0 is .
The power flux is given by the Poynting vector, which, with the help of
Formula (8.86) on page 128, can be written
S=
1
1
x x0
(E B) =
|E|2
0
c0
|x x0 |
(8.155)
(8.156)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
143
A RBITRARY M OTION
where the retarded distance s is given by expression (8.64) on page 122. With
the radiation part of the electric field, expression (8.87) on page 128, inserted,
and using (8.154a) and (8.154b) on the facing page, one finds, after some algebra, that
4
2
2
v
v
dU rad (, ) 0 q0 2 v 2 3 1 c sin cos . 1 c2 / sin sin
=
(8.157)
5
dt0
162 c
1 v sin cos 4
2
The angles and vary in time during the rotation, so that refers to a moving
coordinate system. But we can parametrise the solid angle d in the angle
and the (fixed) angle so that d = sin d d. Integration of Equation (8.157)
above over this d gives, after some cumbersome algebra, the angular integrated expression
dU rad 0 q0 2 v 2
=
dt0
6c
. 1 vc /
2
2
(8.158)
Cyclotron radiation
For a non-relativistic speed v c, Equation (8.157) above reduces to
dU rad (, ) 0 q0 2 v 2
(1 sin2 sin2 )
=
dt0
162 c
(8.159)
(8.160)
where is defined in Figure 8.6 on the preceding page. This means that we
can write
0 q0 2 v 2
dU rad () 0 q0 2 v 2
2
=
(1
cos
)
=
sin2
dt0
162 c
162 c
(8.161)
Consequently, a fixed observer near the orbit plane will observe cyclotron
radiation twice per revolution in the form of two equally broad pulses of radiation with alternating polarisation.
144
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
x2
(t, x)
x x0
v
q0 0 0
(t , x )
v
(t0 )
0
x1
x3
F IGURE 8.7: When the observation point is in the plane of the particle
orbit, i.e., = /2 the lobe width is given by .
Synchrotron radiation
When the particle is relativistic, v u c, the denominator in Equation (8.157)
on the preceding page becomes very small if sin cos 1, which defines the
forward direction of the particle motion ( /2, 0). Equation (8.157) on
the previous page then becomes
dU rad (/2, 0) 0 q0 2 v 2
1
=
0
2
dt
16 c 1 v 4
c
(8.162)
which means that an observer near the orbit plane sees a very strong pulse
followed, half an orbit period later, by a much weaker pulse.
The two cases represented by Equation (8.161) on the preceding page and
Equation (8.162) above are very important results since they can be used to
determine the characteristics of the particle motion both in particle accelerators
and in astrophysical objects where a direct measurement of particle velocities
are impossible.
In the orbit plane ( = /2), Equation (8.157) on the preceding page gives
4
2
v
v
dU rad (/2, ) 0 q0 2 v 2 3 1 c cos . 1 c2 / sin
=
5
dt0
162 c
1 v cos 4
2
(8.163)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
145
A RBITRARY M OTION
cos 0 =
sin 0 =
(8.164a)
1
v2
c2
(8.164b)
1
2
1 vc2
1,
v2
1,
c2
(8.165)
v2 1
=
c2
(8.166)
Hence, synchrotron radiation from ultra-relativistic charges is characterized by a radiation lobe width which is approximately
(8.167)
This angular interval is swept by the charge during the time interval
t0 =
(8.168)
(8.169)
in the direction toward the observer who therefore measures a pulse width of
length
l
vt0
v
v
v 1
= t0
= . 1 / t0 = . 1 /
. 1 /
c
c
c
c 0
c 0
v4
v4
2
1 c 1+ c 1
v
1
1 1
3v
= 3
1 2
= 3
0 L MEN c O 20 2 0
1+
L MEN cO
1/2
2
t = t0
146
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
(8.170)
As a general rule, the spectral width of a pulse of length t is u 1/t.
In the ultra-relativistic synchrotron case one can therefore expect frequency
components up to
1
= 23 0
(8.171)
t
A spectral analysis of the radiation pulse will exhibit Fourier components n 0
from n = 1 up to n 23 .
When N electrons are contributing to the radiation, we can discern between
three situations:
max
1. All electrons are very close to each other so that the individual phase
differences are negligible. The power will be multiplied by N 2 relative
to a single electron and we talk about coherent radiation.
2. The electrons are perfectly evenly distributed in the orbit. This is the
case, for instance, for electrons in a circular current in a conductor. In
this case the radiation fields cancel completely and no far fields are generated.
3. The electrons are unevenly distributed in the orbit. This happens
for an
i
(x x0 )
|x x0 | v
c
v
(8.172)
Integration over the solid angle gives the totally radiated power as
2
2
dU rad 0 q0 2 v 2 1 vc2 sin
=
3
dt0
6c
. 1 cv22 /
(8.173)
8.3
R ADIATION
L OCALISED C HARGE
FROM A
vt
IN
q0
147
A RBITRARY M OTION
v = v x
|x x0 |
B
E z
F IGURE 8.8: The perpendicular field of a charge q0 moving with velocity
v = v x is E z.
Virtual photons
According to Formula (8.100) on page 131 and Figure 8.8,
E = Ez =
q0
40 s3
v2
(x x0 ) x 3
c2
(8.174)
b
q0
40 2 (vt)2 + b2 /2
(8.175)
3/2
This represents a contracted field, approaching the field of a plane wave. The
passage of this field pulse corresponds to a frequency distribution of the field
energy. Fourier transforming, we obtain
E, =
1
2
E (t) eit dt =
q
42
0 bv
k
b
K1
v
b
v
(8.176)
Here, K1 is the Kelvin function (Bessel function of the second kind with imaginary argument) which behaves in such a way for small and large arguments
that
q
E, 2
, b v
(8.177a)
4 0 bv
E, 0, b v
(8.177b)
showing that the pulse length is of the order b/(v).
