Contents

1 Spur Gears
1.1 General . . . . . . .
1.1.1 module: m .
1.2 Force Analysis . . .
1.3 Examples . . . . . .
1.3.1 Example1 . .
1.3.2 Example2 . .
1.4 Relative PRISMISK

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5
5
5
6
7
7
8
9

2 Helical Gears
2.1 General . . . .
2.2 Force Analysis
2.3 Examples . . .
2.3.1 Example
2.3.2 Example

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9
9
10
11
11
12

3 Gear Stresses
3.1 Bending Stress . . .
3.2 Contact Stress . . .
3.3 Finding the module .
3.4 Example . . . . . . .

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14
14
14
14
15

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4.
5.

4 Gear Trains
16
4.1 Free Body Force Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 Velocity-vector Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5 Bevel Gears
18
5.1 Bevel Gear Force Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6 Worm Gears
20
6.1 Force and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7 Brakes and Clutches
7.1 Disk Clutches . . . . . . .
7.2 Cone Clutches . . . . . .
7.3 Short-Shoe Drum Brakes .
7.4 Band Brakes . . . . . . .
7.5 Differential Band Brake .

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8 Vibration
8.1 Spring Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Linearisation of springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Elastic Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3 Combination of Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4 Equivalent Spring using Potential Energy . . . .
8.2 Inertia Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Combination of Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Combination of Translating and Rotating Masses
8.3 Damper Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Viscous Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2 Journal Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3 Combination of Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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22
22
23
24
25
26

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27
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31
31
32
32
33
33
34

9 Harmonic Motion
9.1 SHM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 Vectorial Representation
9.1.2 Complex Representation
9.1.3 Terminology and Beats

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10 Free Vibration of Single DOF Systems

10.1 Undamped Free Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Various Methods to Obtain Equations of Motion . .
10.2.1 DAlemberts Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2 Principle of Virtual Displacements . . . . . .
10.2.3 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.4 Vertical-Hanging Spring-Mass System . . . .
10.3 Solving m
x + kx = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 Expressing the solution as Harmonic Motion
10.4 Relevant Aspects for Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . .
10.4.1 Natural Frequency of a Pulley System . . . .
10.5 Torsional Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.1 The Torsional Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 Time Constant of 1.st Order Systems . . . . . . . . .
10.7 Rayleighs Energy Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping
11.1 General Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Critical Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Underdamped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Critically Damped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Overdamped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 Logarithmic Decrement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 Energy Dissipated due to Viscous Damping . . . . .
11.8 Fraction of the Total Energy Dissipated Each Cycle
11.9 Torsional Viscous Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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35
35
35
35
37

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38
38
38
38
39
39
40
41
41
42
43
44
44
45
45
46

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47
47
48
48
49
49
50
51
52
52

12 Free Vibration with Coloumb Damping

53
12.1 Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
12.2 Solution to the EOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
12.3 Torsional Coloumb Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13 Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping

55

14 Computer-Aided Kinematics
14.1 Matrix Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.1 General Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.2 Skew Symmetric Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.3 Vector and Matrix Single-Variable Derivatives .
14.1.4 Partial Derivatives of Vectors . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Constraint Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.1 The Body-Fixed Frame and Rotation Matrix .
14.2.2 LP Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.3 HP Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Method of Appended Driving Constraints . . . . . . .

56
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56
57
57
57
58
58
58
60
61

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15 Appendix
15.1 Principle of Moments . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2 Centroids - COM/COG . . . . . . . . .
15.3 Area Moment of Inertia (2nd Moment of
15.4 Radius of Gyration . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5 Parallel Axis Theorem . . . . . . . . . .
15.6 Mass Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . .
15.7 Radius of Gyration II . . . . . . . . . .
15.8 Transfer of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.9 Spatial Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Inertia)
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62
62
62
63
64
64
65
65
65
66

Spur Gears

1.1

General

Spur gears transmit rotary motion from one shaft to another.

Power-transmission efficiency 0.98
Increased costs with increased precision - required for high speed and/or low noise levels
Pinion is the smaller one of the members (always).

p
dg
=
g
dp
dp + dg
c=
= rg + rp
2
p
dg
Ng
i=
=
=
g
dp
Np

(1)
(2)
(3)

where N is the number of teeth (also denoted by z).

Figure 1: Pitch Circles

p
0.05 m
2
p
s = + 0.05 m
2
d=mN
t=

(4)
(5)
(6)

ht = 1.25 m

(7)

hf = 2.25 m

(8)

bmax = m

(9)

where
p: circular pitch ( m), t: tooth thickness,
s: width of space, m: module

Figure 2: Nomenclature Spur Gears

Addendum, ht , is the distance from pitch diameter to top diameter dt (dt = m N + 2ht )
Dedendum, hf , is the distance from bottom diameter df to pitch diameter (df = m N 2hf )
The contact between pinion and gear is always in the pitch diameter, d.

1.1.1

module: m

The module is given in standard measures and is related to the pitch of the gear by . Common
modules for the gear-box of the 403-project are m = {3, 4, 5, 6}. The module is defined as the ratio
between the pitch diameter and number of teeth.
m

d .
= [mm/tooth]
N
5

(10)

The circular pitch is the length between the teeth along the pitch diameter and is defined
d .
= [inch or mm]
N

(11)

The diametral pitch P is used only with English units and is defined as the number of teeth per
inch (the reciprocal of the module)
P

N .
= [teeth per inch]
d

(12)

The face-width b is not standardized, but generally

9m < b < 14m
Multiple Steps:

n
Y

itot =

(13)

(14)

ik

k=1

1.2

Force Analysis

Ft

F
Fr
Fr

Ft

Figure 3: Force Analysis

tan() =

Fr
Ft

(15)

is called the pressure angle (also denoted by Robbersmyr). Power is defined as the rate of
work. Here, work is represented by the tangential force and the circumferential distance s, where
s = v is the tangential velocity.
P = Ft v,

v = r =

dn
60

(16)

Transmission efficiency is the ratio between input and output power

tot =

Pin
Pout

(17)

1.3
1.3.1

Examples
Example1

1
2

4
3

Input speed: nin = 1450 rpm

Output speed: nout = 80 rpm
d1 = 95 mm, m1 = 5 mm
d4 700 mm, m4 = 8 mm
Calculate the number of teeth and pitch diameter when the gear ratio in both steps are equal.

itot

nin
i=
= i1 i2 = i =
nout
2

1450
= 4.26
80

We know the module and gear ratio of gear 1-2 and the pitch diameter of cw1 (cogwheel):
N2 = N1 i =

d1
95
4.26 = 80.9 N2 = 81
i=
m1
5

Similarly we know the module and gear ratio of gear 3-4 and the max diameter of cw2. Since we
can choose a lower diameter, we can fiddle with the number of teeth such we come closer to the
gear ratio than by rounding up/down. A good match is N4 = 85 where d4 = 680 mm:
N3 =

N4
85
=
= 19.95 20
i
4.26

itot =

N2 N4
81 85
=
= 18.12
N1 N3
19 20

Exact gear ratio becomes

Check the output speed:

nout =

nin
1450
=
= 80.03
itot
18.12

Deviation is less than 1 percent.

Rule of thumb: deviation of 1.6% is ok in almost any application.

1.3.2

Example2

1
2

6
4

= 0.97 for each step

Pin = 10 kW
nin = 1450 rpm
N1 = 60,

N2 = 180,

N3 = 40,

N4 = 80,

N5 = 50,

N6 = 150

Find the total gear ratio, output speed, output power and torque and input torque.

itot =

3
Y

ik =

k=1

The output speed is

nout =

N2 N4 N6
= ... = 18
N1 N3 N5

1450
nin
=
= 80.56
itot
18

The output power is

3
Y

Pout =

k Pin = 3 Pin = (0.97)3 10 = 9.13 kW

k=1

Input and output torque

Tin =

Pin
Pin
10000 30
=
=
= 65.9 Nm
in
n /30
1450

Tout = Tin itot tot = 65.9 18 (0.97)3 = 1082 Nm

1.4

Relative PRISMISK

Design the gear such that the teeth-cycle (same tooth hits for both gear and pinion) has max length.
This is achieved when the largest common factor between the number of teeth of gear and pinion is 1.
Example - 25 teeth vs 42 teeth

25 = 5 5
42 = 7 2 3
RP

Example - 15 teeth vs 42 teeth

15 = 3 5
42 = 7 3 2
NOT RP

2
2.1

Helical Gears
General

The spur gear is a helical gear with zero helical angle!

Figure 4: Helical Gear

cos() =

pn
p

p=

tan(n ) = tan() cos()

pn
cos()

m=

mn
cos()

see textbook for deriation

(18)
(19)

2.2

Force Analysis

Figure 5: Helical Gear Force Analysis

Tangential force component is found from the torque/power transmitted:
Ft =

T
P
=
r
v

(20)

where T : torque, r: pitch radius, v: circumferential velocity, P : transmitted power.

Radial force component from figure:

Fr = Ft tan()

(21)

tan()
cos()

(22)

Radial force component (lecture):

Fr = Ft

Note the result for the radial force component when using n rather than
Fr = Ft

tan(n )
,
cos()

Axial force component

tan(n ) = tan() cos()

Fa = Ft tan()

10

Fr = Ft tan()

(23)

2.3

Examples

2.3.1

Example 4
x

2
C

L1

y
1

L2

L3

Input power: Pin = 35 kW,

Cogwheel

Nr of teeth Z
Pressure angle
Module m
Helical angle

20
20
4
15

65
20
4
15

34
20
6
0

81
20
6
0

The bearings B, D, F can carry axial loads.

Direction of rotation is negative x.
L1 = 70 mm, L2 = L3 = 80 mm

Input speed: nin = 1480 rpm,

Load-factor: K1 = 1.25

Draw the gearbox with forces.

