Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • 01.petroleum Geology PDF

    Uploaded by

    Irfan Sokacana
    10 views24 pages

    Original Title

    01.Petroleum Geology.pdf

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    10 views24 pages

    01.petroleum Geology PDF

    Uploaded by

    Irfan Sokacana

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 24
    1 Petroleum - Geology ology is the cence that ens with the og history and physical structure ofthe earth and its fe as ocorded in rocks Iti ance ‘sential tothe petroleum industybeease mast pete ound itis roeks far underground. Anyone intrest inthe petleus ndsiry ‘needs to befallar wit the base principles of e0lgy. Geologists ty to answer such questions show ad theearh is where ‘tame from, and what is made of Todo this, they sud the evidence of ‘events that oceurred milions of ears ago, sucha earthgeakes, volcanos, snd ding continents and then relate these tothe results of mia events happening today. For example they ty to discover where anclent oceans and mountain ringes were, nd they race te evolution oie Uough fe ‘ils They also study the composition ofthe rock inthe eather. In the ours oftheir investigations, geologists ely onthe knowlege derive fom ‘many othe scence, such as astronomy, chemise, physi, and baka, “The petroleum goclogit sconceed with rocks that contain ol nd 88 particulary rock that cantain enough petit abe comarca vle- ‘le The company that dil fo oi want a reasonable chance of making a rot on is eventual sl, considering the markt price of oi and ges, the amount of recoverable pete, the expoced prdution ze and the cst of dling and producing the well So pauoleum geologists have ojos ft they reconsract the geology ofan neato fn likely oats for petroleum accumulations then, when thy fel one of these lectins they ‘valuatito determine whether tas erough petroleum tobe comunesily prides Beforewegoca,tisenpertantta lear up acomisce misunderstand: ing about what an oll eservoir is, Many people tink that a reservoir is & lang, subterraneen cave filed with oi oa buried river lowing with pure ‘crude from bank tbank Nothing could be ether fom the truth Yet Is ‘easy to understand how such nations come about. Even experienced field workers often eer oa reservoir aan il fol And since many cies sore ther drinking waterin ponds or lakes called reservoirs, this termed tothe confusion. nai petrolaon rear iss rock foctstion that ols cilland gas, somewhat like a sponge holds water, ‘And how big is #reservair? In the ol busts a reservoirs size determined by the amount fol an gas it contains Physically, Rowever, & langereservoirmay be broed and shallow, narrow and deep, or some shape inbetwoen. The Fst Texas Field covers thousands of acres or hectares ba is ‘only Sto 10 cet (150s metres) hick, On the then the Gronigen Fle in Holand extends over oly about 3 aces @ hectares) but is some 85 fot (2s mates sick, BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOLOGY Figure 11 Acros seton of heath shows is ber and ter cre, he ‘mantle, and the cst Figure 12. Therdatve postion the cerkinens as tele 200 milion ‘ors ag (A ad today sronomer and physicists think today that dhe earth wus formed at lens 435 billion yes ago out of cloud of oem dit. As ge308Y Prlled the planet toother, the heat of compression ane ofits radiontive ‘ements used tte Becomemlten. The heaviest components, most i fd nickel, snk tothe eats center and became the ae. Geologists be live thatthe cone hasta parts aninner sola core and an outer igi core (ig. 1, Both are very hot, dence and under tremendous pressure, Lighter ‘minerals formed a thick, probably solid mane aroured he outer cove. Ce thin minerals rich in alurinum,sicon, magnesia, and oer light ele ‘ents solidified into a thin rocky er above te mantle Plate Tectonics Geologists nse to assume, quite naturally, tha he continent always lay ‘where they are now, However, resemblances betreen cet fos plants In Europe ana America, pls an apparent it between the cousins le to the theory tat the continents have moved over ine (g 12) Most gol sts foday belive that the cus san assemblage of age plats tha ft together ike ajigaaw paral. Butunlkee jaw puzzle pass ofthc eart's FUNDAMENTALS OF Perwoueuse ‘rust continue to move and change shape. In some places they side past ne another in others, they