148
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
Due to the equipartition of the field energy into the electric and magnetic
fields, the total field energy can be written
U = 0
2 3
E
d x = 0
bmax
bmin
2
E
vdt 2b db
(8.178)
where the volume integration is over the plane perpendicular to v. With the
use of Parsevals identity for Fourier transforms, Formula (7.35) on page 105,
we can rewrite this as
U=
q2
22 0 v
v/
bmin
bmax
U d = 40 v
2
E, d 2b db
(8.179)
bmin
db
d
b
v
q2
ln
2
2 0 v
bmin
(8.180)
c
d
2
ln
bmin
(8.181)
d
2
c
ln .
p1 p01 /
(8.182)
E1 cp1 cp01
m0 c2 E1 E10
(8.183)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
149
A RBITRARY M OTION
(8.184)
B = (t, x)H = m 0 H
(8.185)
E+ B = 0
t
B = 0
H D = j(t, x)
t
(8.186a)
(8.186b)
(8.186c)
(8.186d)
Assuming for simplicity that the electric permittivity and the magnetic
permeability , and hence the relative permittivity and the relative permeability m all have fixed values, independent on time and space, for each type
of material we consider, we can derive the general telegraphers equation [cf.
Equation (2.33) on page 29]
E
2 E
2 E
=0
2
t
t2
(8.187)
=0
2
t2
(8.188)
0 m 0
m
(8.189)
150
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
i = 1, 2, 3
(8.190)
(8.191)
k k k = kv =
v
v v
(8.192)
(8.193)
where now k is the wave vector in the medium given by Equation (8.192).
With these definitions, the vacuum formula for the associated magnetic field,
Equation (2.40) on page 30,
1
1
kE = kE
B = k E =
v
(8.194)
(8.195)
v =
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
151
A RBITRARY M OTION
where, in the last step, we used Equation (8.192) on the facing page.
If the medium has a refractive index which, as is usually the case, dependent on frequency , we say that the medium is dispersive. Because in this
case also k() and (k), so that the group velocity
vg =
(8.196)
has a unique value for each frequency component, and is different from v .
Except in regions of anomalous dispersion, v is always smaller than c. In
a gas of free charges, such as a plasma, the refractive index is given by the
expression
2p
2
(8.197)
N q2
0 m
(8.198)
n2 () = 1
where
2p =
is the plasma frequency. Here m and N denote the mass and number density,
respectively, of charged particle species . In an inhomogeneous plasma, N =
N (x) so that the refractive index and also the phase and group velocities are
space dependent. As can be easily seen, for each given frequency, the phase
and group velocities in a plasma are different from each other. If the frequency
is such that it coincides with p at some point in the medium, then at that
point v while vg 0 and the wave Fourier component at is reflected
there.
Vavilov-Cerenkov
radiation
As we saw in Subsection 8.1, a charge in uniform, rectilinear motion in vacuum does not give rise to any radiation; see in particular Equation (8.98a) on
page 131. Let us now consider a charge in uniform, rectilinear motion in a
medium with electric properties which are different from those of a (classical)
vacuum. Specifically, consider a medium where
= Const > 0
(8.199a)
= 0
(8.199b)
c
1
=
<c
n
0
(8.200)
152
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
Hence, in this particular medium, the speed of propagation of (the phase planes
of) electromagnetic waves is less than the speed of light in vacuum, which we
know is an absolute limit for the motion of anything, including particles. A
medium of this kind has the interesting property that particles, entering into
the medium at high speeds |v|, which, of course, are below the phase speed
in vacuum, can experience that the particle speeds are higher than the phase
A(t, x) =
q0
1 q0
1
=
40 |x x0 | n (xx0 )v 40 s
c
1
q0 v
1 q0 v
=
40 c2 |x x0 | n (xx0 )v 40 c2 s
c
(8.201a)
(8.201b)
where now
(x x0 ) v
0
s = xx n
(8.202)
The need for the absolute value of the expression for s is obvious in the case
when v/c 1/n because then the second term can be larger than the first term;
if v/c 1/n we recover the well-known vacuum case but with modified phase
speed. We also note that the retarded and advanced times in the medium are
[cf. Equation (3.35) on page 43]
k |x x0 |
|x x0 | n
= t
c
0
k |x x0 |
|x x0 | n
0
0
tadv = tadv (t, x x ) = t +
= t+
c
0
0
tret
= tret
(t, x x0 ) = t
(8.203a)
(8.203b)
so that the usual time interval t t 0 between the time measured at the point of
observation and the retarded time in a medium becomes
t t0 =
|x x0 | n
c
(8.204)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
A RBITRARY M OTION
q0
153
x(t)
x0 (t0 )
For v/c 1/n, the retarded distance s, and therefore the denominators in
Equations (8.201) on the preceding page vanish when
n(x x0 )
nv
v
= x x0
cos c = x x0
c
c
(8.205)
c
nv
(8.206)
In the direction defined by this angle c , the potentials become singular. During
the time interval t t0 given by expression (8.204) on the facing page, the field
exists within a sphere of radius |x x0 | around the particle while the particle
moves a distance
l = v(t t0 )
(8.207)
c
nv
(8.208)
154
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
The Vavilov-Cerenkov
cone is similar in nature to the Mach cone in acoustics.