Determine the tooth forces on cogwheel 2 and 3.
Also find the bearing-loads of C and D.
Solution Cogwheel 1 and 2 have three components shown below: Ft , Fr and Fa (tangential, radial
and axial), whereas cogwheel 3 and 4 only have two components: Ft and Fr .
We choose axial forces to go
this direction getting
supported at the B bearing

z
x

y
x
y
B

F
z

Figure 6: Cogwheel Forces

Pitch diameters
Z1 mn,1
d1 = Z1 m1 =
cos()
Z2 mn,2
d2 = Z2 m2 =
cos()
d3 = Z3 m3 = Z3 mn,3

Torque
(load factor scales up the required input torque)
Tin = Tth,in k1 =
T2 = Tin

d4 = Z4 m4 = Z4 mn,4
11

N2
N1

P
k1 =

k1
2
60 nin

Forces Gear 1,2

Forces Gear 3,4

Ft,12 =

Tin
d1 /2

tan()
cos()
= Ft,12 tan()

Fr,12 = Ft,12
Fa,12

2.3.2

T2
d3 /2
= Ft,34 tan()

Ft,34 =
Fr,34

Example 5

Cogwheel

Nr of teeth
Pressure angle
Module mn
Helical angle

20
2.5
15

39
20
2.5
15

20
20
4
10

20
4
10

3
A

B
4

The shaft between A-B transmit P = 8.8 kW at

800 rpm positive direction looking from A to B.
The load factor K = 1.25.
70

50

220

Determine the tooth-forces and draw diagrams for bending moment, shear force, axial force, torsional moment for the shaft between A and B.
Solution The modules given are mn and must be manipulated by 1/ cos() to find the diameters.

Ft

Fr
Fr
Ft
z
y

x
z

Ft

Fa

12

The given power is on the second shaft

T =

PK
8.8 1.25
=
= 131.3 Nm

/30 800

T
T
131300
=
=
= 2602 N
r2
N2 mn,2 /2 cos(2 )
39 2.5/2 cos(15 )
tan()
tan(20 )
= 2602
= 980 N
= Ft,2
cos(2 )
cos(15 )
= Ft,2 tan(2 ) = 2602 tan(15 ) = 697 N

Ft,2 =
Fr,2
Fa,2

T
T
131300
=
=
= 3233 N
r3
N3 mn,3 /2 cos(3 )
20 4/2 cos(10 )
tan()
tan(20 )
= Ft,3
= 3233
= 1195 N
cos(3 )
cos(10 )
= Ft,3 tan(3 ) = 3233 tan(10 ) = 570 N

Ft,3 =
Fr,3
Fa,3

Notice that even when the module is manipulated by 1/cos, Robbersmyr still uses the form 22.
y

Fr2

Fa2

MA = 0

FBy = 112 N

Fy = 0

FAy = 103 N

Fx = 0

FAx = 127 N

MA = 0

FBz = 3039 N

Fz = 0

FAz = 2796 N

Fa3
Fr 3
z
x

Ft 2

Ft 3
A

Fa3

X
Fa2

y
2796

3233

V
y

3233*70

3039

2602

x
127

697

z
x

131300

13

2602*50

3
3.1

Gear Stresses
Bending Stress
b =

Fth Ka Kv

bm

(24)

Fth : theoretical tangential force comp - Fth = T /r

.
T = [Nmm],
r: pitch radius [mm]
Ka : external dynamic factor (load factor) - Table 4.6
Kv : inner dynamic factor (speed dep.)
Kv =

A+v
,
A

A : operating factor [m/s]

(25)

A is found in table 4.7 (normal gears: A = 3)

v: peripherical speed [m/s]
b: tooth-width [mm]
m: module [mm]
mn : spur gears,
mt : helical gears
: tooth form-factor - Table 4.8 (interpolate)
mt =

mn
mn
=
cos()
cos()

Maximum stress-levels depending on lifetimes are found in tables.

For unlimited lifetime, table 4.12 b,lim and 0,lim .
Requirements for the bending stress:
b,lim
b
Vb

(26)

where Vb is a safety-factor (normally 1.7).

In Table 4.12, B is the tensile stress (bruddfasthet).

3.2

Contact Stress
s

0 = fw fc

Fth Ka Kv i + 1

bd1
i

Requirements for the contact stress

(27)

0 : contact stress
fw : material factor
q

fw,steel = 0.35E = 271[ N/m2 ]

fc : edge-form factor - fc |involute,20 = 1.76
d1 : pitch-diameter for the pinion
i: gear ratio

3.3

0,lim
KL Zv
V0

(28)

0,lim : max stress unlim. lifetime

V0 : safety-factor (normally 1.25)
KL : lubrication factor - Table 4.10
Zv : speed factor - Table 4.11
Use the pitch-diam for calc peripheral speed

Finding the module

Module via contact stress.
For spur gears:

Module via bending stress.

For spur gears:
m = 1.2

T Ka Kv

Zb

1/3

m = 1.84

(29)

K=

Z: number of teeth
: width factor

T Ka Kv i + 1

KZ 2
i

1/3

2
0,lim
0.35E

K: edge strength factor [MPa]

Width of the gear: b = m - where is found in Table 4.9.

For helical gears: mn = m|spur gears and mt = mn / cos().
14

(30)

3.4

Example

An electrical motor supplies 10 kW at 2 rev per sec rotational speed to a single-step gearbox. Pinion
material is 42 CrMo4V and the gear material is 34 Cr4V. The cogwheels are precisely manufactured and the gearbox should run for 8-10 Hr per day. The pinion has 20 teeth and the gear has
100 teeth. The helical angle (or ) is zero - i.e. spur gears. The pressure angle (or ) is 20
deg. The module is m = 10 mm and the width b = 100 mm. The lubrication medium has viscosity
of 19 E
Calculate
the bending stress and safety-factor
the contact stress and safety-factor
Solution
The motor is always attached to the pinion:
b =

Fth Ka Kv
,
bm

Fth =

T
P
=
,
d/2
d/2

d = mZ

Using P = 10 kW = 10000 Nm/s and d = 10 20 = 200 mm is not consistent in units!

Fth =

10000000
= 7958 N
2 2 200/2

The load-factor Ka = 1.25 is found in table 4.6.

The operation-factor A = 5 is found in table 4.7.
The speed-dep factor Kv = (A + v)/A is found from the speed v = r = 4 0.1 yielding Kv = 1.25.
is found in table 4.8: pin = 2.9 and gear = 2.21.
Now each factor to find the bending stresses are known.
The safety-factors are the ratios of b,lim from table 4.12 and our calculated bending stresses b .
The contact stresses are found using:
s

0 = fw fc

Fth Ka Kv i + 1

bd1
i

We always use the pitch diameter of the pinion d1 .

The factors Ka and Kv are known from previous calculations.
The gear ratio i = Z2 /Z1 = 5.
The factors fc = 1.76 and fw = 271
For the safety factor V0
V0 =

0,lim
KL Zv
0

we need two factors KL and Zv .

The lubrication factor KL = 1.05 is found using Table 4.10.
The speed-factor Zv is found by interpolating between values in Table 4.11.
.
The peripheral speed: v = r1 where r1 = d1 /2 = [m] is the radius of the pinion pitch circle.
In this example we have v = 1.256 m/s.
For v1 = 1 Zv,1 = 0.842 and v2 = 2 Zv,2 = 0.855 we have
Zv = Zv,1 +

Z
0.855 0.842
(v v1 ) = 0.842 +
(1.256 1) = 0.845
v
21

and all factors are known.

15

Gear Trains
Typical planetary gear-trains include a sun S at the center, surrounded by planets P that
freely rotate on shaft mounted in arm A (carrier)
Also meshing with the planets is a ring (or annulus) gear R that has internal teeth
Dividing the load between multiple planets correspondingly increases the torque and power
capacity of the train
The members S, A and R are normally assigned three functions:
input, output and fixed reaction members
Common arrangements
A: the reaction member
a simple gear train (all axes are fixed)
S and R rotate in opposite directions (a reverse gear)
R fixed, S and A rotate in same direction (but different speeds)
S fixed, R and A rotate in same direction but with different speed-ratios compared to
when R is fixed

Note that R, S and P can be both diameters or number of teeth.

Figure 7: Planetary Gear Train

16

4.1

Free Body Force Analysis

2T i
3R

2T i
3R

Ti

2T i
3R

R
2

To

2T i
3R

2T i
3R

Figure 8: Exploded FBD

The input torque applied on the ring is denoted Ti . The tangential force on one planet from the
ring R is
Ti = F arm
The arm is R/2 and there are three planets:
F =
The distance a =

S+P
2 .

1 Ti
3 R/2

Expressed in terms of S and R - knowing that P =

a=

RS
2 :

S R S
S+R
+ =
2
4
4
4

Then To can be determined by

2Ti R + S
S
To = 3 2F a = 6

= Ti 1 +
3R
4
R


in
Tout
S
=
=1+
out
Tin
R

4.2

(31)

Velocity-vector Analysis

v1

v2

in

R S
4

out
A

R
2

Figure 9: Velocity-Vectors
The sun-gear S is fixed. The arm moves with output rotational velocity out and the ring moves
with input rotational velocity in . The meshing point between the sun S and planet P has zero
linear velocity. Linear velocity at the mesh between the planet and ring
v1 = in
17

R
2

Linear velocity at the tip of the arm

R+S
4
Since the mesh-point between S and P has zero linear velocity:
v2 = out

v1 = 2v2
or

in

R+S
R
= 2out
2
4

in
R+S
S
=
=1+
out
R
R

(32)

The general planetary train equation:

The angular velocity of the ring relative to the arm, and of the sun relative to the arm are:
R/A = R A
The ratio between these is

S/A = S A

R/A
R A
=
S/A
S A

The above equation is true for any angular velocity of the arm - including zero. With the arm held
fixed, this ratio gives the train value e:
e=

R A
S
=
S A
R

(33)

Bevel Gears

The size and shape of the teeth are defined at the large end, where they intersect the back cones.
Note that the pitch cone and the back cone elements are perpendicular

Point of action

b
dg
2

dp
2

b/ 2

Pinion Pitch Cone

Gear Pitch Cone

Figure 10: Bevel Gear Nomenclature

Number of teeth (imaginary spur gears) are
Np0 =

2rbp
,
p

Ng0 =

2rbg
p

(34)

where
N 0 : virtual number of teeth, p: circular pitch of both the imaginary spur gears and bevel gears.

