Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 1 9

www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Spatial conditional simulation of facies objects

for modeling complex clastic reservoirs
J.A. Vargas-Guzmn , Hisham Al-Qassab
Saudi Aramco, Reservoir Characterization Department, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia 31311
Received 21 July 2004; accepted 21 October 2004

Abstract
A novel methodology for object modeling of facies that links the concept of Boolean simulation to the geostatistical sequential
indicator simulation (SIS) is developed leading to new technology for sequential modeling of geo-objects. The developed approach
provides an algorithm for facies models honoring indicator variograms with object realizations. Results, based on stepwise
conditioning of various categories, allow for realizations of clastic facies in a complex faulted grid. This technology is applied to
modeling of a large clastic, faulted and pinched-out gas reservoir in Saudi Arabia.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Reservoir modeling; Object Boolean modeling; Categorical geostatistics

1. Introduction
In oil and gas reservoirs, continuous petrophysical
properties are frequently controlled by facies which are
modeled as discrete categories. It is usual practice to
simplify the modeling process by splitting the domain in
regions or sub-domains using categories. A sound way
for such a split is to simulate stochastic realizations of
facies or rock type categories to get regions that control
the simulation of petrophysical properties. In this way, a
petrophysical random field may be modeled with a
number of stationary random fields. Most facies have
geologic shapes and sizes that need to be included in the
modeling approach. As pointed out by Hatloy (1994), an
incorrect assessment of sand channels produces incorrect reserves assessment and misleading forecast of oil
production. Therefore, including facies categories in the
modeling process may allow handling of sedimentary
Corresponding author.
0920-4105/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.petrol.2006.06.007

uncertainty adding constraints to risk analysis of project

ventures. Thus, a sound and realistic approach for
simulation of sedimentary facies is required to later
guide the simulation of petrophysical properties.
Boolean methods offer a way to introduce morphological information in the facies model. The Boolean
method for simulation of objects representing categorical attributes has been recognized as a valuable
alternative for modeling of facies and rock types and
has been extensively studied by various authors (e.g.,
Haldorsen and Damsleth, 1988; Chautru, 1989; Gundeso and Egeland, 1990; Damsleth et al., 1990; Hatloy,
1994; Deutsch and Wang, 1996; Lantujoul, 1997). The
Boolean random set is defined as the union of identically
distributed random objects Ai, i = 1,2,,k and random
locations xi, i = 1,2,,m. This is:
k

B [ sXi Ai
i

where Xi is a displacement operator function of the

random location xi. Locations for the objects are usually

J.A. Vargas-Guzmn, H. Al-Qassab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 19

generated from a Poisson process characterized by its

intensity . Objects have n random characteristics Fi,
i = 1,2,,n for size and shape drawn from distributions.
This means that the Boolean model is defined by its
hitting functional which provides the joint probability of
locations and object parameters (Chiles and Delfiner,
1999; Lantujoul, 2002).
One of the advantages of using Boolean methods is
that the shape of objects resembles actual geological
entities, such as channels, deltas, shorebars, dunes and
others. Complete examples for clastic facies of sand
channels and less permeable crevasse splays are in Hatloy
(1994) and Deutsch and Wang (1996). Boolean methods
require a complete and realistic statistical interpretation of
the characteristics of objects and the quality of a facies
model depends on the geological and statistical description of the size and shape distribution of objects.
The Boolean realizations are basically unconditional
to well data. To address conditioning, authors have
developed techniques to reject or swap objects to
converge towards a realization that honors data values
and resembles proportions, transition probabilities or
indicator variograms. The approach for such conditioning is usually simulated annealing (Metropolis et al.,
1953; Hasting, 1970). The major drawback of iterative
approaches is the time needed for convergence and the
difficulties associated to handling various categories.
Deutsch and Wang (1996) provide an example for object
modeling of fluvial reservoirs where conditioning is
done with an objective function based on proportions
and well data using the annealing approach. As it is well
known, the limitation of using perturbation algorithms
and annealing is the large computational time required
for convergence. Moreover, trying to use such conditioning for a number of object categories can make the
problem cumbersome and even impossible to converge
to a solution in a reasonable time frame. For this reason,
object modeling methods are usually avoided. Another
approach for modeling of geologic shapes is multipoint
geostatistics (Guardiano and Srivastava, 1993; Strebelle,
2002). One may assume that high order relations should
lead to realizations with high control on the shape of
facies. Moreover, developing an approach of second
moment geostatistics for object based models may also
lead to higher moment considerations between objects.
From the above, one can recognize that an object
simulation approach capable of simultaneous conditioning during object generation without recurring to
iteration methodologies is needed. Additionally, handling several categories is an issue that must be resolved
for emulating realistic sedimentary sequences in a fast
and cost effective generation of facies models.

