Malazzab, Ezekiel D.

BSA-301A

SOC22-ASSIGNMENT

10/27/2016

3. Research on a short biography and their contributions in the development of

Sociology
3.1. Henri Saint-Simon (17601825), French philosopher and social thinker
Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon, often referred to as Henri de Saint-Simon
(17 October 1760 19 May 1825), was a French political and economic theorist and
businessperson whose thought played a substantial role in influencing politics, economics,
sociology, and the philosophy of science.
He created a political and economic ideology known as industrialism that claimed that the
needs of an industrial class, which he also referred to as the working class, needed to be
recognized and fulfilled to have an effective society and an efficient economy. Unlike later
conceptions by others of a working class being manual labourers alone, Saint-Simon's
conception of this class included all people engaged in productive work that contributed to
society, that included businesspeople, managers, scientists, bankers, along with manual
labourers amongst others. He said the primary threat to the needs of the industrial class
was another class he referred to as the idling class that included able people who preferred
to be parasitic and benefit from the work of others while seeking to avoid doing work. SaintSimon stressed the need for recognition of the merit of the individual and the need for
hierarchy of merit in society and in the economy, such as society having hierarchical meritbased organizations of managers and scientists to be the decision-makers in government.
He strongly criticized any expansion of government intervention into the economy beyond
ensuring no hindrances to productive work and reducing idleness in society, regarding
intervention beyond these as too intrusive.
This ideology soon inspired and influenced utopian socialism, liberal political theorist John
Stuart Mill, anarchism through its founder Pierre-Joseph Proudhon who was inspired by
Saint-Simon's thought6 and Marxism with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels identifying SaintSimon as an inspiration to their ideas and identifying him among the utopian socialists.
However historian Alan Ryan regards certain followers of Saint-Simon, rather than SaintSimon himself, as being responsible for the rise of utopian socialism that based itself upon
Saint-Simon's ideas. He also regards strong differences as existing between Saint-Simon's
conceptions and Marxism's as Saint-Simon did not promote class conflict as a solution to
societal problems nor did he adhere to the narrower definition of the working class as
manual laborers as defined by Marxists. Saint-Simon unlike Marx did not regard the
prevalent form of ownership as being paramount issue in the economy but rather the form
of management.9 Furthermore, Saint-Simon held no opposition to capitalists as a whole
unlike Marx and he regarded them as an important component of the industrial class. Later
Saint-Simon's views influenced sociologist and economist Thorstein Veblen; including
Veblen's creation of institutional economics that has included prominent economists as
adherents. Historian Alan Ryan states that by the 1950s it was clear that Saint-Simon had
invented the modern understanding of industrial society and its organization.
Saint-Simon and his secretary Auguste Comte developed what Comte would complete as
sociology.
Industrialism
In 1817 Saint-Simon published a manifesto called the "Declaration of Principles" in his work
titled L'Industrie ("The Industry"). The Declaration was about the principles of an ideology
called industrialism that called for the creation of an industrial society led by people within

what he defined as the industrial class. The industrial class, also referred to as the working
class, was defined as including all people engaged in productive work that contributed to
society, including businesspeople, managers, scientists, bankers, manual workers, and
others. He said the primary threat to the needs of the industrial class was another class he
referred to as the idling class that included able people who preferred to be parasitic and
benefit from the work of others while seeking to avoid doing work. He regarded the origins
of this parasitic activity by idlers as being associated with what he regarded as the natural
laziness of humanity. He regarded the principal economic roles of government as insuring
that productive activity in the economy is unhindered and reducing idleness in society. In
the Declaration he strongly criticized any expansion of government intervention into the
economy beyond these two principal economic roles, saying that when the government goes
beyond these roles, it becomes a "tyrannical enemy of industry" and that the industrial
economy will decline as a consequence of such excessive government intervention. 8 SaintSimon stressed the need for recognition of the merit of the individual and the need for
hierarchy of merit in society and in the economy, such as society having hierarchical meritbased organizations of managers and scientists to be the decision-makers in government.
This ideology soon inspired and influenced utopian socialism, liberal political theorist John
Stuart Mill, anarchism through its founder Pierre-Joseph Proudhon who was inspired by
Saint-Simon's thought and Marxism with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels identifying SaintSimon as an inspiration to their ideas and identifying him among the utopian socialists.
However historian Alan Ryan regards certain followers of Saint-Simon, rather than SaintSimon himself, as being responsible for the rise of utopian socialism that based itself upon
Saint-Simon's ideas. He also regards strong differences as existing between Saint-Simon's
conceptions and Marxism's as Saint-Simon did not promote class conflict as a solution to
societal problems nor did he adhere to the narrower definition of the working class as
manual laborers as defined by Marxists. Saint-Simon unlike Marx did not regard the
prevalent form of ownership as being paramount issue in the economy but rather the form
of management. Furthermore, Saint-Simon held no opposition to capitalists as a whole
unlike Marx and he regarded them as an important component of the industrial class. Later
Saint-Simon's views influenced sociologist and economist Thorstein Veblen; including
Veblen's creation of institutional economics that has included prominent economists as
adherents. Historian Alan Ryan states that by the 1950s it was clear that Saint-Simon had
invented the modern understanding of industrial society and its organization.
Saint-Simon and his secretary Auguste Comte developed what Comte would complete as
sociology.
Associate of Comte (in Auguste Comte: Life) (in positivism) (in Western philosophy:
Positivism and social theory in Comte, Mill, and Marx)