In order to make some quantitative estimates of this radiation, we note that
we can describe the motion of each charged particle q0 as a current density:
j = q0 v (x0 vt0 ) = q0 v (x0 vt0 )(y0 )(z0 ) x 1
(8.209)
40 nc
(j k)e
ikx0 3 0
V
q0 2 n2
=
exp i
163 0 c3
dx
2
2
x0
kx0 cos
dx0 sin2 d
v
(8.212)
in 1934,
who was then a post-graduate student in S. I. Vavilovs research group at the Lebedev Institute
in Moscow. Vavilov wrote a manuscript with the experimental findings, put Cerenkov
as the
author, and submitted it to Nature. In the manuscript, Vavilov explained the results in terms of
radioactive particles creating Compton electrons which gave rise to the radiation (which was
the correct interpretation), but the paper was rejected. The paper was then sent to Physical
Review and was, after some controversy with the American editors who claimed the results to
be wrong, eventually published in 1937. In the same year, I. E. Tamm and I. M. Frank published
the theory for the effect (the singing electron). In fact, predictions of a similar effect had been
made as early as 1888 by Heaviside, and by Sommerfeld in his 1904 paper Radiating body
moving with velocity of light. On May 8, 1937, Sommerfeld sent a letter to Tamm via Austria,
saying that he was surprised that his old 1904 ideas were now becoming interesting. Tamm,
of the Cerenkov
effect [V. L. Ginzburg, private communication].
The first observation of this type of radiation was reported by Marie Curie in 1910, but she
never pursued the exploration of it [7].
8.3
R ADIATION
L OCALISED C HARGE
FROM A
IN
155
A RBITRARY M OTION
where is the angle between the direction of motion, x 01 , and the direction to
The integral in (8.212) is singular of a Dirac delta type. If
the observer, k.
we limit the spatial extent of the motion of the particle to the closed interval
[X, X] on the x0 axis we can evaluate the integral to obtain
4 X
q0 2 n2 sin2 sin2 1 nv
c cos v
3
d
2
43 0 c3
1 nvc cos 4 v
Urad d =
(8.213)
3
q0 2 n2 sin2 c
22 0 c3
sin2
7v. 1 + nvc /
7E. 1 + nvc / v 8
X
v
2
Urad () d
(8.214)
sin c
1
1
sin2
7E. 1 + nvc /
7v. 1 + nvc / v 8
X
v
2
d 1
=
c2
cX
n2 v2 n
sin2 x
dx
2
x
(8.215)
c2
cX
1 n2 v2
n
leading to the final approximate result for the total energy loss in the frequency
interval (, + d)
q0 2 X
U rad d =
20 c2
c2
d
n2 v2
(8.216)
c2
d
n2 ()v2
(8.217)
156
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
This result was derived under the assumption that v/c > 1/n(), i.e., under the
condition that the expression inside the parentheses in the right hand side is
positive. For all media it is true that n() 1 when , so there exist al
ways a highest frequency for which we can obtain Vavilov-Cerenkov
radiation
from a fast charge in a medium. Our derivation above for a fixed value of n is
valid for each individual Fourier component.
Bibliography
[1] R. B ECKER, Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions, Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9.
[2] M. B ORN AND E. W OLF, Principles of Optics. Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light, sixth ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford,. . . , 1980, ISBN 0-08-026481-6.
[3] V. L. G INZBURG, Applications of Electrodynamics in Theoretical Physics
and Astrophysics, Revised third ed., Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,
New York, London, Paris, Montreux, Tokyo and Melbourne, 1989, ISBN 288124-719-9.
[4] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
[5] J. B. M ARION AND M. A. H EALD, Classical Electromagnetic Radiation, second ed., Academic Press, Inc. (London) Ltd., Orlando, . . . , 1980, ISBN 0-12472257-1.
[6] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[7] J. S CHWINGER , L. L. D E R AAD , J R ., K. A. M ILTON , AND W. T SAI, Classical
Electrodynamics, Perseus Books, Reading, MA, 1998, ISBN 0-7382-0056-5.
[8] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
[9] J. VANDERLINDE, Classical Electromagnetic Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, and Singapore, 1993, ISBN 0-47157269-1.