18

Tredgolds Approximation:
characterizing the size and shape of bevel gear teeth as those of an imaginary spur gear appearing
the developed back cone
Gear ratio:
Ng
dg
p
=
=
= tan(g ) = cot(p )
i=
g
Np
dp
Two limits on the face-width

10
L
,
b
P
3
where P is the diametral pitch and L is the pitch cone-length.
b

For the spiral gear in figure 10, the pressure angle = 20 and the spiral angle = 35 .

5.1

Bevel Gear Force Analysis

Figure 11: Bevel Gear Forces

Resultant force F is shown applied to the tooth at the pitch cone surface and midway along the
tooth width b.
.
dav = [m]

dav = d b sin()
vav = dav n

W
Ft =
vav

vav

.
= m/s

.
n = rev/s

.
=
W
W

(35)
(36)
(37)

Force relations
Ft
cos()
Fn = F sin() = Ft tan()

(38)

Fr = Fn cos() = Ft tan() cos()

(40)

Fa = Fn sin() = Ft tan() sin()

(41)

Ft
(tan(n ) sin() sin() cos())
cos()
Ft
Fr =
(tan(n ) cos() sin() sin())
cos()

(42)

F =

(39)

For spiral bevel gears

Fa =

(43)

where upper sign in or applies to a driving pinion with right-handed spiral rotating clockwise.
19

Worm Gears

Figure 12: Worm Gear Nomenclature

Worm gears usually have at least 24 teeth, and the number of gear teeth plus worm threads should
be more than 40:
Ng + Nw > 40
As with a spur or helical gear, the pitch diameter of a worm gear is related to its circular pitch and
number of teeth by the formula
Ng p
dg =

The velocity ratio of a worm gear set is determined by the ratio of gear teeth to worm threads; it
is not equal to the ratio of gear and worm diameters:
w
Ng
=
g
Nw

20

6.1

Force and Efficiency

Worm and gear force directions illustrated for

clockwise-driven right-hand worm.

Figure 13: Worm Gear Forces

Note that the friction force is always directed to oppose the sliding motion. In figure 11 (a) the
driving worm is rotating clockwise:
Fgt = Fwa = Fn cos(n ) cos() f Fn sin()
Fwt = Fga = Fn cos(n ) sin() + f Fn cos()
Fgr = Fwr = Fn sin(n )
Fgt
cos(n ) cos() f sin()
=
Fwt
cos(n ) sin() + f cos()
sin(n )
sin(n )
Fgr = Fwr = Fgt
= Fwt
cos(n ) cos() f sin()
cos(n ) sin() + f cos()

Vg
= tan()
Vw

(44)
(45)

(46)

Efficiency
=

Vector relationship between worm velocity, gear

velocity, and sliding velocity.

Work in
Fgt Vg
cos(n ) f tan()
=
=
(47)
Work out
Fwt Vw
cos(n ) + f cot()

With a sufficiently high coefficient of friction the gear

tangential force becomes zero, and the gearset selflocks. In many instances this is desirable and serves to
hold the load from reversing, much like a self-locking
power screw.

21

Brakes and Clutches

Clutch;
the function is to permit smooth, gradual connection and disconnection of two members
having a common axis of rotation (friction type)
Brakes;
acts similarly except that one of the members is fixed (friction type)

Three basic requirements

The required friction torque must be produced by an acceptable actuating force.
The energy converted to friction heat must be dissipated without producing destructively
high temperature
The wear characteristics of the friction surfaces must be such that they give acceptable life.

7.1

Disk Clutches

Figure 14: Basic Disk Clutch

Calculations are developed relating size, friction coeff, torque capacity, axial clamping force and
interface pressure - using two basic assumptions: uniform distribution of interface pressure or uniform rate of wear.
Uniform distribution of interface pressure
(valid for unworn accurately manufactured clutches with rigid outer disks)
Normal force acting on a differential ring on the contact area:
dF = (2r dr)p

F = 2p

Z ro
ri

r dr = p(ro2 ri2 )

(48)

F is also the axial force clamping the driven and driving disks together. The friction torque
developed on a ring element is the product of this force, coeff of fric and radius;
dT = (2r dr)pf r

T = 2pf

Z ro
ri

r2 dr =

2pf 3
(ro ri3 )
3

(49)

The result from eq 49 is for one surface only. For N friction-interfaces in parallel (where N is even)
2
T = pf (ro3 ri3 )N
3
22

(50)

Eliminating p yields
T =

2F f (ro3 ri3 )
N
3(ro2 ri2 )

(51)

Uniform rate of wear

The friction lining is assumed to wear at a uniform rate - resulting from uniform rate of friction
work: pr = C. Since ri < ro then pmax occurs at the inside radius pr = pmax ri = C.
For the differential ring-element
dF = 2pmax ri dr

F = 2pmax ri

dT = dF f r = 2pmax ri f r dr

Z ro
ri

dr = 2pmax ri (ro ri )

T = 2pmax ri f

Z ro
ri

r dr = pmax ri f (ro2 ri2 )

(52)
(53)

For N friction-interfaces in parallel

T = pmax ri f (ro2 ri2 )N

(54)

Eliminating pmax ri yields

(ro + ri )
N
2
To maximize the torque we can choose suitable values for the size:
T = fF

ri =

7.2

1
ro
3

(55)

(56)

Cone Clutches

Here N = 1 always. The wedging action of a cone clutch enables for a clamping force to only a
fifth of a corresponding disk clutch of N = 1.

Figure 15: Basic Cone Clutch

The surface area of a ring-element
dA = 2r

dr
sin()

Normal force on the element

dN = p dA = 2rp

dr
sin()

Corresponding clamping force

dF = dN sin() = 2rp dr
23

is exactly the same as for the disk clutch ring element.

The torque capacity for one ring-element
dT = dN f r = 2f pr2

dr
sin()

Uniform distribution of interface pressure

T =

Z ro
ri

dT =

2f p
sin()

Z ro
ri

r2 dr =

2f p
(r3 ri3 )
3 sin() o

(57)

Eliminating p and substitution for the integrated ring-element clamping force

T =

2F f
r3 ri3
o2
3 sin() ro ri2

(58)

Uniform rate of wear

T =

Z ro
ri

dT =

2f pmax ri
sin()

Z ro
ri

r dr =

f pmax ri 2
(ro ri2 )
sin()

(59)

Eliminating pmax ri and substitution for the integrated ring-element clamping force
T =

Ff
(ro + ri )
sin()

(60)

Finally some consideration about the cone angle:

< 8 : cone clutches can be difficult to disengage.
Normally [8 , 15 ] with optimal value of = 12 .

7.3

Short-Shoe Drum Brakes

2 types of drum brakes

external shoes that contract to bear against the drum surface
internal shoes that expand to bear against an inner drum surface
The short-shoe analysis assumes that the normal force N and friction force f N is concentrated at
the center of contact.

Moment about pivot A fig (b)

Nb fNa Fc = 0
Moment about pivot O fig (c)
fNr T = 0
Solving for N and substituting
N (b f a) = F c
F f cr
=T
b fa

24

Self-energizing: the moment of the friction force f N a assists the applied force F in applying the
brake. If the rotational direction was CCW, then the direction of the friction force is reversed and
thus it would oppose the application of the brake and thereby be self-deenergizing.
F f cr
b fa
F f cr
T =
b + fa

T =

(self-energizing)

(61)

(self-deenergizing)

(62)

Self-locking: (for clockwise drum rotation) the brake is self-locking if the denominator in eq 61 is
zero or negative
b fa
A self-locking brake need only be brought in contact with the drum.

7.4

Band Brakes

d
2

P dP

dN

d
2

P2

P1

P2

P1
c

Figure 16: Band Brake

The band is usually made of steel, lined with a woven friction material. For the clockwise drum
rotation shown, friction forces acting on the band serve to increase P1 and decrease P2 .
Consider the section above the cutting-plane (stapled line) as a free-body:
P1 r P2 r T = 0

(63)

where T is the braking torque and needs to be negatively directed since P1 > P2 .
Consider the section below the cutting-plane as a free-body:
P2 a F c = 0
where F is the applied lever-force.
Consider the forces acting on a differential element of the band:
dN = (P + dP ) sin(d/2) + P sin(d/2)
We know that for < 0.15 sin() and that two differentials multiplied is 0, such that
dN 2P

d
= P d
2

25

(64)

Friction is causing the gradient from P2 to P1 :

dP = dN f
dP = f P d
This differential equation is important:
Z P1
dP
P2

By definition

f d

ln

P1
= f
P2

(65)

dN = pAp = pbr d

where b is the width of the band and p is the contact pressure. The max pressure occurs at =
where P = P1 such that
dN = P1 d = pmax br d

P1 = pmax br

(66)

The brake in this figure is self-energized for CW drum rotation. Greater self-energizing action can
be obtained by attaching the previously fixed end of the band to the lever at the opposite side of
the pivot.... see the differential band brake

7.5

Differential Band Brake

Greater self-energizing action can be obtained by attaching the previously fixed end of the band to
the lever at the opposite side of the pivot, as shown in figure 17. The tensile force of this attachment
now serves to assist in the application of the brake.

P2

P1

s
P1

P2

Figure 17: Differential Band Brake

Note also that distance s must be less than distance a so that rotating the lever with force F tightens the end of the band attached at distance a more than it loosens the end attached at distance s.
A study of the motion and forces involved at the two band attachment points shows why the name
differential band brake is appropriate.
Now, the free-body below the stabled line yields
P2 a F c P1 s = 0
26

(67)

The free-body above stays the same, yielding

T = (P1 P2 )r
and the analysis for the band-element stays the same, yielding
P1
= ef
P2
and the max pressure is still at P1 such that
P1 = pmax br
To achieve self-locking, the distance s should be such that the applied force is zero (already in
contact here)
P2 a P1 s
F =
0
(68)
c
meaning that
P2
a
s
P1

Vibration

Elementary parts of Vibrating Systems:

A means of storing potential energy (spring or elasticity)
A means of storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia)
A means by which energy is gradually lost (damper)
The vibration of a system involves the transfer of potential energy into kinetic energy and visa-versa.
If damping is present, then energy is dissipated each cycle. Thus this energy must be supplied by
an external source to maintain state of steady vibration.