3.2. Auguste Comte (17981857), French founder of sociology

Isidore Auguste Marie Franois Xavier Comte (19 January 1798 5 September 1857),
better known as Auguste Comte, was a French philosopher. He was a founder of the
discipline of sociology and of the doctrine of positivism. He is sometimes regarded as the first
philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.
Influenced by the utopian socialist Henri Saint-Simon, Comte developed the positive philosophy
in an attempt to remedy the social malaise of the French Revolution, calling for a new social
doctrine based on the sciences. Comte was a major influence on 19th-century thought,
influencing the work of social thinkers such as Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, and George Eliot. His
concept of sociologie and social evolutionism set the tone for early social theorists and

anthropologists such as Harriet Martineau and Herbert Spencer, evolving into modern academic
sociology presented by mile Durkheim as practical and objective social research.
Comte's social theories culminated in his " Religion of Humanity", which presaged the
development of religious humanist and secular humanist organizations in the 19th century.
Comte may have coined the word altruisme (altruism).
Auguste Comte was born in Montpellier, Hrault on 19 January 1798. After attending the
Lyce Joffre and then the University of Montpellier, Comte was admitted to the cole
Polytechnique in Paris. The cole Polytechnique was notable for its adherence to the French
ideals of republicanism and progress. The cole closed in 1816 for reorganization, however,
and Comte continued his studies at the medical school at Montpellier. When the cole
Polytechnique reopened, he did not request readmission. Comte married Caroline Massin in
1825. In 1826, he was taken to a mental health hospital, but left without being cured only
stabilized by French alienist Jean-tienne Dominique Esquirol so that he could work again on
his plan (he would later attempt suicide in 1827 by jumping off the Pont des Arts). In the
time between this and their divorce in 1842, he published the six volumes of his Cours.
Comte died in Paris on 5 September 1857 from stomach cancer and was buried in the
famous Pre Lachaise Cemetery, surrounded by cenotaphs in memory of his mother, Rosalie
Boyer, and of Clotilde de Vaux. His apartment from 18411857 is now conserved as the
Maison d'Auguste Comte and is located at 10 rue Monsieur-le-Prince, in Paris' 6th
arrondissement.
The French philosopher Auguste Comte (17981857)often called the father of
sociologyfirst used the term sociology in 1838 to refer to the scientific study of society.
He believed that all societies develop and progress through the following stages: religious,
metaphysical, and scientific. Comte argued that society needs scientific knowledge based on
facts and evidence to solve its problemsnot speculation and superstition, which
characterize the religious and metaphysical stages of social development. Comte viewed the
science of sociology as consisting of two branches: dynamics, or the study of the processes
by which societies change; and statics, or the study of the processes by which societies
endure. He also envisioned sociologists as eventually developing a base of scientific social
knowledge that would guide society into positive directions.
Another early figure, he is largely credited with founding the discipline. He is also
considered one of the first philosophers of science and one of the first positivists all of
which is a pretty big burden for one man to bear. Furthermore, most of his lifes work went
into concept of religion of humanity, a kind of secular replacement for religion about
celebrating humanity coming together as one but without the superstition. The idea further
went on to influence the modern movement of humanism both human and religious that
grew through the 19th and 20th centuries.
Contributions:
Philosophical studies (in Western philosophy: Positivism and social theory in Comte, Mill, and Marx )
Political philosophy (in political philosophy: Saint-Simon and Comte )
Born after the French revolution of 1789
He proposed the Philosophical position of Positivism
He theorized that the methods of physical science are regarded as the accurate means of
obtaining knowledge and therefore social science should adhere to the same.
He developed the idea and coined the term Sociology

He was the founder of Sociology

Philosopher greatly influenced events following French Revolution.
Age of 16, left home in Montpellier for Paris, enroled in the Ecole Polytechnique. Expelled
organizing a demonstration.
In 1818, met Henri Saint-Simon, famous french socialist, with whom he collaborated on a
series of essays. When major differences developed, they ended their relationship with
much bitterness.
Comte eventually reached the conclusion that he should develop his iwn ideas; he decided
that he would not read any scientific writings, reviews, or even newspapers to keep his
mind from being contaminated by the thoughts of others, called cerebral hygiene.
1842, he completed his first great work Positive Philosophy, composed of six volumes, to
develop and advance the study of society to the third and the last stage and to apply the
methods of science to the study of society by studying and reorganizing society along
scientific lines, hope to improved society. And first used the term sociology which he
intended to call social physics, study of society on a higher level. Twelve years later, he
produced his major work, Positive Polity.
He strongly believed in the importance of his ideas and he refused all royalties from these
books because he felt they should be givento the world.
Two subject matter: Social Statics and Social Dynamics.
Three stages of Knowledge: theological (religious) stage; metaphysical (abstract reasoning)
stage; and positive (scientific) stage in order of simple to complex.