This manuscript introduces a novel methodology for

simulation of objects with the stepwise or successive
conditioning paradigm developed in Vargas-Guzmn
(2003). The objective is to demonstrate that the iterative
methodology for conditioning of objects can be avoided
using sequential and successive geostatistical approaches.
Then, various facies categories are conditioned using
conditional components and objects. An industrial scale
example of sequential simulation of objects in a large
complex pinched-out and faulted grid is illustrated. Such a
reservoir is the best example of complexity to test the new
approach.
2. Spatial object modeling with conditioning
2.1. Correlated objects
Facies are known to be spatially correlated. Transition probabilities, indicator covariances and variograms
model the spatial relationship among facies. If objects
are used to simulate facies; then, spatial correlation
should be incorporated in some way. The correlation
between facies is specified as a matrix of indicator
covariance for an indicator vector random field. From
Eq. (1), one can observe that the categorical property at
locations xi {i = 1,2,,k} could be from a realization of a
spatially correlated indicator random field I(x). The
indicator random field is composed of indicator random
variables (Journel, 1983). The indicator variable is

1 if xafacies A
Ix
0
otherwise
Sequential indicator simulation (SIS) is a geostatistical simulation method that generates the indicator
random field conditional to categorical data. The
conditional probabilities required by SIS are computed
using indicator kriging (Journel and Isaaks, 1984).
An object is conceptualized here as a constrained
group of indicator random variables. The correlation
between objects goes beyond the correlation between
facies indicator variables. Moreover, the shape and size
of each object Ai, i = 1,2,,k have characteristics Fj,
j = 1,2,,n that may also be spatially correlated. This
means that any object is a function of various spatial
characteristics Ai = Ai (Fj, j = 1,2,,n). The multivariate
covariance matrix for the object characteristics and its
location may further complicate the model. One can
immediately recognize that the assumption of object
characteristics independent of its physical location is a
severe simplification that can be avoided if the object
characteristics are drawn from a spatially correlated

J.A. Vargas-Guzmn, H. Al-Qassab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 19

vector random field. Thus, object modeling should

consider using vector random field theory, a general
introduction to vector random fields is given in
Wackernagel (2003). However, in practice, Boolean
methods are not able to handle the complexity
introduced by spatial correlation.
The above leads to introduce a new G(x) geo-object
indicator random field which is a particular type of
indicator random field defined from the union of
conditional indicator random variables I(x) grouped as
objects Ai as follows:

1 if xa Ai
Gx [ Ii xsAi with Ii x
2
0 otherwise
i
The G(x) indicator random field is a categorical random
field made of indicator random variables, one at each
location and it is characterized by its spatial indicator
covariance for second order stationarity or the indicator
variogram for intrinsic stationarity. The anisotropic
properties of the indicator covariance should be
compatible with the size and shape of the objects.
Note that Ai objects are from spatially variable object
characteristics.
2.2. Conditional and successive updating of conditional
probabilities
Sequential indicator simulation SIS is a well known
method for simulation of facies at the nodes of a grid
(Journel and Isaaks, 1984). SIS allows the generation of
one node at a time and the probability conditional
distributions need to be recomputed for a next node.
Vargas-Guzmn and Dimitrakopoulos (2003) introduced
a new and faster way of handling the conditional
distributions by updating them using sequential- successive indicator kriging based on the successive minimization of estimation variance (Vargas-Guzmn and Yeh,
1999). This approach based on updating estimates by
successive conditional residuals is named sequentialsuccessive indicator kriging, and it is computationally fast
because it avoids the need for inversion of large matrices.
The simulation method derived from the above approach
is named conditional successive simulation of indicators
(CSSI) and allows for an efficient simulation of groups
made of indicator random variables. The advantage of this
method is that it can generate a group of nodes at a time.
Thus, updating of conditional probabilities is performed
with residual probabilities instead of recomputing the
complete set of conditional probabilities. Note that
conditional distributions are considered here as the nonparametric conditional Bernoulli distributions for a single

category at each given node. In this way, simulation of

indicators with CSSI is a tool that can be applied for object
simulation of a single category because each individual
object is considered as a group of cells or conditional
indicator random variables in a grid.
2.3. Conditional successive simulation of indicator geoobjects method (CSSI-GO)
2.3.1. Step by step simulation of a single category
The CSSI approach can be modified to successive
conditional simulation of geo-objects (CSSI-GO) as
follows:
(1) Using the object property distributions F j
(j = 1,2,,n) and pixel data, one generates object-data Ai = Ai (Fj, j = 1,2,,n) for the nodes
located at the well data. This first set of objects
(i.e., indicator groups) are called object-data because they are transformed into control data I(x)
for initialization.
(2) The complete set of facies indicator data I(x) for
one category is used to generate a first set of
probability conditional distributions which are
estimated with sequential-successive indicator
kriging. This gives an initial conditional distribution at each node.
(3) A node is randomly visited and simulation of a
facies category is done in a way analogous to SIS
using the probabilities computed in the previous
step. The simulated pixel is taken as a node in an
object which is drawn at that location from
probability distributions for object features. The
random object is made of simulated properties Fj
(j = 1,2,,n). Note that, if object properties are
spatially distributed, one can take them from
spatial realizations for such properties at the
simulated locations.
(4) CSSI-GO updates the data set including the recent
simulated nodes belonging to the simulated
object.
(5) Using residual indicators between the new data (in
the object) and prior probabilities, one updates the
conditional probabilities everywhere using successive indicator kriging as in CSSI (see also
Vargas-Guzmn and Dimitrakopoulos, 2003 for
computational details).
(6) Having an updated conditional probability at each
node, one returns to step 3 and the process is
repeated until no more nodes are available for
visiting. Due to the fast drop of the number of
remaining nodes, the process is rather fast.

J.A. Vargas-Guzmn, H. Al-Qassab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 19