8.1

Spring Elements

0x

0x

F2
F2

Fs
Fs

x
F1

F1

Figure 18: Spring Elements

The linear spring element obeys Hooks law:
F = kx

(69)

where x is the elongation of the spring and k is the spring stiffness. The potential energy stored in
the spring equals the work done in deforming it.
Z x
Z x
1
U=
F ds =
ks ds = kx2
(70)
2
0
0
Common used non-linear spring force-deflection relation:
F = ax + bx3 ,

a>0

For b 0 a hard spring, b 0 soft spring, b = 0 linear spring.

27

(71)

8.1.1

Linearisation of springs

Nonlinearity can be approximated successfully around special points. For a spring, the static
equilibrium point is our first choice. Lets call this point x e.g. the deflection caused by a static
load F at equilibrium.
F x ,
F + F x + x
Taylor expansion about the point x :
F + F = F (x + x) = F (x ) +

dF
1 d2 F
2
(x) + ...
|
|(x=x ) x +
dx
2 dx2 (x=x )

(72)

For small x, the higher-order terms get insignificant. The load at x is denote F such that
F + F = F +

dF
x
|
dx (x=x )

F =

dF
x
|
dx (x=x )

(73)

The differential term is the slope - e.g. the spring-constant. The linearized behaviour is expressed
as
dF

F = k where
k=
|
dx (x=x )
8.1.2

Elastic Members

Elastic members can be modelled by a spring (rods, beams, shafts). Fortunately, tables that relate
load-vs-deflections for beams are well-established. For an elastic rod subjected to an axial load we
have by Hookes law
P
` `0

=
= E = E
=E
A
`0
`0
where  is the engineering strain, A is the cross-sectional area and `0 is the initial length of the rod.
Relating this to a spring, we have
E
P = kx =

A`0
that is

EA
`
For the deflection of a cantilever beam with a mass at the tip - shown in figure 19
k=

mg

x(t )

mg
x(t )

Figure 19: Cantilever Beam and Mass-Spring Model

Deflection formula is =

P `3
3EI

yielding a spring constant of k =

28

3EI
.
`3

(74)

8.1.3

Combination of Springs

k1

k2

F
Figure 20: Parallel Springs

The parallel springs under load F get deflected by . The equivalent spring-constant is easily found
from
F = keq = (k1 + k2 )
since both springs experience the same deflection.

1k 1

1k 1
01

2k 2

02

2k 2

Figure 21: Springs in Series

For the springs in series, the total deflection resulting from a load F is the sum 1 + 2 . Free-body
diagrams show that
F = 1 k1 = 2 k2
The equivalent spring constant yields the expression
F = keq = (1 + 2 )keq
We can express the deflections as 1 = F/k1 and 2 = F/k2 such that
F =
or, equivalently

F
F
+
keq
k1 k2


1
1
1
=
+
keq
k1 k2

Analogously, for those that are familiar with dc-circuit resistor combinations, spring-constants
behave opposite of resistors when combining them.
keq =

n
X
j=1
n
X

kj ,

1
1
=
keq
k
j=1 j

for springs in parallel

(75)

for springs in series

(76)

29

8.1.4

Equivalent Spring using Potential Energy

x3

x2

k2

x1

2
k1

Figure 22: Springs in Parallel

We wish to find an equivalent spring placed arbitrarily at `. If we assume small angular rotations
about the pivot, we know that the horizontal distance x can be approximated by x ` (actually
x = ` sin()). Also, assume that the springs are not loaded when the bar is vertical. The work put
into a spring equals the potential energy of the spring:
U=


1
k1 x21 + k2 x22
2

The work done by the force F is W = F x3 . Equating the two while expressing x using common
parameters:

1
k1 (`1 )2 + k2 (`2 )2
F `3 =
2
The equivalent spring is placed at ` and the potential energy from the work by the force yields
1
F `3 = keq (`)2
2
Substituting for the work:


1
1
keq (`)2 =
k1 (`1 )2 + k2 (`2 )2
2
2

and solving for keq

keq = k1

`1
`

2

+ k2

`2
`

2

Another method is to do a moment-equilibrium calculation:

X

M = Fk1 x1 + Fk2 x2 F x3 = 0

Placing the spring at ` x we have

X

M = Fkeq x F x3 = 0

Using linear spring-models:

Fkeq x = keq (`)2 = k1 (`1 )2 + k2 (`2 )2
or
keq = k1

`1
`

2

30

+ k2

`2
`

2

(77)

Restoring Gravitational Force as a Spring Constant

We wish to model the simple pendulum as a mass/spring system.
Recall that for small s, sin() .

The restoring force due to gravity creates a moment

about the pivot:

M = mg` sin() mg`

cos( )

A linear torsional spring is expressed M = kt .

Equating the two yields

sin( )

kt = mg`

(78)

mg
8.2

Inertia Elements

The key property when considering rigid mass elements is the ability to store kinetic energy. Work
done on a mass-element is stored as kinetic energy.
8.2.1

Combination of Masses

Find an equivalent mass placed at an arbitrary length ` from the pivot.

Again we assume small rotations about some equilibrium point, that is sin() .
Kinetic energy of the system is equated with kinetic energy of the equivalent one-mass system.

x 3

x 2

x1

m1

1
1
1
1
m1 x 21 + m2 x 22 + m3 x 23 = meq x 2
2
2
2
2
This yield the equivalent mass formula

m2

meq =

m3

3
X

mj

j=1

x j
x

2

When substituting xj = `j , we get

meq =

n
X
j=1

mj

`j
`

2

(79)

where `j is the distance of mass j to the pivot and the

equivalent mass is located at `.

31

8.2.2

Combination of Translating and Rotating Masses

Combining rotational and translational inertias to either an equivalent translational mass or rotational moment of inertia is easy using energy considerations. Consider the rack and pinion
(only the pitch circle is drawn and to simplify notation, let m = mrack and J = Jpinion ):
Total kinetic energy
1
1
K = mx 2 + J 2
2
2
m 1

Equivalent moment of inertia

J pinion

1
1
2 + 1 J 2
Jeq 2 = m(r)
2
2
2

mrack

Equivalent mass
1
1
1
meq x 2 = mx 2 + J
2
2
2

meq = m +

8.3

J
,
r2

for equvialent mass

Jeq = J + mr2

x
r

 2

for equiv moment of inertia

(80)

Damper Elements

Damping is modelled as one of the following types

Viscous Damping: resistance from medium (fluid), FV D velocity
Coloumb Friction: static friction, FCF = constant
Hysteresis Damping: deformed material - energy is dissipated and absorbed by the material
(crystal-plane slip/slide)

An example of hysteresis is shown clearly in the

stress/strain curve of a material undergoing plastic deformation.
The work done is
Z f
d

d C

- that is the area ABD whereas the potential energy

is the area shown shaded CBD, clearly energy is lost
during the cycle.

32

8.3.1

Viscous Dampers

v
h

dv
dy

Figure 23: No-slip Condition

A plate with surface area A is subjected to a force F . Between the plate and a rigid fixed surface,
there is a Newtonian fluid of height h. The shear force between layers in the fluid is

dv
dy

where the proportionality constant is the dynamic viscosity .

At y = h, we have = v/h and from general mechanics = F/A such that
F
v
=
A
h
Modelling as a viscous damper, we have F = cv where c: damping constant.
F = cv =
8.3.2

Av
h

c=

A
h

(81)

Journal Bearing

width b

Figure 24: Journal Bearing

The surface area subjected to shear stress from the fluid here is A = 2rb. The tangential velocity
of the fluid near the shaft is v = r. The shear stress is expressed = r/d where d is the fluid
thickness. Thereby, expressing as a rotational viscous damper
T = ct = Ar =
and the damper constant is
ct =

Ar2

Ar2
2r3 b
=
d
d

33

(82)

8.3.3

Combination of Dampers

Consider the figure 25

c2v

c1

c2

c2

c1

c1v

v
F

Figure 25: Parallel Damping

The force is obviously F = c1 v + c2 v For the equivalent counterpart we have
F = ceq v = (c1 + c2 )v

Now consider figure 26 Denote the total velocity v = v1 + v2 . Then consider the free-bodies

c1v1
v2

c1

c2v2
v1 v2

c2

c2v2
c2
v1 v2

Figure 26: Dampers in Series

F = c1 v1 = c2 v2
Similarly as for the spring deflection, we express the velocities by the force yielding
v=

F
F
F
=
+
ceq
c1 c2

The equivalent damper constant is completely analogous to the spring, i.e.

ceq =

n
X
j=1

cj

for parallel dampers

n
X
1
1
=
ceq
c
j=1 j

34

for dampers in series

(83)

Harmonic Motion

9.1

SHM

Harmonic motion is the simplest kind of periodic motion. Simple harmonic motion (SHM): the
acceleration a is proportional to the displacement x directed toward the mean position.