3.3. Herbert Spencer (18201903), English philosopher, second founder of sociology

Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, biologist,
anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian
era.
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive
development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human
culture and societies. He was "an enthusiastic exponent of evolution" and even "wrote about
evolution before Darwin did." As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects,
including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, literature,
astronomy, biology, sociology, and psychology. During his lifetime he achieved tremendous
authority, mainly in English-speaking academia. "The only other English philosopher to have
achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell, and that was in the
20th century." Spencer was "the single most famous European intellectual in the closing
decades of the nineteenth century" but his influence declined sharply after 1900: "Who now
reads Spencer?" asked Talcott Parsons in 1937.
Spencer is best known for the expression "survival of the fittest", which he coined in
Principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. This
term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of
sociology and ethics, he also made use of Lamarckism.

Spencer was born in Derby, England, on 27 April 1820; the son of William George Spencer
(generally called George). Spencer's father was a religious dissenter who drifted from
Methodism to Quakerism, and who seems to have transmitted to his son an opposition to all
forms of authority. He ran a school founded on the progressive teaching methods of Johann
Heinrich Pestalozzi and also served as Secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society, a scientific
society which had been founded in the 1790s by Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles
Darwin.
Spencer was educated in empirical science by his father, while the members of the Derby
Philosophical Society introduced him to pre-Darwinian concepts of biological evolution,
particularly those of Erasmus Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
In 1858 Spencer produced an outline of what was to become the System of Synthetic
Philosophy. This immense undertaking, which has few parallels in the English language,
aimed to demonstrate that the principle of evolution applied in biology, psychology,
sociology (Spencer appropriated Comte's term for the new discipline) and morality. Spencer
envisaged that this work of ten volumes would take twenty years to complete; in the end it
took him twice as long and consumed almost all the rest of his long life. The last decades of
Spencer's life were characterized by growing disillusionment and loneliness.

The 19thcentury Englishman Herbert Spencer (18201903) compared society to a living

organism with interdependent parts. Change in one part of society causes change in the
other parts, so that every part contributes to the stability and survival of society as a whole.
If one part of society malfunctions, the other parts must adjust to the crisis and contribute
even more to preserve society. Family, education, government, industry, and religion
comprise just a few of the parts of the organism of society.
Spencer suggested that society will correct its own defects through the natural process of
survival of the fittest. The societal organism naturally leans toward homeostasis, or
balance and stability. Social problems work themselves out when the government leaves
society alone. The fittestthe rich, powerful, and successfulenjoy their status because
nature has selected them to do so. In contrast, nature has doomed the unfitthe poor,
weak, and unsuccessfulto failure. They must fend for themselves without social assistance
if society is to remain healthy and even progress to higher levels. Governmental
interference in the natural order of society weakens society by wasting the efforts of its
leadership in trying to defy the laws of nature.
He proposed that there is the parallelism between how society evolves in the same manner
as animal species do
Through Spencers Theory, it could be further deduced that, man as member of the society
is in a never ending competition and the name of the game is to win.
This principle is attributed to Darwins Theory of Evolution
Spencer grew up in England.
Carrying Comte's tradition, he referred to as second founder of sociology.
His father was a school master, Spencer received a little formal education.

As child, taught at home because of poor health and acquired advanced education through
reading.
Age of 17, went to London as Railway Engineer for four years. Leaving railroad, became
interested in journalism and became an editor of The Economist, England's most influential
publications.
First book, Social Statics (1855), systematic
sociological textbook.

presentation of sociological analysis, first

Central focus on Darwin's theory of Evolution to social life. Argued: human societies evolved
from simple (primitive societies) from to complex (industrial societies) form; social life is
governable by laws of conflict and competition, as in animal world, survival of the fittest.
Believed in natural selection, survival of the fittest doctrine lead to social progress which
constituted social justice. Society as organized that must adapt the environment. Social
progress is inevitable through evolution due to principle of survival of the fittest.