colle with or pal ava fom each oe. The theory that explains these proceso is calla plate acti. Crustal Plates Geologists distinguish between acne oust, which ies under the oceans, fad comin eat of which the continents are made (Aig. 13) Oceanic ‘ruttshinabout 5 to 7 mie (6 11 Klometes}—and made up pia Fly of heavy rock thats formed when melten rook (gma) coos. The rock of continental erst however s hick 1040310 miles (16048 lometes. ‘and relatively light. Because of thse difeences, continents tendo float Uke ccbergs i “sea” of heavier roc, sing high above sea level where they are thickest in the mourtains, ‘Some ofthe bes evidence for moving plats comes from the bottom of ‘he se, the mile of the Alani Ocean sa mountain rang 10,00 miles (06.100 lets) eag that snakes frm kel the sothem tip of Alron (Gg 1.4) has deep Ho trench slong its est. vegan of thi Mid ‘Aslan Ridge has sggeted tht itina pace where wo get plates are av sngapart Alongthenitisssringofundersenolenoes Fachmeone sp, the pressure of the lava pouring out pushes the sides of he nt farther pact. {Tava then harder into rock and becomes now crust between the two pls. Figure A The Mid-Aanie Ridge an example of vo pales meving apa. Forming new ean rs a va sing frm beneath the plates hardens. Petroleum Geology Foure 13 Oceante erst heavier tha continental ent. Figure 15 Along th Pati coas the North and South American continent late eon the Pale down Figure 16. A warp gently ted | are of hornet the plates inthe Atlantic are moving par, then the Pctic Osean sn is presumably becoming smaller. Infact, goolgiss believe tat the ‘westward mavernent ofthe North and South Aesicon continents hier continental erste forcing the Pacific plat (heaves ccearc crust) doen ‘ward into tie mande(lig 1), This collision ofan oceanic and a contin Plate acount forthe Voleanoes and euthguskes common ang this zone Geologist alive evidence of what happens when twe continental plates collide. They believe that the tallest mountains in the wold, the FHimalays, formed when Indi smashed int Asia, Like an incredibly sow ‘adam collision between wo cars tecrustal olson buckled ae folded the ook along th ting by a mesturable mount today edges ofthe two plates I fac the Himalayas ares Geologie Structures Allthis movement ofthe ears cust over millions of yeas means thatthe shapes and lations of land masses and oceans have changed. Fosls of ‘marine organisms found nsomeco the highest aouatain an inthe dee ‘xtoilells prove that the rks there wer formed in ancient sea nd then ‘seo fl thet present positions. (Glogs deserve thre basi stractres tht occur when rks de orm, or change shape, die to tectonic movement warp, fol, at falls Warps and os Near the surface ofthe cast, at atmospheric temprtanes and pseu, ‘oc tnd to break when subjected to great stresses such a5 earthquakes Homer, deeper ito te crust hea! sing rom the mantle aises the rok temperature andthe pressure of verying rocks compress thers. At these higher temperatures and pressures, the rocks become somewhat fel Instead of breaking they fet warp o fo when steed pe occur when bro ares ofthe crust rie o drop without fac ‘uring The rock strata in these areas appeas to be horizontal but, on closer Inspection are actully sighted, or dipping ig. 18) FunDaMentAts oF Perkourvae Petroleum Geology 5 gue 19 A dome may be neat ‘arulr (A) or Soop (8, Some have an nse core of el or other Spe ‘feck that putes up he surounding rock (Ch Geologists further divide anictines and syns aconding £0 BOW the fldstile A short asicine wid scr plunging downward al dive tions fom a high point is cle a dane (fig, 19). Many domes are lost perfectly ccular Some of them havea coe af on typeof rock tat has pushed up ino the sunounding ork and edi such a the salt domes ‘long the US. Gul Coast. A syneline that dips down towaed «connor ‘enter pcaled Basin Fig. 1.10) Anilines and eynelines ae important 40 petroleum geologts beetute they often contain ptrlewn. Funamentais oF Pereousun gure L10 A basins the opposite of dome Fouts ‘When rocks near the surface break or facture, the to halves may move in relation fo each other If they do, the ature called fea The too halves longa faultzay move spar onl few milimetres many yards or mts, ‘along the San Andreas Flt California ig 11), Remember tet the ‘west coat ofthe America isthe boundary between woo