9.1.1

x = A sin(t)

x
= A 2 sin(t)

x = A cos(t)

x
= A 2 cos(t)

Vectorial Representation
sin(t )

t1

t1

Figure 27: Vectorial Representation of SHM

The figure 27 shows only the y coordinate of a circle parametrization using
x = A cos(t)
9.1.2

y = A sin(t)

(84)

Complex Representation

Using complex numbers is a convenient representation due to Eulers Identity

Aej = A cos() + A sin()

Im

(85)

" #

"

~ = x = A cos()
X
A sin()
y

(86)

or by complex numbers

~ = a + b = Ae
X

(87)

a = A cos()
b = A sin()

Re

A=

Adding complex numbers:

a2 + b2

z1 z2 = (a1 a2 ) + (b1 b2 )

Differentiation of the SHM represented as a complex number

d ~
X(t) =
dt
d2 ~
X(t) =
dt2

d t
Ae = Aet
dt
d
~
(Aet ) = 2 Aet = 2 X(t)
dt

35

b
= tan()
a

(88)

Displacement (recall that SHM is 1D motion)

x = <[Aet ] = A cos(t)
Velocity
v = <[Aet ] = A sin(t) = A cos(t + /2)
Acceleration
a = <[A 2 et ] = A 2 cos(t) = A 2 cos(t + )
Harmonic functions can be added vectorially:

Im

( 3)
A 2 sin

X1 X 2

X2

X1

s( 3)
A2 co

1 2

Re

A cos( )

Figure 28: Vectorial Addition of Harmonic Functions

Define 1 = t for reference.
Using figure 28
~ 1 ] = A1 cos(t)
<[X
~ 2 ] = A2 cos(t + 3 )
<[X
~1 + X
~ 2 ] = A cos(t + )
<[X
A=

(89)

(A1 + A2 cos(3 ))2 + (A2 sin(3 ))2

= tan1

A2 sin(3 )
A1 + A2 cos(3 )

(91)

Alternatively using vector-addition

"

~ = A1 cos(t) + A2 cos(t + 3 )
X
A1 sin(t) + A2 sin(t + 3 )

For A and , let t = 0:

~ =
A = kXk

= tan

y
x

 

(A1 cos(t) + A2 cos(t + 3 ))2 + (A1 sin(t) + A2 sin(t + 3 ))2

(A1 + A2 cos(3 ))2 + (A2 sin(3 ))2

A1 sin(t) + A2 sin(t + 3 )
= tan
A1 cos(t) + A2 cos(t + 3 )


A2 sin(3 )
= tan1
A1 + A2 cos(3 )
1

36

(90)

Alternatively using complex numbers

x1 (t) = A1 cos(t) = <[A1 et ]
x2 (t) = A2 cos(t + 3 ) = <[A2 e(t+3 ) ]
x(t) = A cos(t + ) = <[Ae(t+) ]
z1 = x1 (t) + y1 (t) = A1 cos(t) + A1 sin(t)
z2 = x2 (t) + y2 (t) = A2 cos(t + 3 ) + A2 sin(t + 3 )
z = z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 )
The length of the complex number is

|z| =

a2 + b2

and the phase (here we use ) is

= arctan

b
a

 

Further, let t = 0 to find |z| = A and .

9.1.3

Terminology and Beats

Frequency of oscillation: f = 1/ where = 2/ is the period of oscillation.

Natural frequency: if a disturbed system vibrates on its own when no external forces acts, it does
so with its natural frequency. An n dof system will have n distinct natural frequencies of vibration.
Beats: when two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one another, are added, the resulting
motion exhibits the phenomenon called beats.
Example Beats
x1 (t) = A cos(t)
x2 (t) = A cos(( + )t)

is small

x(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) = A[cos(t) + cos(( + )t]

Useful rule
cos() + cos() = 2 cos

+
2

cos

t
(2 + )t
cos(
2
2

 
 

= 2A cos
+
t cos
t
2
2

x(t) = 2A cos

b
x (t )

2 A cos t
2

Figure 29: Beats

37

(92)

(93)

In figure 29, the beating period is denoted b and is defined by the frequency of the term

2A cos
t
2


b =

(94)

Octave: when the max value of a range is twice its min value octave band.
Decibel: ratio of electric powers
 
P
dB 10 log
P0
where P0 is some reference power. Since P v 2 where v is voltage, the term takes the more
common form
!
 
v2
v
dB = 10 log
=
20
log
2
v0
v0

10
10.1

Free Vibration of Single DOF Systems

Undamped Free Vibration

We have two differential equations:

Newtons 2nd law
X

d
d
F~ (t) =
m ~x(t)
dt
dt


(95)

and the corresponding equation for rotational motion

X

~ (t) = J ~
M

(96)

k1

Figure 30: MS
The simplest model is shown in figure 30. The resulting EOM is
X

10.2
10.2.1

Fx = kx = m
x

m
x + kx = 0

Various Methods to Obtain Equations of Motion

DAlemberts Principle

We can treat the dynamic equations as equilibrium equations, i.e. we can treat the inertia-terms as
a force/moment.
= ~0
F~ (t) m~x
where F~ is a resultant force.

~ (t) J ~ = ~0
M

~ is a resultant moment.
where M
and J )
~ in an artificial state of equilibrium.
We have fictitious force and moment (m~x
38

10.2.2

Principle of Virtual Displacements

If a system in equilibrium, under action of a set of forces, is subjected to a virtual displacement,

then the total work done by the forces will be zero. The virtual displacement is given instantaneously
and is infinitesimal in magnitude. The virtual work is the work done by all the forces - including
inertia forces.

x x

x, x, x

mx

kx

Figure 31: Virtual Displacement

The force kx is a reactive force and force m
x is the inertia force (fictitious force).
Wspring = kxx
where W is the virtual work and x is a virtual displacement.
Wmass = m
xx
Total virtual work is zero:
kxx m
xx = 0
10.2.3

m
x + kx = 0

Conservation of Energy

A system is conservative of no energy is lost to friction or non-elastic members (dampers). The

total energy of a conservative system remains constant.
For non-damped free vibration systems, the energy gets continuously converted between kinetic
and potential form.
T +U =C
1
T = mx 2
2
1
U = kx2
2

Kinetic energy stored in the mass

Potential energy stored in the spring

We have
f (x, x)
=T +U =
such that

d
(T + U ) = 0
dt

(97)
(98)
(99)


1 2
mx + kx2 = C
2

d
f dx f dx
f (x, x)
=
+
=0
dt
x dt
x dt

yields the same equation of motion as before.

39

(100)

10.2.4

Vertical-Hanging Spring-Mass System

0 st

x0

0 st

0 st

k st

Static Equilibrium Pos

mg

mg

Fspring

k ( x st )

mg kx

kst

m x

mg

st

x0

Figure 32: Vertical Spring-Mass System

At static equilibrium, the spring length is `0 + st . Using the FBD
X

Fx = mg kst = 0

Since we measure the elongation of the spring from the static equilibrium position, we can ignore
the gravitational force. Consider the second FBD (and kinetic diagram):
X

Fx = mg k(st + x) = mg kst kx = kx = m
x

and we still have the same EOM as for the horizontal spring-mass model m
x + kx = 0.
Using the principle of conservation of energy, the total potential energy of the system is
1 2
1
U = Ue + Ug = k(x + st )2 kst
mgx
2
2
where Ug , the gravitational potential energy decreases along x and Ue , the elastic potential energy
2 . At the static equilibrium, mg = k :
initially is 0.5kst
st
1 2
1 2
1
1
+ kst x kst
mgx = kx2
U = kx2 + st
2
2
2
2
The kinetic energy of the system is

1
T = mx 2
2

The total energy of a conservative system is constant such that the time-derivative is zero:
d
d
(T + U ) =
dt
dt

1
1
mx 2 + kx2 = 0
2
2

Working the math (using the chain-rule) leaves us with

m
x + kx = 0
40

10.3

Solving m
x + kx = 0

The method used for linear DEs with constant coefficients is based on the assumption that a
solution can be expressed by a complex exponential x = Cest where s is the Laplace variable. This
assumption transforms the problem to an algebraic one:
s

ms2 + k = 0

k
= n
m

s =

The parameter n is the natural frequency. The solution then, having two eigenvalues (roots) is
x(t) = C1 en + C2 en

(101)

Note Eulers identity when the argument of the complex exponential is negative:
e = cos() sin()

(102)

Other useful identities for the complex exponential are

e + e
= cos()
2
e e
= sin()
2

(103)
(104)

In real parameters, the solution is

x(t) = A1 cos(n t) + A2 sin(n t)
and the initial conditions x(0) = x0 and x(0)

= x 0 gives us
x(t) = x0 cos(n t) +
10.3.1

x 0
sin(n t)
n

(105)

Expressing the solution as Harmonic Motion

Harmonic motion: Symmetric motion about the equilibrium position. Velocity is max and acceleration is zero each time we pass this position.
Expressing the solution as

x(t) = A cos(n t )

we determine A and from 105

A=

x20 +

and
= arctan

x 0
n

(106)

2

x 0 /n
x0

We can also express the solution as

x(t) = A0 sin(n t + 0 )
When n t = 0 we have
and from x = n A0 cos(n t + 0 )

Now, A0 is still

x0 = A0 sin(0 )
x 0
= A0 cos(0 )
n

x20 + (x 0 /n )2 , but now the phase is

0 = arctan
41

x0
x 0 /n

(107)

0 st

nt

A1

A2

x0

nt

Figure 33: Harmonic Motion

10.4

Relevant Aspects for Harmonic Motion

Recall that
x(t) = A1 cos(n t) + A2 sin(n t) = x0 cos(n t) +
is expressed as

x 0
sin(n t)
n

x(t) = A cos(n t )

From the figure, the two terms are added vectorially. The mass-spring system has natural frequency
s

n =

k
m

In static equilibrium, kst = mg such that the natural freq can be expressed
n =
The period of vibration is
n =

g
st

(108)

2
1
=
fn
n

The response can be represented in a phase-plane: displacement vs velocity plot.

x(t) = A cos(n t )

x(t)

= An sin(n t )

An

x2 + x 2 = A2 cos2 (n t ) + A2 n2 sin2 (n t )
A

x +
2

x
n

2

= A2

x2
x 2
+
=1
A2 A2 n2

42

10.4.1

Natural Frequency of a Pulley System

k2x2
k eq x

k2

keq

mg

x1

mg

x2
mg

mg
k1

mg

mg

mg

k1x1

Figure 34: Pulley System

Assuming no friction and negligible mass of the pulleys.
The elongation of the equivalent spring x is
x = 2x1 + 2x2
The rope-tension is constant and equal to mg such that
x1 =