F
Formulae
(F.1)
B = 0
(F.2)
E =
(F.3)
B
t
H = j+ D
t
(F.4)
Constitutive relations
D = E
B
H=
(F.5)
j = E
(F.7)
P = 0 E
(F.8)
(F.6)
(F.9)
A
t
(F.10)
157
158
F ORMULAE
1
=0
c2 t
(F.11)
(F.12)
(F.13)
k E
c
(F.14)
Brad
(x) =
(F.15)
(F.16)
(F.17)
(F.18)
F.3
159
S PECIAL R ELATIVITY
Brad
(x) =
(F.19)
(F.20)
Brad
(x) =
(F.21)
(F.22)
x
)
1
+ (x x0 )
0
40 s3
c2
c2
E(t, x)
B(t, x) = (x x0 )
c|x x0 |
E(t, x) =
s = x x0 (x x0 )
v
c
x x0 = (x x0 ) |x x0 |
t0
t
=
x
|x x0 |
s
(F.23)
(F.24)
(F.25)
v
c
(F.26)
(F.27)
(x
x
)
0
40 s3
c2
v E(t, x)
B(t, x) =
c2
E(t, x) =
s=
|x x0 |2
(x x0 ) v
c
(F.28)
(F.29)
(F.30)
160
F ORMULAE
@AAB
CEDD
1 0
0
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1 0 F
0 0
0 1
(F.31)
(F.32)
CEDD
0 0
0 0
= @A
AB 0 0 1 0F
0
0
0 1
1
= :
1 2
v
=
c
(F.33)
(F.34)
(F.35)
(F.36)
dt
= c d
(F.37)
F.3.5 Four-velocity
u =
dx
= (c, v)
d
(F.38)
F.3.6 Four-momentum
p = m0 cu =
E
,p
c
(F.39)
F.4
161
V ECTOR R ELATIONS
(F.40)
F.3.8 Four-potential
A =
,A
c
(F.41)
CEDD
@AAB
0
E x /c Ey /c Ez /c
E x /c
0
Bz
By
Ey /c
Bz
0
B x F
Ez /c
By
Bx
0
(F.42)
x i
i=1
def
def
x i
xi
xi
(F.43)
,
,
=
x1 x2 x3
, ,
x y z
(F.44)
= sin x 1 + cos x 2
(F.45a)
(F.45b)
(F.45c)
162
F ORMULAE
(F.46a)
(F.46b)
x 3 = cos r sin
(F.46c)
(F.47)
(F.48)
(F.49)
Volume element
d3x = dV = drdS = r2 dr d
(F.50)
(F.51)
a (b c) = (a b) c
(F.53)
a b = b a = i jk a j bk x i
(F.52)
a (b c) = b(a c) c(a b)
(F.54)
(F.56)
a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b) = 0
(F.55)
(a b) (c d) = (a b d)c (a b c)d
(F.57)
F.4
163
V ECTOR R ELATIONS
(F.58)
(a) = a + a
(F.59)
(a b) = b ( a) a ( b)
(F.61)
(a) = a a
(a b) = a( b) b( a) + (b )a (a )b
(a b) = a ( b) + b ( a) + (b )a + (a )b
(F.60)
(F.62)
(F.63)
(F.64)
= 0
(F.65)
( a) = 0
(F.66)
2
( a) = ( a) a
(F.67)
Special identities
In the following k is an arbitrary constant vector while x, as before, is the
radius vector.
x = 3
x = 0
x
|x| =
|x|
1
x
= 3
|x|
|x|
x
1
= 2
= 4(x)
3
|x|
|x|
kx
k
1
= k
= 3
|x|
|x|
|x|
x
kx
=
if |x| 6= 0
k
|x|3
|x|3
k
1
= k2
= 4k(x)
2
|x|
|x|
(k a) = k( a) + k ( a) (k a)
(F.68)
(F.69)
(F.70)
(F.71)
(F.72)
(F.73)
(F.74)
(F.75)
(F.76)
Integral relations
Let V(S ) be the volume bounded by the closed surface S (V). Denote the 3dimensional volume element by d3x( dV) and the surface element, directed
164
F ORMULAE
( a) d3x =
() d3x =
dS a
dS
(F.77)
(F.78)
( a) d3x =
dS a
(F.79)
If S (C) is an open surface bounded by the contour C(S ), whose line element is dl, then
dl =
a dl =
dS
dS ( a)
(F.80)
(F.81)
Bibliography
[1] G. B. A RFKEN AND H. J. W EBER, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, fourth,
international ed., Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA . . . , 1995, ISBN 0-12059816-7.
[2] P. M. M ORSE AND H. F ESHBACH, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1953, ISBN 07-043316-8.
[3] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
M
Mathematical
Methods
M.1 Scalars, Vectors and Tensors
Every physical observable can be described by a geometric object. We will
describe the observables in classical electrodynamics mathematically in terms
of scalars, pseudoscalars, vectors, pseudovectors, tensors or pseudotensors and
will not exploit differential forms to any significant degree.
A scalar describes a scalar quantity which may or may not be constant in
time and/or space. A vector describes some kind of physical motion due to
vection and a tensor describes the motion or deformation due to some form of
tension. However, generalisations to more abstract notions of these quantities
are commonplace. The difference between a scalar, vector and tensor and a
pseudoscalar, pseudovector and a pseudotensor is that the latter behave differently under such coordinate transformations which cannot be reduced to pure
rotations.
Throughout we adopt the convention that Latin indices i, j, k, l, . . . run over
the range 1, 2, 3 to denote vector or tensor components in the real Euclidean
three-dimensional (3D) configuration space 3 , and Greek indices , , , , . . . ,
which are used in four-dimensional (4D) space, run over the range 0, 1, 2, 3.
M.1.1 Vectors
Radius vector
Any vector can be represented mathematically in several different ways. One
suitable representation is in terms of an ordered N-tuple, or row vector, of the
coordinates xN where N is the dimensionality of the space under consideration. The most basic vector is the radius vector which is the vector from the
origin to the point of interest. Its N-tuple representation simply enumerates the
coordinates which describe this point. In this sense, the radius vector from the
origin to a point is synonymous with the coordinates of the point itself.
165
166
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
x = x i xi x i xi
def
(M.1)
i=1
xi (x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x, y, z)
(M.2)
x (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )
(M.3)
x (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )
(M.4)
x0
dx
x
(M.5)
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
167
T ENSORS
M.1.2 Fields
A field is a physical entity which depends on one or more continuous parameters. Such a parameter can be viewed as a continuous index which enumerates the coordinates of the field. In particular, in a field which depends on
the usual radius vector x of 3 , each point in this space can be considered as
one degree of freedom so that a field is a representation of a physical entity
which has an infinite number of degrees of freedom.