2.3.2. Simulation of multiple categories

The procedure for simulation of multiple categories
is theoretically based on conditional component random
fields. This is a stepwise spectral decomposition of the
vector random field which was devised by VargasGuzmn (2003). Although such a theory was published
for continuous random fields, the conditional components can be applied here for categorical or indicator
random fields. In the general approach, one needs to
compute conditional functions of covariances as
explained in that approach and not repeated here. For
the purpose of this paper, a fast approximation is used
when the indicator covariances are proportional; thus,
the spectral domain is avoided. A conditional sill is
modified accordingly to the proportions. For a single
category, the sill S1 or variance of the indicator is
S1 = p1q1 where p is the proportion of the category and q
its complement. For multiple attributes, the sill is
modified successively. For example, if S2 = p2q2 is the
sill for a second category, a constrained sill is S2c = p2q2
C21(p1q1) 1C12, where C21 is the sill of the crossvariogram between two random fields. The stepwise
simulation of objects continues to the single category
workflow explained above, as follows:
(7) Once one category is simulated with CSSI-GO,
the region containing nodes in that category is
excluded. The remaining physical space is the
domain to simulate the next category in the same
fashion as explained for one category, updating
the conditional probability field in CSSI-GO. The
difference with nested indicators is that the
covariance function is now conditional to the
prior category. One check that is recommended
for the conditional variance is to calibrate it with
the resulting proportions in the new reduced
domain excluding data from the prior category.
(8) Once the next category is simulated, a new
conditioning of the next category is required to
be conditional to all prior simulated categories.
The approach continues in this stepwise fashion
until all categories minus one (usually background) have been simulated.
The order or sequence in which the categories are
simulated may follow the inverse depositional order.
The sequence can start with the youngest category and
proceed toward the older category so the younger
categories will appear cutting the older ones. Since
regions are sequentially excluded, nodes are not
overwritten and one has to control that object-data
from all categories at well locations are set to control

data in the computations. In this way, overwriting is

avoided.
3. Application of CSSI-GO to a clastic gas reservoir
This example is from a project for simulation and
forecasting of a complex gas reservoir in Saudi Arabia.
The project incorporates seismic interpretation of a fault
network, a detailed facies interpretation that allows to
define object characteristics and shapes for simulation,
logging porosity, permeability core data and water
saturation at various wells. These data were used for
modeling petrophysical properties using a combination
of standard software and the described successive
conditioning.
3.1. Geology
The reservoir is located in a tectonic sequence mainly
controlled by late Devonian siliciclastic deposition. This
type of clastic deposition of upper Devonian formations
was driven by a back arc rifting associated with a
subduction of the Arabian plate beneath the African
plate (Sharland et al., 2001). The reservoir has been
interpreted with 13 stratigraphic horizons in the
reservoir formation, truncated by a major regional
erosional Hercinian unconformity which is approximately 360 million years old and is known as the pre
Unayzah unconformity. The horizons dip regionally
towards the southeast and define a structurally complex
architecture with an anticline structure in the north. The
horizons were eroded at the northwest where the blocks
are higher than in the east due to faulting.
This clastic reservoir is intensely faulted with a
network of 34 major faults that were interpreted from
seismic data. For the purpose of this model, the faulting
is considered Hercinian posterior to the unconformity
but earlier to the overlying continental deposition.
However, one may suppose that some faulting could
have occurred affecting the post Devonian formations as
well. Above the erosional unconformity conformant
younger formations with two additional horizons are
present and were included in the grid to facilitate flow
modeling. Discontinuities in the flow regime are due to
faults but the discontinuity caused by facies objects is
also important to flow modeling.
The facies interpretation provided well data with nine
categories in the reservoir and three additional categories
in the region above the Hercinian unconformity. For the
purpose of this paper, we focus on the most important
part that is the reservoir which is below the unconformity. The clastic Devonian facies categories are coded as

J.A. Vargas-Guzmn, H. Al-Qassab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 19

follows: (10) delta, (15) delta front, (20) tidal channel,

(25) bars associated with tidal channels, (30) fluvial
channels, (35) flood plains associated with fluvial
channels, (40) shoreface bars, (45) foreshore and (70)
lagoon, marsh and shales background. The overall
distribution of these facies is driven by high frequency
depositions caused by flooding with products dominated
by facies 40 and 45. This event is followed by a long
highstand systems tract HST that produced coarsening
and shallowing upwards sediments such as the deltas and
tidal channels (facies 10, 15, 20 and 25). This process
finished with fluvial depositions (facies 30 and 35)
which become continental formations above the unconformity (fluvial channels and later dunes).
The size and shape distribution of objects are from
geological interpretation and were tested with indicator
variogram ranges and measuring outcomes from SIS.
The basic shapes and distribution parameters of objects
are provided by the geologist. The same methodology
was applied to modeling of the domain above the
erosional unconformity which contains dunes and
continental fluvial deposition. This was done independently of the major reservoir zone in which this paper is
focused.
3.2. The reservoir geocellular model
3.2.1. The structural-stratigraphic grid
The initial reference surface from the geophysicist has
complex truncation by the erosional unconformity at the
west and northwest areas. To simplify the modeling
process, a pre-erosional setup was assumed. This means
that the reference surface and other surfaces made with

Fig. 1. Sample of the cutting process for generating faulted horizons

utilized for constructing a structural faulted grid.