3.4. Harriet Martineau (18021876), English writer described as 'first female

sociologist'
Harriet Martineau (12 June 1802 27 June 1876) was a British social theorist and Whig
writer, often cited as the first female sociologist.
Martineau wrote many books and a multitude of essays from a sociological, holistic,
religious, domestic, and perhaps most controversially, feminine perspective; she also
translated various works from Auguste Comte. She believed a thorough societal analysis
was necessary to understand women's status under men.
The novelist Margaret Oliphant said "as a born lecturer and politician she Martineau was less
distinctively affected by her sex than perhaps any other, male or female, of her generation."
Martineau introduced feminist sociological perspectives into her writing on otherwise
overlooked issues such as marriage, children, domestic and religious life, and race relations.
Harriet Martineau, one of the earliest Western sociologists, was born in 1802 in Norwich,
England. Martineau was a self-taught expert in political economic theory, and wrote
prolifically about the relations between politics, economics, morals, and social life
throughout her career. Her intellectual work was centered by a staunchly moral perspective
that stemmed from her Unitarian faith. She was fiercely critical of the inequality and
injustice faced by girls and women, slaves, wage slaves, and the working poor. Martineau
was the sixth of eight children born to Elizabeth Rankin and Thomas Martineau. Thomas
owned a textile mill, and Elizabeth was the daughter of a sugar refiner and grocer, making
the family economically stable and wealthier than most Britons at the time. The Martineau
family was descendants of French Huguenots who fled Catholic France for Protestant
England. The family practiced Unitarian faith, and instilled the importance of education and
critical thinking in all of their children. However, Elizabeth was also a strict believer in
traditional gender roles, so while the Martineau boys went to college, the girls did not, and
were expected to learn domestic work instead. This would prove to be a formative life
experience for Harriet, who bucked all traditional gender expectations, and wrote
extensively about gender inequality.
Harriet Martineau is considered the first woman sociologist. In 1853, she was the first to
translate August Comte's work from French to English. It is through this translation that

English-speaking scholars could begin to learn the works of Comte, who is known as the
father of sociology.
Although Auguste Comte is credited with launching the science of sociology, he might have
been forgotten were it not for Martineau, who translated Comte's 1839 text, Cours de
Philosophie Positive, from French into English. Auguste Comte coined the name sociology
and published a rambling exposition under the title of Cours de Philosophie Positive in 1839.
Martineau undertook a translation that was published in two volumes in 1853 as The
Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (freely translated and condensed by Harriet
Martineau). It was a remarkable achievement, and a successful one; Comte recommended
her volumes to his students instead of his own. Some writers regard Martineau as the first
female sociologist. Her introduction of Comte to the English-speaking world and the
elements of sociological perspective in her original writings support her credit as a
sociologist.
First Woman Sociologist
She translate the book of Comtes work by English
She spokes out in favour of the rights of womens, the emancipation of the slaves,
and religious tolerance
Her book Society in America examines religion, politics, child rearing, and
immigration in the young nation
She emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, and population could have
own the social problems of contemporary society.
Her views, intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social
conditions; they should act upon their convictions in a manner that will benefit society

3.5. Emile Durkheim (18581917), French sociologist, French scholar, heir of Comte,
France's first sociology professor
David mile Durkheim (April 15, 1858 November 15, 1917) was a French sociologist, social
psychologist and philosopher. He formally established the academic discipline andwith Karl
Marx and Max Weberis commonly cited as the principal architect of modern social science
and father of sociology.
Durkheim was also deeply preoccupied with the acceptance of sociology as a legitimate

science. He refined the positivism originally set forth by Auguste Comte, promoting what could
be considered as a form of epistemological realism, as well as the use of the hypotheticodeductive model in social science. For him, sociology was the science of institutions, if this
term is understood in its broader meaning as "beliefs and modes of behaviour instituted by
the collectivity" and its aim being to discover structural social facts. Durkheim was a major
proponent of structural functionalism , a foundational perspective in both sociology and
anthropology. In his view, social science should be purely holistic; that is, sociology should
study phenomena attributed to society at large, rather than being limited to the specific
actions of individuals. He remained a dominant force in French intellectual life until his death
in 1917, presenting numerous lectures and published works on a variety of topics, including
the sociology of knowledge, morality, social stratification, religion, law, education, and deviance.
Durkheimian terms such as "collective consciousness" have since entered the popular lexicon.

mile Durkheim was a French sociologist whose major contribution was establishing
sociology as a major science. Along with Max Weber and Karl Marx, Durkheim is responsible
for establishing social science and social psychology as an academic discipline within the
college setting. He is considered the father of social science.
In 1887 at the University of Bordeaux, mile Durkheim was reluctantly given the title
Chargd'un Course de Science Sociale et de Pdagogie, which loosely translates to
Professor of Social Science. It was under this guise that sociology first entered the French
university system. The mostly humanist faculty at Bordeaux preferred the traditional
views of history, law and philosophy and were not happy about Durkheims presence.
Durkheim aroused fears of social imperialism. During Durkheims tenure at Bordeaux from
1887 to 1902, his main job was to lecture on the theory, history and practice of education.
He also held Saturday morning lectures on social science for the public and covered topics
such as incest, totemism, suicide, crime, religion, socialism, law, family and kinship.
Durkheim wrote four major works during his lifetime. The first, The Division of Labor in
Society was published in 1893. The Rules of Sociological Method was published in 1895.
Suicide," his third major work, was published in 1897, and The Elementary Forms of the
Religious Life was published in 1912.
Durkheim had explained four major forms of Suicide. They are (a) Egoistic (b) Altruistic
(c) Anomic (d) Fatalistic.