the eattslargest ‘rst plates. Tho ground next opt ofthe San Andrea alt moved zonal 2 fet (4 mots) ding the great San Franca eatnqunk of 1% Figure 111 This view of the San ‘Anais Fl inthe Caring Pain Calton shows dine ful ne. Petroleum Geology 7 Geologists clasity felts mainly by the diction ofthe movement. ‘Movement is mol vefcl ia normal andl revere fut but horaontal in nls ig, 22) Combinations of veri and horizon tal movement are also possible ingrowth fs. Faults are important to the petoleum geologist because they affect the locaton of iad gs accu rmulations. For example fault rune through aed of rock containing ll the geologist can preset wherein the same area anoterpartof the original ‘itconaining ock might ave moved. Figure 112 Several common types of fall are normal dip slip (AL reves or st ip sip 8 and lateral D), overs 1), and growth fa Sometimes fling can produce cera ecogrizable surface features (hig. 113) A grben salong, aston blockof cust between fo faults hat has ‘Sak ruatve tothe susrounding cust Abort on the other hand i sinlar Block that ere Inde North Soha accumulated in sedimented graben beneath the ocean oe, FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM gure 115 Two landscape feats formed by aus are the graben UAL a the hort Life on Earth About 101 Sbilion yeasafter the earth formed geologists believe, simple living vation appa kr te Goes. However More cOMEX fH (ig 1.1) did notappearin abundance wnt about? Sbilion yous erat the beginning the Camian period, onlyS50 milion years ago, Not until the Devonian period, about 350 milion years age, did vegetation become Land animals were scarce unt even later, Fgure 1.18 Abundant sa if helped form ptoeum beneath the cea oor Petroleum Geology 10 Because life has evolved continuouly from Precambrian tines the fossil mains of animals and plants succeed one anther ina deft, known ‘order Geologists have classified rocks in groups based pon ths succes sion as shovn in able 11. Geologss have estimated the durations of the eras, periods, and epochs irom sts of radioactive miners. The pres tence of ie may be essential to the potoleum story bees, asonding to ‘the prevaling thoory, organic matter i nocesary fr the formation of 0 Table 14 GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE Ea rid Epoch | Duation | Dates (enliers | (ons ofyeas) | of yen) oo Recent | 001 Qusterary v0, Pleistocene | 1 1 Plocene | 10 enone a Miocene | 14 25 Tertiary | Oiigocene | 15 0 Boome | 20 @ Paleocene | 10 m2 Cretaceous 6 1525 drs 0 Mesozoe 16510 asic 38 220 Peemian 35 5290 -Pennsyvanian 30 2652.35 Mississippian 3s Plesante 200840 Devonian 50 38040 Surian « sean Ondovican ” 60240 ‘Cambrian 0 80 59 Precambrian asm (Afr RM. Sain) FunbaweNtass oF Perrotrunt Categorizing Rocks Uptonaw,wehavegroupedall ecktogetheras the material hat there ples are made of Bat oF courte ts otal he sxe. Different kinds of rockcontsin diferent minerals avedilleent physi properties, and were formed in diferent ways. Geologists group the rocks of Ue at's cust {nto throe types according to how they wees formed: igneoas, sedimentary, and metsmoephie ‘Types of Rock Deep in the earth’ crust, temperatures are high enough 1 melt ock into magna. Magma sometimes erupts tothe surface a ava, ot may ore is ‘way into other sold rock underground. nether ease, when magma cool, {soldi forming gnous rocks, suc as granite and bse. Sedimentary rocks rece forme in horizontal layers, tat fom sediments A sediment ean consist of erode particles of elder 1ock (gna ‘9, sedimentary, or metamorphic) that wash downhill to lakes oe wo the ‘coeane Sediment ny leo const of rineals ht posite out of water Inany case, water sa cuca ingredient in forming sedimentary rocks Over tens of thousands of yet, the layers become thick andthe weight ofthe ‘overlying sediments compacts the ener deposits (ig. 1.15). Minerals in the water cement these deposits togethorino sedimentary rocks. Limestone, sandstone, and clay ae typical sedimentary rocks. gure 18 The weight of vein sediments combi empl sedmen it rec Metamorphic rocks ae vooks—elthor Igneous, sedimentary, or ether metamorphic roeks—that have bean buried deep in the earth wher they were subjected to lgh temperatures and pressure. The term comes fom the Grock neta, to change, nd morpe, former shape, During the meter phe process, the original rock ansergoes phys and chemical changes ‘at may greatly alors eompsition and appearance. 