Fig. 2. Three-dimensional grid showing stratification cut by fault

planes, and younger formations are overlaying an erosional unconformity. (Total number of cell layers is 125.)

isopachs were extended as prior to erosion. These horizons

were then processed with software for cutting the fault
network and generation of a structural model. Fig. 1 shows
part of a surface from the structural model. Pinch-outs
were developed by truncating the grid with the erosional
surface. Figs. 25 illustrate the faulted and pinched-out
stratigraphic grid that has 270 100 (horizontal) and 125
(vertical) cells. The produced grid can be used in a variety
of programs because one can export the coordinates in
ASCII and the software provides also a number of
specified format possibilities for exporting the grid. The
algorithms utilized in this structural modeling are from
Mallet (2001). The reason for using this type of modeling
is because sedimentary facies modeling must be done
preserving the stratigraphic lateral continuity of prior to
faulting sedimentation, and flow modeling must consider
the compartmentalization due to faulting. Fig. 2 is a view
of a block display in the grid from east, and Figs. 3 and 4

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic-structural grid is exposing the erosional

unconformity showing faulting and erosional effects.

J.A. Vargas-Guzmn, H. Al-Qassab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 19

display the grid showing erosion as seen from above the

unconformity. Fig. 4 is analogous to a geological map of
the subcrop. Fig. 5 shows a close look at some of the faults
modeled in the grid.
3.2.2. The facies model from CSSI-GO
The proposed technology for successive conditioning
of objects using indicator random fields is new and thus
not yet implemented in the existing commercial software. However, some software have both, a capability to
generate objects and an algorithm for sequential indicator simulation SIS. The process of combining both

Fig. 5. A closer look to some fault blocks in the grid. Faulting does not
affect the rocks above the unconformity.

approaches is possible but cumbersome and results may

emulate to CSSI-GO. A Boolean simulation workflow
from the software is used as an object generator with pixel
realizations; the conditional probabilities are updated
using SIS constraints. The successive conditioning of
indicator covariances for various categories is a nontrivial problem that requires a lot of external computations
to allow handling of conditional proportions.
An important aspect of CSSI-GO is to compute the
proper conditional covariances and conditional proportions

Fig. 4. A top view of the structural grid shows the paleo-crop at the
erosional unconformity.

Fig. 6. A single stratigraphic layer at the bottom of the reservoir

showing that facies are dominated by bars in grey, scarce deltas and
tidal channels are in black, and shale rocks are in light grey.

J.A. Vargas-Guzmn, H. Al-Qassab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 19

Fig. 9. Facies complexity observed in the eroded three-dimensional grid.

Fig. 7. A single stratigraphic layer at the middle of the reservoir

showing that facies are dominated by deltas in black, tidal channels are
visible in grey and the non-reservoir rocks are in light grey.

while the geometric constraints of depositional order are

respected. The proportions of categories change vertically; thus, vertical proportion curves are used to modify
the sills accordingly for each one of the horizons. The

Fig. 8. A single stratigraphic layer at the poorer reservoir layer

showing facies are dominated by fluvial channels in dark grey within
flood plains, and non-reservoir rocks are in light grey.