He was the only studied thoroughly the discipline in the school of higher learning.

He concluded therefore that suicide is not an ordinary phenomenon.

He proposed four types of suicide, based on the degrees of imbalance of two social
forces: social integration and moral regulation.
Strongly influence by Comte.
Came from family of rabbinical scholars and but broke family tradition when he became a
university professor.
Religion as his lifelong interest.
1893, Doctorate Degree in University of Paris and teach social science, which became
France's first sociology professor.
Social solidarity based on values and beliefs of the member of society. Two types of societal
solidarity: mechanical solidarity, similar task and sameness in primitive societies and
organic solidarity, differences like industrial societies resulting from people's various task for
continuance of society. Interdependent like human beings.
Monograph, Suicide(1897), looked beyond individual motives to social factors of suicide,
provide empirical evidence (data on suicide) with theoretical explanation and its a first piece
of true sociological research. The Division of Labor in Society(1893) and The Elementary
Form of Religious Life(1917).

3.6. Karl Marx (18181883), German political philosopher, social theorist

Karl Marx (1818-1883), the famous Prussian political economist, journalist, and activist, is
considered to be one of the founding thinkers of sociology. He is widely known for his
critiques of the social, economic, and political implications of industrial capitalism, which he

expressed in works including The Manifesto of the Communist Party and Capital, Volumes 1 and
2, and which are known as a whole as "Marxism." Among Marx's most well-known and cited
intellectual contributions are the concepts of historical materialism, base and superstructure ,
and false consciousness.
Karl Marx was born in Trier, Prussia (present-day Germany) on May 5, 1818 to Heinrich
Marx and Henrietta Pressberg. Marx's parents were Jewish, and he came from a long line of
rabbis on both sides of his family. However, his father converted to Lutheranism to evade
anti-semitism prior to Marx's birth.
Marx was educated at home by his father until high school, and in 1835 at the age of 17,
enrolled at Bonn University in Germany, where he studied law at his father's request.
Marx, however, was much more interested in philosophy and literature.
Marxs theories about society, economics, and politics, which are collectively known as
Marxism, argue that all society progresses through the dialectic of class struggle. He was
heavily critical of the current socio-economic form of society, capitalism, which he called the
"dictatorship of the bourgeoisie ," believing it to be run by the wealthy middle and upper classes
purely for their own benefit, and predicted that it would inevitably produce internal tensions
which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Under
socialism, he argued that society would be governed by the working class in what he called
the "dictatorship of the proletariat." He believed that socialism would eventually be replaced
by a stateless, classless society called pure communism.
His sociological application of change, which was later adopted in politics known as
communism, made him disgusted over many debates about his thesis applied in politics.
He even proposed the Theory of Evolution or class conflict theory to achieve its end.
Marx was a native German and later exiled in England.
Considered as one of the thinkers of the modern times.
Other Major Contribution:

"These on Feuerbach" (1845)

The German Ideology (1845)

Wage-Labor and Capital (1847)

A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859)

Not everyone has shared Spencer's vision of societal harmony and stability. Chief
among those who disagreed was the German political philosopher and economist Karl
Marx (18181883), who observed society's exploitation of the poor by the rich and
powerful. Marx argued that Spencer's healthy societal organism was a falsehood.
Rather than interdependence and stability, Marx claimed that social conflict,
especially class conflict, and competition mark all societies.

The class of capitalists that Marx called the bourgeoisie particularly enraged him.
Members of the bourgeoisie own the means of production and exploit the class of
laborers, called the proletariat, who do not own the means of production. Marx
believed that the very natures of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat inescapably lock
the two classes in conflict. But he then took his ideas of class conflict one step
further: He predicted that the laborers are not selectively unfit, but are destined to

overthrow the capitalists. Such a class revolution would establish a classfree

society in which all people work according to their abilities and receive according to
their needs.

Unlike Spencer, Marx believed that economics, not natural selection, determines the
differences between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. He further claimed that a
society's economic system decides peoples' norms, values, mores, and religious
beliefs, as well as the nature of the society's political, governmental, and educational
systems. Also unlike Spencer, Marx urged people to take an active role in changing
society rather than simply trusting it to evolve positively on its own.