5o, for example, ine ‘sone can be metamorphosed into marble, and sandstone into quart, Petroleum Geology " Figure 126 Several formations tacked lem op ef ene arse are deformed ® ‘Abel of one typeof rock is known as a formation. Formations are stacked on top of one another and then deformed by folding warping, and faking (fig. 1.16, ‘The Rock Cycle ‘As you can see, overtime, gncous, aimentary, and metamorphic rocks are all changed ito one another Wind, wate and moving ice erode all types of rock caery the partis to the ace aks, and create new sei- mentary rock, The movement of magma into rock nt only ewestes ne g- ‘neous ck when cols, tao metamorphoses the existing rock sith its bes, Talon movement aes buried oct the surface, here eres, ‘or pushes it deeper into the earth, here it may metamorphose or become ‘apm rovon, movement of crest plats, and movement of molten rock continu creste new types frock rom the ol (8g. 117. seomggant oe eae y oS z jpolnton a itn igre La? Therock ce changes ocks rom one ye lo anche Petroleum-Bearing Rocks Sedimentary rocks are the rost intresting to petroleum geologists because most ol ands accumulations occur in ther igneous and metamonphic rocks rarely contain ilo gas, Puthermore, most ofthe world’s iy ‘selmentary rok formed from marine sediments deposited onthe edges of ‘ontnente This i why many of te legest deposits le along sxaccess, ‘suchas along the Gulf of Mexico aa he Persien Gull, for example, FUNDAMENTALS OF PertoueuMt Jats are not sure how petrlcum came to exist in secimetary rocks. But they do know what characteristics ptroleumflled rocks must haven der to remove the pevoleum. And they know what sets of ‘rologiesuctures and process crest conditions favorable to forming rx roles lage enough toexplol. Origin of Petroleum “Many geologists Believe tht petroleum isthe result ofthe breakdown of fwgante matler—plans and animals—by some unknown process (he fate thor, See, however, thnk that living things had nothing 0 do ‘rth 8 @e inorganic theory) Organic Theory Tae orgie hory holds that cll and gas formed fom the remalns of plants nd annals. (The te orgie refers toliving things of orgs) Mest teelgists think thatthe plants and animals that gave ie fo oll an ‘weze very small even mirecopic in size. theory, these tiny onganisms lived in ancient vers are seas, as they do today The everscrtod the plans and animals tothe sea, clong withlls and muds The seme inds of organisms lived in shallow seas and the marginal waters of the warmer oceans, where the fll in asl, steady rai to the botiom a8 they ded Most were exten or oxidized before reaching bottom, but some exaped de strocton and were entombed inthe ooze ane mie onthe seafloor As 8 resuly ach mixture of sient grinsof sit sand and nud) and onganic material formed that was cut of fom any oxygen disolved in the water. Without oxygen, the organic materia could not decay noemaly In time after thousands and thous of years a thick bay of ed rent and organic remains built upon the botiom ofthe sea. Eventually, ‘more sediments were deposited ontop ofthe organic mixture until the reat eight ofthe overlying seciment pushed the oversedimentsdegp into the ‘arth, where the bottom bads became ock (8.18). Geologiss believe that Ilghheat and petsure, bate chemin reactions, nd her forces Worked Petroleam Geology ACCUMULATIONS OF PETROLEUM Figure Lat According to the gan theory of ptleum formation, beds of sit mud, and sand were buried deep Teneath the eth The deepest layer wee tured into rock bythe weight of The overtying beds 8 Inorganic Theory ‘The inorganic wry, est put forth in the erly 100 hois that pete cither lel over fom the formation of the sla system oe was formed ater loop within the earth. This theory has the edvantage of explaining why petroleum deposits are often very deep in patterns that late oct large ‘cle structural featuesof the crust than tosaaller-saleseimentary rocks (Geologists that support the organi theory alo beieve that It explains ‘why petcleum taken from a large area i often chemically similar even ‘hugh the formations Where i was found are made of different types of rocks of ifferent geological ages. “The Chemisty of Hydrocarbons ‘The deeper in the crust a rocks the higher is pressure and tempers: ‘When th