Scalar fields
We denote an arbitrary scalar field in
by
def
(M.6)
(x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x )
(M.7)
which indicates that the four-scalar depends on all four coordinates spanning
this space. Since a four-scalar has the same value at a given point regardless
of coordinate system, it is also called an invariant.
Analogous to the transformation rule, Equation (M.5) on the preceding
page, for the differential dx , the transformation rule for the differential operator /x under a transformation x x0 becomes
x
=
x0 x0 x
(M.8)
Vector fields
We can represent an arbitrary vector field a(x) in
as follows:
a(x) = x i ai (x)
(M.9)
(M.10)
168
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
(M.11)
(M.12)
x0
y
x
(M.13)
x
y
x0
(M.14)
Tensor fields
We denote an arbitrary tensor field in 3 by A(x). This tensor field can be
represented in a number of ways, for instance in the following matrix form:
A(x) =
B@
Ai j (xk ) 4
def
(M.15)
where, in the last member, we have again used the more compact component
notation. Strictly speaking, the tensor field described here is a tensor of rank
two.
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
169
T ENSORS
0 if i 6= j
1 if i = j
(M.16)
B@
(i j ) =
1 0 0
0 1 0F
0 0 1
(M.17)
i jk =
>
=?
<=
1
0
1
(M.18)
(M.19)
In fact, tensors may have any rank n. In this picture a scalar is considered
to be a tensor of rank n = 0 and a vector a tensor of rank n = 1. Consequently,
the notation where a vector (tensor) is represented in its component form is
called the tensor notation. A tensor of rank n = 2 may be represented by a twodimensional array or matrix whereas higher rank tensors are best represented
in their component forms (tensor notation).
In 4D, we have three forms of four-tensor fields of rank n. We speak of
a contravariant four-tensor field, denoted A1 2 ...n (x ),
a covariant four-tensor field, denoted A1 2 ...n (x ),
...
a (x ) g a (x )
(M.20)
170
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
This rule is often called lowering of index. The raising of index analogue of
the index lowering rule is:
def
a (x ) g a (x )
(M.21)
More generally, the following lowering and raising rules hold for arbitrary
rank n mixed tensor fields:
1 2 ...k1
2 ...k1 k
gk k A1k+1
k+2 ...n (x ) = Ak k+1 ...n (x )
(M.22)
1 2 ...k1 k
2 ...k1
gk k A1k k+1
...n (x ) = Ak+1 k+2 ...n (x )
(M.23)
Successive lowering and raising of more than one index is achieved by a repeated application of this rule. For example, a dual application of the lowering
operation on a rank 2 tensor in contravariant form yields
A = g g A
(M.24)
i.e., the same rank 2 tensor in covariant form. This operation is also known as
a tensor contraction.
E XAMPLE M.1
T ENSORS IN 3D SPACE
(M.25)
Using (M.25) and Newtons second law, we find that the matter of mass m, which at a
given instant is located in V obeys the equation of motion
T nd2x cos 1 T x1 d2x cos 2 T x2 d2x cos 3 T x3 d2x + Fext = ma
(M.26)
where Fext is the external force and a is the acceleration of the volume element. In
other words
m
Fext
T n= n1 T x1 + n2 T x2 + n3 T x3 + 2 a
(M.27)
dx
m
Since both a and Fext /m remain finite whereas m/d2x 0 as V 0, one finds that in
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
171
T ENSORS
x3
d2x
x2
V
x1
F IGURE M.1: Terahedron-like volume element V containing matter.
this limit
3
T n= ni T xi ni T xi
(M.28)
i=1
From the above derivation it is clear that Equation (M.28) above is valid not only in
equilibrium but also when the matter in V is in motion.
Introducing the notation
T i j = T xi
(M.29)
for the jth component of the vector T xi , we can write Equation (M.28) in component
form as follows
3
T nj= (T n) j = ni T i j ni T i j
(M.30)
i=1
Using Equation (M.30) above, we find that the component of the vector Tn in the
172
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
= T n m
j j=
j=1
j=1
ni T i j t
(M.31)
m j ni T i j m j = n T
m
i=1
Hence, the jth component of the vector T xi , here denoted T i j , can be interpreted as the
i jth component of a tensor T. Note that T n mis independent of the particular coordinate
system used in the derivation.
We shall now show how one can use the momentum law (force equation) to derive
the equation of motion for an arbitrary element of mass in the body. To this end we
consider a part V of the body. If the external force density (force per unit volume) is
denoted by f and the velocity for a mass element dm is denoted by v, we obtain
d
dt
v dm =
V
V f d x + S T nd x
(M.32)
V dt v j dm = V f j d x + S T njd x = V f j d x + S ni Ti j d x
(M.33)
where, in the last step, Equation (M.30) on the preceding page was used. Setting
dm = d3x and using the divergence theorem on the last term, we can rewrite the
result as
V
d
v j d3x =
dt
f j d3x +
V
T i j 3
dx
xi
(M.34)
Since this formula is valid for any arbitrary volume, we must require that
T i j
d
vj fj
=0
dt
xi
(M.35)
or, equivalently
T i j
v j
+ v v j f j
=0
t
xi
(M.36)
Note that v j /t is the rate of change with time of the velocity component v j at a fixed
point x = (x1 , x1 , x3 ).