Concentrated to Social Conflict

German socialist and philosopher, son of Jewish lawyer that converted his family to
Christianity. Attend Universities of Bonn and Berlin, studied law, history, and philosophy.
Moved to Paris and met Friedrich Engels, they wrote The Communist Manifesto(1848),
propaganda pamphlet dealing with class struggle.
Social change was a process of conflict between two opposing classes. First modern theory
of social change. History as class struggle by oppressed and oppressor.
Economic determinist, believed structure of economy determine all other aspects of society.
Material condition as a core class conflict, who controlled mean of production by the
oppressor and labor by the oppressed.
Marx was pessimistic about future of capitalist industrial societies, utopian view of society.
Prophesied collective ownership means of production and classless society.
Das Capital, first volume in 1867 and two more by Engels after Marx's death.
Political Philosophy by various groups.

3.7. Max Weber (18641920), German sociologist

Karl Emil Maximilian "Max" Weber (21 April 1864 14 June 1920) was a German sociologist,
philosopher, jurist, and political economist whose ideas profoundly influenced social theory and
social research. Weber is often cited, with mile Durkheim and Karl Marx, as among the three
founders of sociology.
Weber was a key proponent of methodological antipositivism, arguing for the study of social
action through interpretive (rather than purely empiricist) means, based on understanding the
purpose and meaning that individuals attach to their own actions. Unlike Durkheim, he did
not believe in monocausality and rather proposed that for any outcome there can be
multiple causes.
Weber was the eldest son of Max and Helene Weber. Webers intellectual breadth in the
study of societies can hardly be overestimated; it surpassed that of his predecessors, mainly
Karl Marx and mile Durkheim.

In general, Webers greatest merit as a thinker was that he brought the social sciences
in Germany, hitherto preoccupied largely with national problems, into direct critical
confrontation with the international giants of 19th-century European thoughtMarx and
Nietzsche; and, through this confrontation, Weber helped create a methodology and a body
of literature dealing with the sociology of religion, political parties, and the economy, as well
as studies of formal organizations, small-group behavior, and the philosophy of history. His
work continues to stimulate scholarship.
The second of the fathers of sociology (the third being Karl Marx), Weber pushed the
boundaries of sociology once more and argued extensively for research based on
interpretation and observation rather than just an empiricist approach. His major work was
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism in which he suggested that the rise of
Protestant church led to the modern capitalist system. He argued a need to understand
social ideas within western religion in understanding market systems.
Along with Durkheim and Marx, Max Weber is cited as the third founding architect of
sociology. Webers primary battle cry was the role of religionnot economics, a theory
endorsed by Marxas the catalyst of social change. His understanding of peoples actions
emphasized the meaning or purpose behind them, and hes famous for his theory of
Protestant Ethic, which states that the cultural influences of the Protestant religion
brought about the rise of capitalism. After the First World War, he was one of the founders
of the liberal German Democratic Party.
Disagreed with the objective evidence only position of Durkheim. He argued that
sociologists must also consider people's interpretations of eventsnot just the events
themselves. Weber believed that individuals' behaviors cannot exist apart from their
interpretations of the meaning of their own behaviors, and that people tend to act according
to these interpretations. Because of the ties between objective behavior and subjective
interpretation, Weber believed that sociologists must inquire into people's thoughts,
feelings, and perceptions regarding their own behaviors. Weber recommended that
sociologists adopt his method of Verstehen (vrst e hen), or empathetic understanding.
Verstehen allows sociologists to mentally put themselves into the other person's shoes
and thus obtain an interpretive understanding of the meanings of individuals' behaviors.
German wealthy family in Berlin. Three universities in Germany and receive law degree in
1885. Taught economics at University of Heidelberg until he got mental illness. Work
research and writing at home for nearly two decades.
First book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism(1906), systems might affect
people's action and turn system of economic society. Hypothesized Protestant ethic
(admonishments to achieved salvation through hard work) influence development of
capitalism.
Economic Condition which refuted Marx. Verstehen method, sympathetic understanding,
into sociology.
Sociologist must not only employ objective methods but also subjective meaning that
people attach own behavior and that of others.
Descriptive analysis of bureaucracy, organizational structure that is prevalent in modern
societies.