temperature reaches about 150 (68°C), carbon ané hydrogen {in rocks begin to combine chemiealy to form hundred of diferent kinds ‘of hydrocarbon molecules, Hydrocartons are chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached (fig. 1.19), Oil and natural gas are mixtures of dhiforent types ofydroatbons. The chemical process continues oa aa ‘um temperature of 25" to 38°F (107 to 177°C). Above this tempers: ture, the heavier long-chain molecules break into smaller, lighter hydrocarbons, suchas methane gas: However above SPF (240°C), organic terial destroyed a a source for petroleum. The organic theory holds that organic sediment buried too deeply produces no hydrocarbons be- ‘oust of extreme temperatures. 23 &3 @ f Figure 120 When reste rock & ‘magn, porsty ean be ten, " Figure 149. Hydreaibon males contin hydrogen and carbon atoms Heavier |popan Al haa chain of carbon lars wi drogen alors toch Methane 1B with only one carbon atom 2 smaller molecule Porosity and Permeability of Oil-Bearing Rocks Although rock appearssoi tothe naked oye, some ockshavetny openings, called pores tat canbe seen under a strong magnifying glos (1.20). ook that has poss is porous, and ts port can, with dificult, be mea- sured. Any oll or gas that exists inthe Fock sin these pores (fomenber Hat reserves something like a sponge). “The greater the porosity of formation the more petroleum iis able to ale Porosity may vary from less than §porcet in tightly cemented sandstone or cntbonate to more tan 30 percent in unconcolidted nds FunpAMeNTAls OF Prizo.evn ‘Tobe conmarcly valuable reservoir rock masthavea porely of 10 per cantor more—that is atleast 10 percent ofthe rock must be pore space, ‘apable of containing petreeum. "Porosity i of ne use if the eck snot also permeable A rock sperme- ble when its pores are connected—that i, i, gas, and water ca flow through iby moving from one pore to another (ig 121) Hydrocerban rack with low permeability have difclty moving about in the rock, and erefore they anno flow ou of he rock and atoa wll. The unit of mew ssrement of permenbilty isthe decy. Most petsleum reservoits have jpermeablits o smal that thay are measured in thoaeandths of daty, ‘emule. porous frmatcn snot necessarily permeable but highiy porous formations are often highly permeable as well Sandatones and care borates (uch a limestone an dolomite) are generally the most porous and permeable rocks ane are also the most consmoa reservoir rocks. oc thats porous ad eontins hydrocarbons but has praetialy no permeability called i, and theo init isle The westem US, for ‘rample has vat hale deposits whose petroleum willnot dow into well [Advanced mining techniques and other innovative tesnology have tobe ‘set gt hydrocarbons tom this typeof rock, Tr sands are another source of hydrocarbons. These arw formations made up of sand cemented together by tar or asphalt, wer icy typos of ‘Like shoo, sands zequie environmental, economic sna technalog- ‘al innovations to recover the hydrocarbons. Canada, Venezuela, and Rus Sahave lage tarsand cepts, [Migration of Petroleum Inthe organic theory, petoleum did no form in large concentrations n= tially it was as dispersed asthe onganie mater it origina from. Once formed, however it migrated through permeable rock and accumulated in relatively lange amount. As tectonic force moved he plileare bearing rocks out of ther birthplace, great pressures fom overlying formations squeeze the petroleum ot ofthe elaively mipermeable shale nt cracks sd nto morepermeableormationssich assandstoneiforad cola, following creutous path upward alwayssceking Uw sutface. and gat tend to sek shallower levels Unless they are tapped underground by geo- logical ormations, they will ontnue te move upward unl hey ebeape at {he surface. Infact sometims they do exalts. Since sncenttimes people ‘nave furan places known ass. Traps IF de reservoir rok ie poroas an petmeable enough, then the petroleum ‘wllmigrate. Bot fits to accumulate, something mst stop the migration. [Aira sanarangement frock layers that contains an accumulation ‘of hydrocatbons, yet prevents them from ring othe surface. The trap cane Sts ofan impermeable ayer of rck above a porous, permeable layer coe {aining the hydrocarbons. rapecome inal shapes sizes and types Peas the easiest way to group thom is by leaking tthe geologic features that ‘used them f form. Thebasc kinds of taps ae tho that formed vet folding, faulting, uncoeformitie, dames or pgs, change in permeability Within formation, or combinations ofthese Petroleum Geology igure 121A rodki prmesble when the pores are conned, 6 \ | Figur 199. fidelyreathlcestbon | tape ane cr AV and stata o. 6 Geologists group traps into twabasictypes:srutu and statgraple (ig, 122), Structural taps occur when the reservoir formation deforms. Strtgraphc traps are thove where porosity or permacbilty has changed within formation, Stroctural Traps Siroctural raps come i many sizes ane shapes. Most are formed by the folding or faulting oF reserve toc (fg 123). Some ofthe more common stectaral taps are antclinal aps, alt aps, and dome pl taps Anita Tops Reservoirs formed by folding usually have the shape ofantiines or domes (Gig. 120) tnan anilnel ap, therock ayers tat were eiginaly nid oven Forizotally wete folded upveard ino an arch or dome. Later hydcoct Sone migrates fron Blow ino one ofthe porous and permeable ds inthe anticline or dome aed accumltedin the tp ofthe oded porous layer Further upward movernent was topped by the shape of the cructure an by sel or epoca layer of impermeable ock above the reserva Teo ‘haraples ol ellfelde with anilinal taps ate Tne Santa Fe Spings Bel in California and the Agha Ja fli ea, FUNDAMENIAS OF PETROLEUM Figure 125 Common yes of sr tural traps shown as datk area te Fal, antina aneddome pas rape Fgute 124 Oiacaamults ina dame ‘Shaped suture (A) and an aticlinal typeof flé structure. An antiine 'sgererally longand nao, while the dame etal in outine 7 alt Taps ‘A ont tap 96 the name suggests, was formed by the movement of rock lng fault ine, The reservoir rock son only one side ofthe fault. On the othe side, ka one type of nut tap san impermeable Iyer that moved posite the reservole and prevents hydrocartons from migrating further {fig 125. In another ype of faa tap the impermesbe mater 2 rock Called gouge within the lalt zane tell. A fou txp depends onthe ee tivanes ofthe sal that the gouge or impermeable layer provides efelt rap saps hydroctfon migration with a sng aul {is possible fortwo or ven thse fli to form a tap (128 Pesrleutnin aut rape fendoto accumulate lengehwse, parallel tothe fault tree For example, the accamtltonsin the mary oilflldsalong the Mexs- Taleo fel zone extn fom coneal to northeastern Texas. Figure 195 | Gasandallartrappedin foul rapa reservar resling From ‘om ating or ofeeting of saa The ton othe righ of he alin has moved, avig pervious isle enpat the ydroerbon eating oe mon Fgwee127 A nonporous sll mass has formed dome-shaped traps in oneying and ureunding porous os 8 Foure 126. Srature contour mapsshow-mple (AI an compound faulting Clad gas are als found asociate with domes. A dome thathasa coreof ‘ok, called lig, that has pushed into the oer formatins may create x plug Uap, Usually che pgs made of nonporoas sl that has pierced, do ormed,or lifted the averting tata (ig. L27. Hydrocarbons migrated into any potous and pesmenble beds on both sides of the column of salt ane ‘were trapped ete snce they could not ow into the salt The pl may be realy crea a ha yplal salt dome oilfield on the US, Gulf Cast rin Germany ort canbe long and narrow ein the Romanian oilfields, FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM Hyydrocarbon accumulations in the taps around the ouside of a salt plugare usualy not continuous but broken ino separate segments by fultng fig. 1.28), Ths discontinuity can make plug traps dficlt to il successfully. The geologist knows the traps are there but cannot predict Ubelr precise locations accurately Asa rer the ail company nay drill many dry holes in an attempt to tap the reservoirs. Recent ‘:dvances in interpretation of exploration dats, however, have improved the succes ate Stratigraphic Taps Astrtigrapl tap is caused either bya nonporous formation sealing off Figure 128 Dicontnuous perish the tnp edge ofa reservoirbedorby a changeot pore and petmesblly fgpy form araund a peremeat al ‘within the reser bed ita, 129, dome IMO SHALE Figure 129 Comman type of satrap tape Uncojority Incomepacesin the carths cst layer frocks formed and then croded, and new sediment has been deposited on tp of ito form 8 youngee ayer ‘frock Sech time gapin the geologic econ ean ucnforny, Galois

    You might also like