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.1C
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
173
T ENSORS
(M.37)
(M.38)
where we made use of the index lowering and raising rules (M.20) and (M.21).
The result is a four-scalar, i.e., an invariant which is independent of in which
inertial system it is measured.
The quadratic differential form
ds2 = g dx dx = dx dx
(M.39)
i.e., the scalar product of the differential radius four-vector with itself, is an
invariant called the metric. It is also the square of the line element ds which is
the distance between neighbouring points with coordinates x and x + dx .
I NNER PRODUCTS IN
E XAMPLE M.2
6 ),
expressed in terms of
(M.40)
def
(M.41)
(M.42)
Using this in Equation (M.40), we see that we can interpret this so that the complex
174
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
unit vector is
A
A= =
A
aR
aR + i
aI
aR + i
aI
aI
(M.43)
On the other hand, the definition of the scalar product in terms of the inner product of
complex vector with its own complex conjugate yields
def
(M.44)
aR
a2R + a2I
aR + i
aR w a2R + a2I
a2R + a2I
aI
a2R + a2I
aR + i
aI
aI w a2R + a2I
a2R + a2I
(M.45)
aI
E ND OF
E XAMPLE M.3
METRIC IN
EXAMPLE
M.2C
L ORENTZ SPACE
In x 4 the metric tensor attains a simple form [see Equation (4.10) on page 51 for an
example] and, hence, the scalar product in Equation (M.38) on the preceding page can
be evaluated almost trivially and becomes
a b = (a0 , a) (b0 , b) = a0 b0 a b
(M.46)
x 4.
The
(M.47)
4
(M.48)
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.3C
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
175
T ENSORS
E XAMPLE M.4
""#
g =
e
0
0
0
0
e
0
0
0
0
r2
0
0
0
*&
0
2
2
r sin
((
(M.49)
where = (ct, r, , ) and = (ct, r, , ). In such a space, the metric takes the form
ds2 = c2 e (dt)2 e (dr)2 r2 (d)2 r2 sin2 (d)2
(M.50)
In general relativity the metric tensor is not given a priori but is determined by the
Einstein equations.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.4C
Dyadic product
The dyadic product field A(x) a(x)b(x) with two juxtaposed vector fields
a(x) and b(x) is the outer product of a and b. Operating on this dyad from the
right and from the left with an inner product of an vector c one obtains
def
def
def
def
A c ab c a(b c)
(M.51a)
c A c ab (c a)b
(M.51b)
x 2
x 3 4
B@
a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3
a1 b2 a2 b2 a2 b3 F
a1 b3 a3 b2 a3 b3
B@
x 1
x 2 F
x 3
(M.52)
which means that we can represent the tensor A(x) in matrix form as
3 Ai j (xk )
B@
a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3
a1 b2 a2 b2 a2 b3 F
a1 b3 a3 b2 a3 b3
(M.53)
which we identify with expression (M.15) on page 168, viz. a tensor in matrix
notation.
176
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
Vector product
The vector product or cross product of two arbitrary 3D vectors a and b in
ordinary 3 space is the vector
c = a b = i jk a j bk x i
(M.54)
x i
def
xi
(M.55)
where x i is the ith unit vector in a Cartesian coordinate system. Since the
operator in itself has vectorial properties, we denote it with a boldface nabla.
In component notation we can write
i =
,
,
x1 x2 x3
(M.56)
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
177
T ENSORS
(M.57)
(M.58)
(M.59)
y0 = 0 x 4 y
(M.60)
and
respectively.
In x
E XAMPLE M.5
1
, =
c t
1
,
c t
(M.61)
1
, =
c t
1
,
c t
(M.62)
p
1 2
2 =
c2 t2
(M.63)
, and sometimes defined with
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.5C
178
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
With the help of the del operator we can define the gradient, divergence
and curl of a tensor (in the generalised sense).
The gradient
The gradient of an
a(x):
vector field
(M.64)
From this we see that the boldface notation for the nabla and del operators is
very handy as it elucidates the 3D vectorial property of the gradient.
In 4D, the four-gradient is a covariant vector, formed as a derivative of a
four-scalar field (x ), with the following component form:
(x ) =
E XAMPLE M.6
G RADIENTS OF
(x )
x
(M.65)
3D
Very often electrodynamic quantities are dependent on the relative distance in 3 between two vectors x and x0 , i.e., on |x x0 |. In analogy with Equation (M.55) on
page 176, we can define the primed del operator in the following way:
0 = xi 0 = 0
xi
(M.66)
Using this, the unprimed version, Equation (M.55) on page 176, and elementary
rules of differentiation, we obtain the following two very useful results:
|x x0 |
x x0
|x x0 |
|x x0 | = xi
=
=
x
i
xi
|x x0 |
x0i
(M.67)
= 0 |x x0 |
and
1
x x0
=
= 0
0
|x x0 |3
|x x |
1
|x x0 |
(M.68)
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.6C
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
179
T ENSORS
The divergence
We define the 3D divergence of a vector field in
a(x) = x j a j (x) = i j i a j (x) = i ai (x) =
as
ai (x)
= (x)
xi
(M.69)
a (x )
x
(M.70)
D IVERGENCE IN 3D
For an arbitrary
0
E XAMPLE M.7
a(x0 )
0 a(x0 )
=
+ a(x0 ) 0
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
1
|x x0 |
(M.71)
which demonstrates how the primed divergence, defined in terms of the primed
del operator in Equation (M.66) on the preceding page, works.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.7C
The Laplacian
The 3D Laplace operator or Laplacian can be described as the divergence of
the gradient operator:
2 = = =
2
2
x i x j
= i j i j = 2i = 2 2
xi
x j
xi i=1 xi
(M.72)
The symbol 2 is sometimes read del squared. If, for a scalar field (x),
2 < 0 at some point in 3D space, it is a sign of concentration of at that
point.