3.8. Edward Tylor (18321917), English pioneer anthropologist

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (2 October 1832 2 January 1917) was an English anthropologist,
the founder of cultural anthropology.
Tylor is representative of cultural evolutionism. In his works Primitive Culture and
Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the
evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. He believed that there was a functional basis for the
development of society and religion, which he determined was universal. Tylor maintained
that all societies passed through three basic stages of development: from savagery, through
barbarism to civilization. Tylor is considered by many to be a founding figure of the science
of social anthropology, and his scholarly works helped to build the discipline of anthropology
in the nineteenth century. He believed that "research into the history and prehistory of
man... could be used as a basis for the reform of British society."
Tylor reintroduced the term animism (faith in the individual soul or anima of all things, and
natural manifestations) into common use. He considered animism to be the first phase of
development of religions.
He was born in 1832, in Camberwell, London, and was the son of Joseph Tylor and Harriet
Skipper, part of a family of wealthy Quakers who owned a London brass factory. His elder
brother, Alfred Tylor, became a geologist.
He was educated at Grove House School, Tottenham, but due to the deaths of Tylor's parents
during his early adulthood he never gained a university degree. 6 After his parents' deaths,
he prepared to help manage the family business, but had to set this plan aside when he
developed symptoms consistent with the onset of tuberculosis (TB). Following advice to
spend time in warmer climes, Tylor left England in 1855, travelling to Mexico. The
experience proved to be an important and formative one, sparking his lifelong interest in
studying unfamiliar cultures.
Tylor's most important contribution lies in his treatment of culture. His Primitive Culture
presents his doctrine of survivals the view that non-functional beliefs and customs in
modern societies are relics of the cultural past and his theory of animism. Animism implies
the attribution by some people of a spiritual existence to animals, plants and even
inanimate objects occasionally. This notion forms the basis of his theory of development and
origins of primitive religion. For Tylor the principal criterion of cultural growth is
development of industrial arts extent of scientific knowledge, type of religion, extent of
political and social organization. He originated the method of adhesions based on probability
and helped to establish a comparative religion.
Studied:

animism (in animism)

immortality beliefs (in immortality)

primitive culture (in social science: Cultural anthropology )

religions (in classification of religions: Morphological ) (in anthropology: The anthropological

study of religion)

Dominated, shaped, and consolidated anthropology in Britain for first fifty years.
Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization(1865), shaped anthropology.
Primitive Culture(1871), main foundations of new sciences of human belief and institution.

Born in 1832 in London. Son of Quaker(religious movement) brass foundryman, family

owned brass factory. Ethnology was more than scientific importance, scientific basis of
philanthropic principles notable of Aborigine's Protection Society in 1837.
First book, Anahuac (The Mexico and the Mexicans: Ancient and Modern)(1861), record of
journey he made.
Invention of Animism, belief in spiritual being. Comparative methods with statistical
correlation and material culture.

3.9. William Graham Sumner (18401910),

anthropologist, scholar, and teacher, a realist

Famous

American

sociologist,

William Graham Sumner (October 30, 1840 April 12, 1910) was a classical liberal
(now often called "libertarian") American social scientist. He taught social sciences at Yale,
where he held the nation's first professorship in sociology. He was one of the most
influential teachers at Yale or any major schools. Sumner was a polymath with numerous
books and essays on American history, economic history, political theory, sociology, and
anthropology. He supported laissez-faire economics, free markets, and the gold standard.
He introduced the term "ethnocentrism" to identify the roots of imperialism, which he
strongly opposed. He was a spokesman against imperialism and in favor of the "forgotten
man" of the middle class, a term he coined. He had a long-term influence on States.
Sumner was born in Paterson, New Jersey, on October 30, 1840. His father, Thomas
Sumner, was born in England and immigrated to the United States in 1836. His mother,
Sarah Graham, was also born in England. She was brought to the United States in 1825 by
her parents. Sumners mother died when he was eight. Sumner was educated in the
Hartford public schools. After graduation, he worked for two years as a clerk in a store
before going to Yale College from which he graduated in 1863. Sumner achieved an
impressive record at Yale as a scholar and orator. He was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa
Society in his junior year and in his senior year to the secretive Skull and Bones society.
Sumner spent much of his career as a muckraker (exposing what he saw as faults in
society) and as a polemicist (writing, teaching, and speaking against these faults). In spite
of his efforts, his career ended with pessimism about the future. Sumner said, I have lived
through the best period of this countrys history. The next generations are going to see wars
and social calamities.
He taught social sciences at Yale, where he held the nation's first professorship in
sociology.
Like the British philosopher Herbert Spencer, Sumner, who taught at Yale from 1872 to
1909, expounded in many essays his firm belief in laissez-faire, individual liberty, and the
innate inequalities among men. He viewed competition for property and social status as
resulting in a beneficent elimination of the ill adapted and the preservation of racial
soundness and cultural vigor.
Taught political economy(economics) and social science in Yale University. President of
American Sociological Society.
Author of Folkways and the Science of Society, study of folkways, habits of individual and
custom of societies, four volume work published after death, main contribution in the field
of sociology and anthropology from 1907 to 1910.

Value of anything is not what you paid for it, not what its cost to produce but what you can
get for it in auction.
He was not happy in the ministry.