2mg
k1

and

x2 =

2mg
k2

The FBD of the equivalent spring yields



mg keq x = mg keq

2mg
2mg
2
+2
k1
k2

1
4
4
=
+
keq
k1 k2

keq

1
=
4

k1 k2
k1 + k2

The natural frequency is found from the solution of

m
x + keq x = 0
that is

n =

43

keq
m

=0

10.5
10.5.1

Torsional Systems
The Torsional Pendulum

I0

kt

Figure 35: Torsional Spring-Mass System

Consider the shaft as an elastic member.
GI0

`
where G: shear modulus, I0 : polar moment of inertia of the shaft,
Mt : twist-producing torque, and : angle of twist

(109)

Mt =

For a linear torsional spring kt we have

Mt = kt

such that
kt =
The equation of motion is

GI0
Gd4
=
`
32`

(110)

J kt = 0

The natural frequency is

n =

(111)

kt
J

(112)

The mass moment of inertia of the disk is

J=

hD4
32

m =

D2
4

J =m

D2
8

(113)

The solution is completely analogous to the free-vibrating spring-mass system:

(t) = 0 cos(n t) +

44

0
sin(n t)
n

(114)

10.6

Time Constant of 1.st Order Systems

Figure 36: Turbine

The viscous fluid in the bearing imposes viscous damping torque during rotation. The governing
equation is
J + ct = 0
(t) = Cest

Js + ct = 0

The eigenvalue is
s=

ct
J

The solution is a decaying exponential

ct

(t) = 0 e J t = 0 e
The time-constant here is
=
and the response at t = is

10.7

J
ct

( ) = 0 e1

Rayleighs Energy Method

Rayleighs energy method is used to find the natural frequencies of single-degree-of-freedom systems.
The principle of conservation of energy, for undamped vibrating systems can be restated as
T1 + U1 = T2 + U2

where 1 and 2 are instants in time

(115)

Specifically, lets define 1 and 2 as

1: time of instant when mass is passing the static equilibrium position
2: time of instant when mass reaches max displacement
Under harmonic motion, at instant 1 the kinetic energy is maximum and the potential energy is
zero. At instant 2, the kinetic energy is zero and the potential energy is maximum.
T1 + 0 = 0 + U2
Tmax = Umax

(116)

This approach to the determination of natural frequency is valid only if it can be determined that
the system vibrates with simple harmonic motion.
The procedure is illuminated in the following example
45

10.7.1

Example

b
y

st

Figure 37: Example: Rayleighs Energy Method

Determine the equation of motion using energy methods:
Assuming small displacements y, the potential energy is
1
1 2
b
U = Ue + Ug = k(y + st )2 kst
mg y
2
2
`
Moment static equilibrium is
kst ` mgb = 0
Therefore

kst = mg

b
`

1
1 2
b
1
U = ky 2 + st
+ kst y mg y = ky 2
2
2
`
2

Kinetic energy is

b
1
T = m y
2
`


2

Then, using f = T + U = f (y, y)

= c and taking the time-derivative
d
dt

1 2 1 mb2 2
ky +
y
2
2 `2
ky y +

The equation of motion is

m

=0

mb2
y y = 0
`2

b2
y + ky = 0
`2

Now, determine the natural frequency using Rayleighs energy method

46

Tmax = Umax

1 mb2 2
1 2
y max = kymax
2
2 `
2

Since this method only applies for harmonic motion, that is when y = ymax cos(n t ), the max
velocity is found
y = ymax n sin(n t )
that is
y max = ymax n
Substitution yields

1 mb2 2
1 2
ymax n2 = kymax
2
2 `
2
s

n =

11
11.1

k`2
mb2

Free Vibration with Viscous Damping

General Solution

c x

kx

x , x , x

m x

Figure 38: Spring-Damper-Mass System

m
x + cx + kx = 0

(117)

ms + cs + k = 0

(118)

The quadratic formula

ax + bx + c = 0
2

b
x=
2a

b2 4ac
2a

gives the eigenvalues

s12

c
=

2m

c2 4mk
c
=

2m
2m

s

The general solution is

x(t) = C1 es1 t + C2 es2 t
and the behaviour depends particularly on the term c2 4mk.
47

c
2m

2

k
m

(119)

11.2

Critical Damping

When the term c2 4mk = 0, the system is critically damped and no vibrating behaviour is
detected. The critical damping is simply

(120)
cc = 4mk = 2 mk
Since n =

k/m, the critical damping can also be expressed

n
cc = 2 mk p
= 2mn
k/m

(121)

Damping Ratio
The damping ratio is define as the ratio between damping constant and the critical damping
constant.
c
c
=
(122)
=
cc
2mn
The solution, expressed in terms of the damping ratio is
s12

c
=

2m

s

= n

= n

k
m

(n )2 n2

x(t) = C1 en t(+

11.3

2

c
2m

2 1)

(123)

+ C2 en t(

2 1)

(124)

Underdamped

The damping ratio is used to determine whether a system is under-damped or over-damped by

< 1 Underdamped > 1 Overdamped = 1 Critically Damped

If c < cc < 2 mk, then the system will have complex eigenvalues telling us that we have oscillatory
behaviour.
q
q
2
1 = 1 2
<1
The solution is

2
2
x(t) = C1 en t(+ 1 ) + C2 en t( 1 )

2
2
= C1 en t en t 1 + C2 en t en t 1
n t

=e

C10 cos

q

2 n t

C20 sin

q



(125)

nt

Expressed as harmonic motion

x(t) = Xen t cos

q

q

1 2 n t + 0

= X0 en t sin
where X = X0 =

1 2 n t

(126)


(127)

C12 + C22 . Determining C10 and C20 , we turn to boundary conditions:

x(0) = x0 = C10

For the other constant, we need to differentiate (the sine-term always vanishes when t = 0):
n t

x(t)

=e

C20

2 n cos

q

2 n t

48

n t

n e

C10 cos

q



2 n t

+ ...

x(0)

= x 0 = C20 1 2 n C10 n
The best way to find X or X0 is to determine C10 and C20 and then do the pythagorean theorem.
x 0 + x0 n
C20 = p
1 2 n

C10 = x0

(128)

The phase-lead/lag is
 0
C

= arctan

0 = arctan

2
C10

 0
C

(129)

C20

The underdamped motion is a damped harmonic motion of angular frequency

negative exponential causes the amplitude to decrease with time.
Frequency of Damped Vibration d
d =

11.4

1 2 n . The

1 2 n

(130)

Critically Damped

The solution when = 1 becomes a decaying exponential. The eigenvalues becomes real and
repeated:
cc
= n
s12 =
2m
The solution becomes
x(t) = C1 en t + C2 ten t = (C1 + C2 t)en t
Implementing boundary conditions

(131)

x(0) = x0 = C1

And differentiating for the second constant

x(t)

= C2 en t (C1 + C2 t)n en t
x(0)

= C2 x0 n
The solution is

11.5

x(t) = (x0 + (x 0 + x0 n )t) en t

(132)

Overdamped

When > 1, the eigenvalues are real and distinct.

s12

c
=

2m

s

c
2m

2

k
m

Useful to remember:
c
=
cc

cc
n =
=
2m

k
m

n =

c cc
c
=
cc 2m
2m

(133)

Then the eigenvalues are expressed

s12 = n
and the solution

(n )2 n2 = n

n t +

x(t) = C1 e

2 1

2 1

n t

+ C2 e

2 1

(134)

Applying boundary conditions, we first differentiate x(t)










q
q
n t + 2 1
n t 2 1
x(t)

= C1 n + 2 1 e
+ C2 n 2 1 e
x(0) = x0 = C1 + C2

x(0)

= x 0 = C1 n +

49

1 + C2 n

11.6

Logarithmic Decrement

The logarithmic decrement represents the rate at which the amplitude of a free-damped vibration
decreases. It is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes
measured one cycle apart.

X exp( nt )

x1

x2

Figure 39: Logarithmic Decrement

Letting t1 and t2 be the times corresponding to x1 and x2 , where
t2 = t1 + d

d =

2
d

For the underdamped system

n t

x(t) = X0 e

q

sin

such that

2 n t

n t

+ 0 = Xe

cos

q

2 n t

x1
X0 en t1 sin (d t1 0 )
=
x2
X0 en t2 sin (d t2 0 )

Recall that
sin(d t2 0 ) = sin(d (t1 + d ) 0 ) = sin(d (t1 + 2/d ) 0 ) = sin(d t1 + 2 0 )
en t1
en t1
x1
= n t2 = n t1 n = en d
d
x2
e
e
e

(135)

The logarithmic decrement:

= ln

x1
x2

= n d = n p

2
2
p
=
1 2 n
1 2

(136)

For small damping ratios we can approximate

0.3

(137)

The logarithmic decrement is dimensionless and is actually another form of the dimensionless
damping ratio . From one, we can retrieve the other:
=p

(2)2 + 2
50

(138)

The damping ratio can easily be found experimentally by measuring two displacements separated
by any integer number of cycles.
xm+1 t1 + md

x1 t1
x1

en t1

xm+1

en (t1 +md )

= emn d

Using the definition of the logarithmic decrement

ln

x1

xm+1
=

11.7

= mn d = m

1
x1
ln
m
xm+1


(139)

Energy Dissipated due to Viscous Damping

In a viscously damped system, the rate of change of energy with time dW/dt is given by
dW
= F v = cv 2 = cx 2
dt
Assume simple harmonic motion x = X sin(d t)
For a damped system, SHM is only possible when the steady-state response is considered under a
harmonic force of freq d . The loss of energy due to the damper is supplied by the excitation under
steady-state forced vibration
W =

Z d  2
dx

dt

dt =

Z 2/d
0

cX 2 d2 cos2 (d t) dt

This integral can be evaluated directly by manipulating the squared cos-term.

W = cd X 2
Notice that W is a function of damped-frequency, i.e. d =

(140)
1 2 n .

Consider the case for a spring-damper-mass system.