180
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
T HE L APLACIAN AND
E XAMPLE M.8
D IRAC DELTA
THE
1
= 2
|x x0 |
is
1
= 4(x x0 )
|x x0 |
(M.73)
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.8C
The curl
In 3 the curl of a vector field a(x), denoted a(x), is another
b(x) which can be defined in the following way:
a(x) = i jk x i j ak (x) = i jk x i
ak (x)
= b(x)
x j
vector field
(M.74)
where use was made of the Levi-Civita tensor, introduced in Equation (M.18)
on page 169.
The covariant 4D generalisation of the curl of a four-vector field a (x ) is
the antisymmetric four-tensor field
G (x ) = a (x ) a (x ) = G (x )
(M.75)
T HE
CURL OF A GRADIENT
Using the definition of the 3 curl, Equation (M.74) above, and the gradient, Equation (M.64) on page 178, we see that
[(x)] = i jk xi j k (x)
(M.76)
(x) xi
x j xk
2
2
(x) x1
x2 x3 x3 x2
2
2
(x) x2
x3 x1 x1 x3
2
2
(x) x3
x1 x2 x2 x1
(M.77)
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
181
T ENSORS
(M.78)
(M.79)
3.
T HE DIVERGENCE OF
EXAMPLE
M.9C
E XAMPLE M.10
A CURL
With the use of the definitions of the divergence (M.69) and the curl, Equation (M.74)
on the preceding page, we find that
[ a(x)] = i [ a(x)]i = i jk i j ak (x)
(M.80)
Using the definition for the Levi-Civita symbol, defined by Equation (M.18) on
page 169, we find that, due to the assumed well-behavedness of a(x),
i i jk j ak (x) =
=
i jk
ak
xi
x j
2
2
a1 (x)
x2 x3 x3 x2
2
2
a2 (x)
x3 x1 x1 x3
2
2
a3 (x)
x1 x2 x2 x1
(M.81)
0
i.e., that
[ a(x)] 0
(M.82)
a (x ) 6= 0
(M.83)
E ND OF EXAMPLE M.10C
182
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
Numerous vector algebra and vector analysis formulae are given in Chapter F. Those which are not found there can often be easily derived by using the
component forms of the vectors and tensors, together with the Kronecker and
Levi-Civita tensors and their generalisations to higher ranks. A short but very
useful reference in this respect is the article by A. Evett [3].
dqi
,t = T V
dt
(M.84)
where qi is the generalised coordinate, T the kinetic energy and V the potential energy of a mechanical system, The Lagrangian satisfies the Lagrange
equations
L
L
=0
q i
qi
(M.85)
L
q i
(M.86)
(M.87)
(M.88)
After differentiating the left and right hand sides of this definition and setting
them equal we obtain
H
H
H
L
L
L
dpi +
dqi +
dt = q i dpi + pi dq i
dqi
dq i dt (M.89)
pi
qi
t
qi
q i
t
M.2
183
B IBLIOGRAPHY
(M.90a)
(M.90b)
Bibliography
[1] G. B. A RFKEN AND H. J. W EBER, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, fourth,
international ed., Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA . . . , 1995, ISBN 0-12059816-7.
[2] R. A. D EAN, Elements of Abstract Algebra, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1967, ISBN 0-471-20452-8.
[3] A. A. E VETT, Permutation symbol approach to elementary vector analysis,
American Journal of Physics, 34 (1965), pp. 503507.
[4] P. M. M ORSE AND H. F ESHBACH, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1953, ISBN 07-043316-8.
[5] B. S PAIN, Tensor Calculus, third ed., Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., Edinburgh and London, 1965, ISBN 05-001331-9.
[6] W. E. T HIRRING, Classical Mathematical Physics, Springer-Verlag, New York,
Vienna, 1997, ISBN 0-387-94843-0.