sills are also modified to match the conditional variances

and proportions.
Simulations are performed following horizon regions
from bottom to top. Some results are displayed in Figs.
69. Fig. 6 shows one layer of cells in bottom horizon
dominated by shore facies 40 and 45 in grey. Bars are
deposited as described above in the first stage of the
lifting of the Arabian plate for this mega-sequence. Some
amounts of facies categories 10 and 15 delta and delta
front are also present in black. Fig. 7 shows one layer of
cells of the good reservoir horizons corresponding to the
LST zone dominated by deltas, tidal channels, and
associated facies 20 and 25. Fig. 8 shows the upper
horizons containing fluvial non-reservoir facies 30 and
35. These continental facies 30 and 35 are the last
depositions prior to the erosional unconformity that mark
the highest elevation of this zone of the plate during this
process. Note that the shapes of the objects are based on
arrays generated using random dimensions drawn from
geologically specified distributions.

Fig. 10. Porosity model conditional to facies, darker colors correspond

to lower values.

J.A. Vargas-Guzmn, H. Al-Qassab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 19

Fig. 11. Intrinsic permeability modeled conditional to porosity and

facies, lighter colors correspond to higher values.

The simplicity of the objects that honor proportions and

well data becomes complicated by faulting and erosion as
shown in a block view Fig. 9. The facies model reproduces
the proportions and therefore the variances or sills of
variograms. The spatial and order-relations are also
obtained as expected. A further test was to use the facies
as envelops for porosity and permeability for volumetric
computations and flow simulations. Blocks with facies,
porosity and permeability models are shown in Figs. 9, 10
and 11. Further work in this model includes modeling of
water saturation, and the history match was successfully
completed accounting for compartmentalization beyond
the scope of this manuscript.
4. Discussion
This research introduced a new approach for simulation
of objects based on groups of conditional indicator random
variables within random objects. This approach leads to the
integration of object modeling with generation of updated
probabilities using residuals from successive-sequential
indicator kriging. The simulation approach is then made
with the stepwise conditioning of multiple categories.
Multiple categories of objects are simulated one after
the other, but they are not independent of each other and
the approach uses conditional indicator covariances
principle. This has also the effect that proportions of
facies categories are correct in the final model. This
would be impossible to achieve if facies categories are
independently simulated.
It is shown in an example for a large gas reservoir that
sequential simulation of objects with CSSI-GO is an
approach that can be emulated with existing software. The
Boolean approach has been enriched with a spatially
correlated consideration that is based on indicator random
fields. The sequential modeling of objects is a desirable

alternative that brings the possibility of elaborating

complex models but its automatic implementation is
required.
The example shows that the continuity of large
objects can be handled in a faulted grid. The facies are
simulated in a prior to faulting fashion. The approach
also shows the capabilities of technology to exhibit the
truncation by an erosional unconformity combined with
the effect of vertical throw of faults. The cost to pay for
such grid complexity is that one has to work with nodes
rather than cells because of small but existing extension
variance issues.
The methodology in this manuscript focuses on
facies and rock types but it can be applied to any
categorical attribute in the broad sense of the indicator
random fields. The new hypothesis for grouping
indicator random fields into geo-objects is suggested
to be utilized, and it may provide links with multiple
point geostatistics for categorical attributes.
Acknowledgments
The review and suggestions made by professors
Andre G. Journel and Jean L. Mallet are mostly
appreciated. The authors want to thank Saudi Aramco
for allowing the publication of the reservoir example,
and acknowledge the work of numerous professionals
who contributed directly or indirectly to this project.
Among those directly involved with this geocellular
model, Andrew McWilliams, geologist of this reservoir,
delivered the facies interpretation and drew the initial
shapes of objects providing lights on their statistical
distributions; David Alexander, geophysicist of Aramco,
provided the seismic interpretation of faults; Meftah
Tiss, management engineer, was involved in permeability modeling. Jim Liu, simulation engineer, carried on
the complex history match process reported in a separate
paper. Thanks also to Jim Wilkins and John Cole from
the Modeling Division of Aramco who provided their
past experience in static modeling of this field, data
support and coordination to its successful completion.
References
Chautru, J.M., 1989. The use of Boolean random functions in
geostatistics. In: Armstrong, M. (Ed.), Geostatistics. Kluver
Academic Publishers, pp. 201212.
Chiles, J.P., Delfiner, P., 1999. Geostatistics: Modeling Spatial
Uncertainty. Wiley & Sons Inter-Science, New York.
Damsleth, E., Tjolsen, C.B., More, K.H., Haldorsen, H.H., 1990. A
two stage stochastic model applied to North Sea reservoir. 65th
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Society of Petroleum Engineers, pp. 791802.