F = m
x = kx cx

F = kx cx

The rate of change of energy with time is

dW
= F v = kxx cx 2 = kX 2 d sin(d t) cos(d t) cX 2 d2 cos2 (d t)
dt
Energy dissipated per cycle is
W =

Z d
0

kX 2 d sin(d t) cos(d t) + cX 2 d2 cos2 (d t) dt

The first integrand-term can be expressed using

2 sin(a) cos(a) = sin(2a)
and the second integrand-term yields the result from eq 140
kX 2 d
W =
2

Z d
0

sin(2d t) + cd X 2 = cd X 2

The result is the same as for the damper alone, i.e. eq 140 is valid also for a parallel spring-damper
51

11.8

Fraction of the Total Energy Dissipated Each Cycle

The total energy of the system can be expressed by either max kinetic energy or max potential
energy, that is
1
1
mx 2max = mX 2 d2
2
2

1 2
1
kxmax = kX 2
2
2

or

For small values of damping, the two are approximately the same.
W
cd X 2
2c
cd
= 1
=
=
2X 2
W
m
m
m
d
d
2

(141)

Recall the logarithmic decrement from eq 136 and the useful-to-remember term from eq 133
= n d =

2n
d

n =

c
2m

yields

W
= 2n d = 2 4
(142)
W
The term W/W is called specific damping capacity and the 4 is true for small damping values
(see eq 137).

11.9

Torsional Viscous Damper

ct

kt

J
c t

kt

Figure 40: Torsional Viscous Damper

The governing equation is

J + ct + kt = 0

(143)

The eigenvalues are

q

s12

ct
=

2J

c2t 4Jkt
2J

ct
=

2J

s

ct
2m

2

kt
J

(144)

The solutions are completely analogous to their translating counterparts. For the under-damped
case, we have
s

d =

1 2 n

n =

kt
J

52

ct
ct
ct
=
=
ctc
2Jn
2 kt J

(145)

12
12.1

Free Vibration with Coloumb Damping

Equations of Motion

mg

x, x, x

mx

kx
N

Figure 41: Coloumb Damping

Consider two cases:
1: x is positive

m
x + kx = N

This equation is not homogeneous and a particular solution must be found.

x(t) = A1 cos(n t) + A2 sin(n t) + xp (t)
From the method of undetermined coefficients, a constant rhs yields a constant xp
xp (t) = C

mxp + kxp = N = kC

The particular solution is then

xp (t) = C =
2: x is negative

N
k

(146)

m
x + kx = N

The only change is the sign of xp ...

xp (t) =

12.2

N
k

(147)

Solution to the EOM

The general solution of the system in figure 41 is expressed by

x(t) = A1 cos(n t) + A2 sin(n t) + xp (t)

(148)

However,in vibration the sign of the friction-force changes each cycle. Thus we define the sign
function

x>0

1
sign(x) = 1 x < 0

0
x=0
and write the DE:

m
x + kx + sign(x)
N = 0

This equation is nonlinear - for which we have no analytical solution and must solve numerically.
However, the equation is piecewise linear and in those regions we can find analytical solutions.

53

Assume initial conditions

x(0) = x0 ,

x(0)

=0

Interpreting this, we start the time at an instant where the mass changes direction - say to the
extreme right (x0 > 0). Therefore, the first half-cycle x < 0. Let x1 , ..., xk denote amplitudes at
successive half-cycles. Using piecewise equations:
(

x(t) =
(

x =

A1 cos(n t) + A2 sin(n t)
A3 cos(n t) + A4 sin(n t) +

N
k
N
k

x > 0
x < 0

(149)

A2 n cos(n t) A1 n sin(n t) x > 0

A4 n cos(n t) A3 n sin(n t) x < 0

(150)

Using boundary conditions: recall that x < 0 during the first half-cycle:
x(0)

= x 0 = A4 n = 0
x(0) = x0 = A3 +

N
k

A4 = 0

A3 = x0

N
k

These constants are valid for t (0, /2) = (0, /n ).

For t = /2, the mass is at its extreme left, i.e. at x = x1 where x1 < 0.
If we say that x = 0, then this discontinuity will ruin our analysis. Therefore we use the endpoint
of the linear piece rather, that is we still have negative velocity when reaching the endpoint and
change the valid range from t (0, /2) to t (0, /2]:
N
N
x( /2) = x(/n ) = x1 = A3 cos(n /n ) +
= x0
k
k


N
k

The amplitude has reduced by 2N/k from t = 0 to t = /2.

The next time-interval is t ( /2, ] = (/n , 2/n ] where x > 0.
The first extreme position in this interval is x1 = 2N/k x0
x(/n ) = A1 cos(n /n ) + A2 sin(n /n )
This yields
A1

N
2N
= x1 =
x0
k
k

A1 = x 0

x(/

n ) = A2 n cos() = 0

N
= x1
k

3N
k

A2 = 0

Then, for the next extreme-position, denoted by x2 = x( ), i.e.

x(2/n ) = x2 = A1 cos(2)

4N
N
= x0
k
k

A rule seems to emerge, that is the amplitude is reduced by 2N/k each half-cycle or from one
extreme position to the next. The motion stops when the friction-force is larger than the restoring
spring force, that is
N
kx N x
(151)
k
The number of half-cycles elapsed before kx N is found by
x0 r

2N
N

k
k

54

x0 N/k
2N/k

(152)

12.3

Torsional Coloumb Damping

Completely analogous to the translating counterpart - the amplitude of the motion at the end of
the rth half-cycle is given by
2T
(153)
r = 0 r
kt
and the motion ceases when
r

13

0 T /kt
2T /kt

(154)

Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping

c X 2 x 2

c X

kx

cX

x , x , x

Figure 42: Viscous Damping

First we investigate a viscously damped system - especially the closed loop in figure 42 and the
energy dissipated here.
Force needed to displace by x

F = kx + cx

For harmonic motion with amplitude X and freq

F = kX sin(t) + cX cos(t)
cos() =
s

F = kx + cX 1

1 sin2 ()

x
X

2

= kx + c X 2 x2

In figure 42, the area of the closed loop represents the energy dissipated by the damper during one
cycle.
I
W =

(155)

F dx

Using substitution x = X sin(t), dx = X cos(t) dt. For one cycle, the integration limits are 0
to = 2/. Then the integral becomes
Z 2/
0

(kX sin(t) + cX cos(t))X cos(t) dt =

Z 2/ 
0

kX 2 sin(t) cos(t) + cX 2 2 cos2 (t) dt

We can substitute sin(a) cos(a) = 0.5 sin(2a) and cos2 (a) = 0.5 + 0.5 cos(2a). The result is
W = cX 2

(156)

Comparing the closed loop in figure 42 to that in figure 43, the behaviour is comparable. Therefore we use the result from the previous analysis from the viscous-damping curve to determine the
55

Figure 43: Hysteresis Damping

energy-dissipation for the hysteresis-curve.
It is found experimentally that the energy loss per cycle due to internal friction is independent of
frequency but approximately proportional to the square of the amplitude.
To achieve such behaviour from 156, a proportional relation between the damper constant of the
hysteresis damper h and the viscous damper c is found:
h=

h : hysteresis damper coefficent

The the energy loss per cycle is

W = hX 2

(157)
(158)

which is consistent with experimental results stated above.

14
14.1
14.1.1

Computer-Aided Kinematics
Matrix Rules
General Rules

Only specific rules are considered. The notation is capitol bold-letters for matrices and bold-letters
for vectors.

a1T

h
i
a2T
T

A = a1 a2 ... an
A = .

..
anT

For nonsingular matrices

AA1 = I

(159)
1

(160)

(AB)1 = B1 A1

(161)

(A + B) C = AC + BC

(162)

(AB) C = A (BC)

(163)

A1

T

= AT

For general matrices

(A + B) = A + B
T

(AB)T = BT AT

(164)
(165)

For orthogonal matrices

AA1 = I
A1 = AT
56

(166)
(167)

14.1.2

Skew Symmetric Matrices

Skew symmetric matrices are useful for algebraic manipulation. Especially for 3D kinematics/dynamics.
aij = aji , (i, j) aii = 0, i
(168)
Equation 168 tells us that skew-symmetric matrices have property A = AT and that the diagonal
is zero.
A skew symmetric matrix associated with a vector
0
a3 a2

e = a3
0
a1
a
a2 a1
0

(169)

eb
The algebraic cross product ~a ~b is written a

Properties of the tilde-operator

14.1.3

e
e b = ba
a

(170)

ea = 0
a

(171)

e = baT aT bI
eb
a

(172)

ef
a
b = baT abT

(173)

eb
ea
eb
e
=a

(174)

e + abT = b
ea
eb
e + baT
a

(175)

e
^
e+b
a
+b=a

(176)

Vector and Matrix Single-Variable Derivatives

The usual rules apply for single-variable derivatives of vector-functions as for scalar functions. The
e b both obey the derivative product rule. Note that
scalar product aT b and the vector product a
e
e = a
a

Also for matrices, the product rule holds the same form.

d 
a(t)T b(t) = a T b + aT b
dt
d

e (t)b(t)) = a
e b + a
eb
(a
dt
d
+ AB

(A(t)B(t)) = AB
dt

14.1.4

(177)
(178)
(179)

Partial Derivatives of Vectors

Consider a scalar function with multiple real variables denoted by a vector q. To be consistent
with the later notation, let q be an n-vector
"

= q =
R1n
q
qj

the partial derivative of a scalar function is a row vector

Consider an m-vector function with n real variables

1 (q)
..
(q) = .

m (q)

57

(180)

Let i be the row-index and j be the column-index.