184
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
Index
acceleration field, 127
advanced time, 43
Ampres law, 5
Ampre-turn density, 89
anisotropic, 150
anomalous dispersion, 151
antisymmetric tensor, 63
associated Legendre polynomial, 115
associative, 55
axial gauge, 40
axial vector, 63, 176
contravariant vector, 50
convection potential, 134
convective derivative, 11
cosine integral, 109
Coulomb gauge, 40
Coulombs law, 2
covariant, 48
covariant component form, 166
covariant field tensor, 64
covariant four-tensor field, 169
covariant four-vector, 168
covariant four-vector field, 54
covariant vector, 50
cross product, 176
curl, 180
cutoff, 140
cyclotron radiation, 143, 146
185
186
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
electric conductivity, 10
field Lagrange density, 79
electric current density, 6
field point, 3
electric dipole moment, 117
field quantum, 141
electric dipole moment vector, 85
fine structure constant, 141, 148
electric dipole radiation, 118
four-current, 59
electric displacement, 14
four-del operator, 177
electric displacement vector, 87
four-dimensional Hamilton equations,
electric field, 2
71
electric field energy, 91
four-dimensional vector space, 50
electric monopole moment, 85
four-divergence, 179
electric permittivity, 149
four-gradient, 178
electric polarisation, 86
four-Hamiltonian, 70
electric quadrupole moment tensor, 86
four-Lagrangian, 68
electric quadrupole radiation, 120
four-momentum, 57
electric quadrupole tensor, 120
four-potential, 59
electric susceptibility, 87
four-scalar, 167
electric volume force, 92
four-tensor fields, 169
electrodynamic potentials, 36
four-vector, 54, 168
electromagnetic field tensor, 63
four-velocity, 57
electromagnetic scalar potential, 37
Fourier component, 25
electromagnetic vector potential, 37
Fourier transform, 41
electromagnetodynamic equations, 16
functional derivative, 76
electromagnetodynamics, 16
fundamental tensor, 50, 166, 169
electromotive force (EMF), 10
Galileos law, 47
electrostatic scalar potential, 35
gauge fixing, 40
electrostatics, 1
gauge function, 39
energy theorem in Maxwells theory,
gauge invariant, 39
91
gauge transformation, 39
equation of continuity, 9, 59
equation of continuity for magnetic monopoles, Gausss law, 4
general inhomogeneous wave equations,
16
37
equations of classical electrostatics, 8
generalised coordinate, 70, 182
equations of classical magnetostatics,
generalised four-coordinate, 71
8
Gibbs notation, 176
Euclidean space, 56
gradient, 178
Euclidean vector space, 51
Greens function, 42
Euler-Lagrange equation, 77
Greens function, 115
Euler-Lagrange equations, 77
group theory, 55
Euler-Mascheroni constant, 109
group velocity, 151
event, 55
far field, 98
far zone, 101
Faradays law, 11
field, 167
Hamilton density, 78
Hamilton density equations, 78
Hamilton equations, 70, 183
Hamilton function, 182
187
Hamilton gauge, 40
Hamiltonian, 182
Heaviside potential, 134
Helmholtz theorem, 38
help vector, 114
Hertz method, 113
Hertz vector, 114
Hodge star operator, 16
homogeneous wave equation, 24
Huygens principle, 41
identity element, 55
in a medium, 152
incoherent radiation, 146
indefinite norm, 51
index contraction, 50
index lowering, 50
induction field, 98
inertial reference frame, 47
inertial system, 47
inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation, 41
inhomogeneous time-independent wave
equation, 41
inhomogeneous wave equation, 41
inner product, 173
instantaneous, 136
interaction Lagrange density, 79
intermediate field, 101
invariant, 167
invariant line element, 53
inverse element, 55
irrotational, 4, 180
Kelvin function, 147
kinetic energy, 75, 182
kinetic momentum, 73
Kronecker delta, 169
Lagrange density, 75
Lagrange equations, 182
Lagrange function, 75, 182
Lagrangian, 75, 182
Laplace operator, 179
Laplacian, 179
Larmor formula for radiated power, 136
law of inertia, 47
Legendre polynomial, 115
Legendre transformation, 182
Levi-Civita tensor, 169
Linard-Wiechert potentials, 62, 123,
133
light cone, 53
light-like interval, 53
line element, 173
linear mass density, 75
linearly polarised wave, 30
longitudinal component, 28
Lorentz boost parameter, 57
Lorentz equations, 39
Lorentz force, 13, 91, 133
Lorentz gauge, 40
Lorentz gauge condition, 38, 60
Lorentz inhomogeneous wave equations,
39
Lorentz space, 51, 166
Lorentz transformation, 49, 133
lowering of index, 170
M1 radiation, 119
Mach cone, 154
macroscopic Maxwell equations, 149
magnetic charge density, 15
magnetic current density, 15
magnetic dipole moment, 88, 119
magnetic dipole radiation, 119
magnetic field, 6
magnetic field energy, 91
magnetic field intensity, 89
magnetic flux, 11
magnetic flux density, 6
magnetic induction, 6
magnetic monopoles, 15
magnetic permeability, 149
magnetic susceptibility, 89
magnetisation, 88
magnetisation currents, 88
magnetising field, 14, 89
magnetostatic vector potential, 36
magnetostatics, 5
massive photons, 83
188
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
mathematical group, 55
matrix form, 168
Maxwell stress tensor, 92
Maxwells macroscopic equations, 15,
90
Maxwells microscopic equations, 14
Maxwell-Lorentz equations, 14
mechanical Lagrange density, 78
metric, 166, 173
metric tensor, 50, 166, 169
Minkowski equation, 70
Minkowski space, 56
mixed four-tensor field, 169
mixing angle, 16
momentum theorem in Maxwells theory, 93
monochromatic, 95
multipole expansion, 113, 116
near zone, 101
Newtons first law, 47
Newton-Lorentz force equation, 70
non-Euclidean space, 51
non-linear effects, 10
norm, 50, 174
null vector, 53
observation point, 3
Ohms law, 10
one-dimensional wave equation, 29
outer product, 175
Parsevals identity, 105, 140, 148
phase velocity, 149
photon, 141
physical measurable, 32
plane polarised wave, 30
plasma, 151
plasma frequency, 151
Poisson equation, 133
Poissons equation, 35
polar vector, 63, 176
polarisation charges, 87
polarisation currents, 88
polarisation potential, 114
189
Vavilov-Cerenkov
radiation, 152, 154
vector, 165
vector product, 176
velocity field, 127
virtual simultaneous coordinate, 124,
127
wave equations, 23
wave vector, 29, 150
world line, 55
Youngs modulus, 75
Yukawa meson field, 82