J.A. Vargas-Guzmn, H. Al-Qassab / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 54 (2006) 19

Deutsch, C., Wang, L., 1996. Hierarchical object-based stochastic
modeling of fluvial reservoirs. Math. Geol. 28, 857880.
Guardiano, F., Srivastava, R.M., 1993. Multivariate geostatistics:
beyond bivariate moments. In: Soares, A. (Ed.), Geostatistics Troa
'92. Kluver Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 133144.
Gundeso, R., Egeland, O., 1990. SESIMIRAa new geological tool
for 3-D modeling of heterogeneous reservoirs. In: Buller, A.T.,
King, P. (Eds.), North Sea Oil and Gas Reservoirs, vol. II. Oxford
University Press.
Haldorsen, H., Damsleth, E., 1988. Review of the nature of reservoirs.
In: Edwards, S., King, P. (Eds.), Mathematics in Oil Production.
Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 109209.
Hatloy, A., 1994. Numerical facies modeling combining deterministic
and stochastic methods. In: Yarus, J., Chambers, R.L. (Eds.),
Stochastic Modeling and Geostatistics, Principles, Methods, and
Case Studies. American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
Tulsa.
Hasting, W.K., 1970. Monte Carlo sampling methods using Markov
chains and their applications. Biometrika 57, 97109.
Journel, A.G., 1983. Non-parametric estimation of spatial distributions. Math. Geol. 15, 445468.
Journel, A.G., Isaaks, E., 1984. Conditional indicator simulation:
application to a Saskatchewan uranium deposit. Math. Geol. 16,
685718.
Lantujoul, C., 1997. Iterative algorithms for conditional simulation.
In: Baffi, E.Y., Schofield, N.A. (Eds.), Geostatistics Wollongong
'96. Kluver Academic Publishers, pp. 2740.

Lantujoul, C., 2002. Geostatistical Simulation Models and Algorithms. Springer, Berlin.
Mallet, J.L., 2001. Geomodeling, Applied Geostatistical Series.
Oxford University Press, New York.
Metropolis, N., Rosenbluth, A.W., Rosenbluth, M.N., Teller, A.H.,
Teller, E., 1953. Equations of state calculations by fast computing
machines. J. Chem. Phys. 21, 10871092.
Sharland, P.R., Archer, R., Case, D.M., Davies, R.B., Hall, S.H.,
Heward, A.P., Horbury, A.D., Simmons, M.D., 2001. Geo-Arabia,
Special Publication, vol. 2. Gulf PetroLink, Bahrain.
Strebelle, S., 2002. Conditional simulation of complex geological
structures using multiple-point statistics. Math. Geol. 34, 121.
Vargas-Guzmn, J.A., 2003. Conditional component for simulation of
vector random fields: stochastic environmental research and risk
assessment. SERRA 17, 260271.
Vargas-Guzmn, J.A., Dimitrakopoulos, R., 2003. Successive computation of non-parametric conditional distributions. Math. Geol.
35, 3952.
Vargas-Guzmn, J.A., Yeh, T.C.J., 1999. Sequential kriging and
cokriging: two powerful approaches. Stoch. Hydrol. Hydraul. 13,
416435.
Wackernagel, H., 2003. Multivariate Geostatistics. Springer Verlag,
New York. 387 pp.