"

i
Rmn
= q =
q
qj

the partial derivative of a vector-func is a matrix

(181)

The partial derivative of the scalar product of two m-vector-functions a(q), b(q) is a row vector
 T 
a b = bT aq + aT bq R1n
q

(182)

The partial derivative of the vector product of two m vector-functions a(q), b(q) is a matrix

e q Rmn
e b) = a
e bq ba
(a
q

14.2
14.2.1

(183)

Constraint Equations
The Body-Fixed Frame and Rotation Matrix

siP

riP

i
i
i

ri

x
Figure 44: Body-Fixed Frame
Body-fixed coordinates: (, )Ti . The orientation of a body is denoted by and expressed by a
rotation matrix A. In 2D, the rotation matrix is a 2-by-2 matrix:
"

cos() sin()
A=
sin() cos()

(184)

Considering the figure 44, the position-vector to the point P expressed in global coordinates is
denoted by ~riP where the index indicates that the point is fixed onto body i. The vector ~sPi has a
constant counterpart ~sPi which is a body-fixed vector - constant with respect to frame (, )Ti . The
vector to an arbitrary point P on the body:
rPi = ri + sPi ,

sPi = Ai sPi

(185)

where sPi = (iP , iP )T , ri = (xi , yi )T and rPi = (xPi , yiP )T . Note that the subscript denotes the
body and the superscript denotes the point. In this notation xPi denotes the global x coordinate
of the point P on body i and iP denotes the coordinate of the point P relative to body i
14.2.2

LP Joints

Lower pairs are joints where there is surface contact between bodies. Examples are revolute joint,
~ is zero then the bodies are connected by a revolute joint.
prismatic joint etc. In the figure 45 if kdk
~ > 0, then the bodies are connected by a revolute-revolute joint. For a longitudal driver, the
If kdk
magnitude of d~ is described by a function `(t).
58

(t )

siP

sj P

j
ij

y
ri

rj

x
Figure 45: Revolute Joint
Revolute Joint
A revolute joint is described by
(r,2) = ri + sPi rj sPj = 0

(186)

and removes all translational degrees of freedom - 2 in 2D and 3 in 3D.

A revolute-revolute imposes only one constraint. That is, the vector d~ has constant length.
kdk ` = 0
where ` is the fixed distance between the revolute joints. Equivalently, the scalar product of d~ with
itself can be used
(rr,1) = dT d `2 = 0,
d = rj + sPj ri sPi
(187)

i
siP i

ri

sj P

rj

j
ij

x
Figure 46: Translational Joint
Prismatic Joint
The figure 46 shows a prismatic joint connecting two bodies. A prismatic joint removes the rotational degree of freedom and constrains one-out-of-two translational coordinates. Therefore two
degrees of freedom of the system are constrained.
"

(p,2)

i ij
= j
= 0,
dT n

d = rj + sPj ri sPi
59

nd

(188)

For a prismatic-revolute joint, both bodies are still allowed to rotate relative to each other, but not
to translate in other directions than one.
(pr,1) = nT d = 0,
14.2.3

(189)

nd

HP Joints

Higher pairs are joints where contact occurs at a point or line. Examples are gears and cam-shafts.

(i)

(j)

(j)

(i)

i
(k)

Figure 47: Spur Gears

Spur Gears
For two fixed spur gears (pitch diameters are shown in the left figure) figure 47, the tangential
velocity of the meshing is v = i i = j j . This relation is integrated:
Z

j j dj =

i i di

and used for the constraints:

(g,1) = i (i 0i ) + j (j 0j ) = 0

(190)

For gears attached on a moving body (right figure - 3 bodies) since the third body k also can rotate
the tangential velocity at the mesh is v = i ( i i ) = j ( j k ) yielding


(g2,1) = i (i 0i ) (k 0k ) + j (j 0j ) (k 0k ) = 0

(191)

Rack and Pinion

(i)

(j)

Figure 48: Spur Gears

For the rack and pinion shown in fig 48, the velocity of body j is v = x j = i i . The constraint
equation is
(rp,1) = i (i 0i ) xj x0j
(192)
60

14.3

Method of Appended Driving Constraints

k =nm

k : # dof

n : # coordinates

m : # indep constraint eq

(193)

If there are m kinematic constraints, then k driving constraints must be appended to the kinematic
constraints to obtain n = m + k equations.
= (q) = 0
(d)

(d)

(194)

(q, t) = 0

(195)

The time-derivative is taken to obtain velocity eqns

"

"

0
q
=
(d) q
(d)
q
t

(196)

The time-derivative again for acceleration eqns. Notice the important fact that the velocity equation
is linear in terms of velocity and the acceleration equation is linear in terms of acceleration.
qq q 2
q
=
(d) 2
(d)
(d)
(d) q
qq q 2qt q tt
q

"

"

61

(197)

15
15.1

Appendix
Principle of Moments

The following equations describe the principle of moments:

R=

MO =

(198)

F
M,

M =F d

MO =

(F d)

R d = MO

(199)
(200)

Recall that the moment produced by two equal, opposite, and noncollinear forces is called a couple
~ to a force-couple system at
M. We can reduce a system of forces (expressed by the resultant R)
an arbitrary point O. Also, the moment of the resultant force about any point O equals the sum
of the moments of the original forces of the system about the same point.

Figure 49: Force-Couple System vs Moment of Resultant

15.2

Centroids - COM/COG

Determine mathematically the location of the center of gravity of any body. The mass
element
R
dm is affected by the gravitational field by dW = g d m. The total weight is W = dW . The
moment about a coordinate axis, say the y-axis, from the element dm is dM = x dW . The total
moment defines the location of G relative toR the y-axis by M = x
W . This moment is equal to the
summation of the elemental moments M = dM .

x
=

x dW
,
W

y =

y dW
,
W

y dm
,
m

z =

z dW
W

z dm
m

(201)

For constant gravitational field g, we have

x
=

x dm
,
m

y =

z =

Since r = xi + yj + zk we can express the same equations in

r =

r dm
,
m

= constant
62

r =

r dV
V

(202)

The coordinates of G, the center of gravity:

r =

r dW
W

(203)

The coordinates of C, the centroid of a wire

r =

r dL
L

(204)

The coordinates of C, the centroid of an area

r =

r dA
A

(205)

The coordinates of C, the centroid of a volume

r =

r dV
V

(206)

Figure 50: COM and Centroids

15.3

Area Moment of Inertia (2nd Moment of Inertia)

Frequently, force-fields (pressure/stress) vary linearly with the distance from some axis AB. To
determine the moment of an element dA subjected to a linearly varying force-fields, dM = y dF =
ky 2 dA a term arises:
M=

dM =

ky 2 dA

The moment of inertia of the element dA is defined

dIx y 2 dA

dIy x2 dA

Rectangular Moments of Inertia:

Ix =

y 2 dA

(207)

Iy =

x2 dA

(208)

Polar Moment of Inertia

Notice that

63

Iz =

r2 dA

(209)

(x2 + y 2 ) dA

(210)

Iz = Ix + Iy

(211)

15.4

Radius of Gyration

Consider an arbitrary distributed area A with moment of inertias Ix , Iy and Iz about some point
O. If we concentrate this area A to a long narrow strip at a distance kx above the x-axis, then the
radius of gyration is the distance kx that yields the same moment of inertia Ix .

Figure 51: Radius of Gyration

Similarly for a circular thin strip of area A centered at O, then the radius kz is the distance where
Iz = kz2 A.
Ix = kx2 A

Iy = ky2 A

Iz = kz2 A

(212)

(213)

or equivalently
kx =

15.5

Ix /A

ky =

Iy /A

kz =

Iz /A

Parallel Axis Theorem

The parallel axis theorem is a method to transfer the moment of inertia of one axis to another. The
axes between which the transfer is made must be parallel, and one of the axes must pass through
the centroid of the area.

Figure 52: Transfer of Axis

Consider figure 52. The axes x0 ,y0 passes through the centroid C. The moment of inertia of the
element dA about the x-axis is
dIx = (y0 + dx )2 dA = y02 dA +d2x dA +2y0 dx dA
64

The integral

2y0 dx dA = 2dx

y0 dA = 0

since y0 passes through the centroid. The other terms yields

Z

y02 dA +

d2x dA = Ix + d2x

dA = Ix + d2x A

and illuminates the rule:

Ix = Ix + d2x A

Iy = Iy + d2y A

Iz = Iz + d2 A

(214)

The distance d = d2x + d2y and the polar rule still applies
Iz = Iz + d2 A = Ix + Iy + (d2x + d2y )A = Ix + Iy

15.6

(215)

Mass Moment of Inertia

Consider a body of mass m, rotating about an axis O-O with angular acceleration . An element
dm has a tangential component of acceleration r.
By Newtons 2nd law
dF = r dm
dM = r dF = r2 dm
The resulting total moment
M=

dM =

r2 dm

All elements experience the same

M =

r2 dm = I

The mass moment of inertia of the body about axis O-O is

I=

15.7

= const

r dm

I=

r2 dV

(216)

Radius of Gyration II

Analogous to the case of the second moment of inertia, the radius of gyration k is the distance
from an axis that yields the same moment of inertia to a concentrated mass m. That is
s

I=k m
2

15.8

k=

I
m

(217)

Transfer of Axes

Similarly as the case of the second moment of inertia, the parallel axis theorem still holds:
Axes must be parallel
One must pass through the mass center
I = I + md2

(218)

k 2 = k2 + d2

(219)

This also apply for the radius of gyration

65

15.9

Spatial Bodies

In planar motion, a single subscript is sufficient to designate the inertia axis. The moment of
inertia of a body rotating about an axis through a point O is denoted by IO . For spatial motion,
the moment of inertia about the x,y,z-axes are denoted by a double subscript.

Figure 53: Figures for Mass Moment of Inertia

Ixx =

Iyy =

Izz =

(y 2 + z 2 ) dm

(220)

ry2 dm =

(x2 + z 2 ) dm

(221)

rz2 dm =

(x2 + y 2 ) dm

(222)

rx2 dm

In the case of a flat plate, see fig 53, a relation between the area moment of inertia and the mass
moment of inertia exists. Assuming constant thickness t and constant density
Izz =

r2 dm = t

r2 dA = tIz

(223)

If the thickness t is small compared with the dimensions in the plane, then the mass moments of
inertia Ixx and Iyy of the plate about the x and y axes are approximated by
Ixx
Iyy

Z
Z

y dm = t

y 2 dA = tIx

(224)

x2 dm = t

x2 dA = tIy

(225)

The rule for area moment of inertia Iz = Ix + Iy does not generally hold for the mass moment of
inertia. However, for thin plates only (z-coord is negligible compared to the x,y-coordinates)
Izz Ixx + Iyy
and for the mass element taken as a flat slice of differential thickness, say dz, the rule holds exactly
and
dIzz = dIxx + dIyy
for the x and y axes in the plane of the plate.

66