Other Pioneer are:

Ferdinand Tonnies(1855-1936) German Sociologist and Philosopher
Born in Schlewig, Germany, spent his life at the University of Kiel. Performed
excellent in field of sociological theory and wrote brilliant reports about it.
Most important writing was Gemeinschaft, first type of group which is expression of
the will, and Gesellschaft, second type of group which is arbitrarily willed, originally
published in 1887 and six other editions, which is rare event in the study of sociological
theory. This writing was also similar in certain respect to dichotomies by other writers.
All social relations are creations of human will of which there are two types: 'the
essential will', or the basic, instinctive, organic tendency which drives human activity;
'arbitrary will', or deliberate, purposive form of volition which determines human activity
with regard to the future. Essential will dominates the life of peasants, scientists, persons
of authority, and members of the upper class. This modes of will explain the existence of
two basic types of social groups.
Contribution of introduction of suggestive typology of social groups and types of
society. Social group willed into sympathy, who feel value in itself, while the other was a
social group as instrument to a definite end.
Studied gemeinschaft: neighborhood and friendship, and gesellshcaft: analyzes city
and state.

George Simmel(1858-1918) German sociologist, philosopher, critic

German-Jewish parentage. Studied philosophy at University of Berlin, as
privatdozent, and professor at University of Strassburg. Fame among sociologists through
his series of brilliant articles published din Soziologie.
Society cant understood as psychic entity independent of individual minds, as kind of
mysticism or conceptualism that reality is concepts. Reciprocal relations not persist in time,
other crystallized as definable, consistent situation as state, church, band of conspirators,
school, economic association, among others.
Only few minds grasp common features as basis for theoretical abstraction.

A. R. Radcliffe-Brown(1881-1955) Founding Fathers of Modern Social Anthropology

Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown regarded as one of the founding fathers of modern
social anthropology. Born in Birmingham.

there.

Early years, read mental and moral science at Cambridge, and studied anthropology

1906-1908, engaged in anthropological fieldworks: The Andaman Islanders(1922),

The Social Organization of Australian Tribes(1930), and Structure and Function in Primitive
Society(1952). Became an instrument in making anthropology subject.
First book attempt to test field Durkheimian hypothesis that the primary function of
ritual is, giving expression to collective sentiments of a society, contribute to social cohesion
and maintain social system through time.
In last writing, claimed that ritual might express more man's dependence on society;
more basically, expresses his dependence on whole environment, physical and social.
Two important ritual procedures: what it means to the people who practice it and
what its social consequences are.

Friedrich Engels(1820-1895) German philosopher, social scientist, journalist and

businessman
Worked in history of literature and politics with Karl Marx. Many of their book written
jointly. Born in German town of Barmen in 1820 and son of a manufacturer who had
pietistic conviction.
Berlin.

Higher education while working in export office and during his military service in
Wrote The Communist Manifesto, together with Marx.

Thorstein Veblen(1857-1929) Norwegian-American sociologist and economist

Popular in concepts on conspicuous consumption, ostentatious display, trained
incapacity, higher learning, predatory culture, absentee ownership, and discretionary
control.
Born to an immigrant family in Wisconsin, spoke the language and followed culture
of Norway for first 17 years of his life, attending local school where English taught, but
without very much contact with English neighbors.
Went to the field of Philosophy and Institutional Economics and Sociology.
1899, first book, The Theory of the Leisure Class. Became a university professor and
lecturer. His books shows intense appreciation for the virtues of workmanlike performance
and for labor-saving machinery, which was derived from his father. Other book, argument
that there exist in mankind a tendency toward craftsmanship as end itself, develop by
cultural heritage, stock of technical knowledge possessed by community.
Believed in the long run, the industrial arts always prevailed.
Higher Learning in America, memorandum conduct of university by businessman
1918, based on participant observation. Interpretative writing as useful to the contemporary

sociologists, emphasis to size, scale, and function of educational institutions as places of

socialization in modern world.
His contribution become part of the general currency of sociology and general
criticism in point and emphasis.
Status consciousness and social emulation respects major enduring themes of The
Theory of the Leisure Class, but showed how they related to other values in society and led
to certain consequences in development of advertising in modern times.

Bronislaw Malinowski(1884-1942) Father of Social Anthropology

Monograph on the Trobriand Island certainly most formative influence on the work of
British social anthropologists from 1922, published first field of study until in 1942.
Most of the leading anthropologist in England are trained by him.
Pole, born in Cracow, son of a professor of Slavic Philosophy.
Awarded doctorate in physics and mathematics in 1908, bit illness and bad eyesight
interrupted his work.
His field of Monograph produced revolution in aims and field techniques of the
younger anthropologist: Argonauts of the Western Pacific(1922), Sexual Life of
Savages(1929), and Coral Gardens and their Magic(1935).
Characteristics of his study:
Made a very detailed firsthand observations of the major activities of the
Trobriand islanders-such as their kula overseas expeditions or their agriculture.
Work entirely different of scale from anything produced before. Activity
coordinated with set of other activities, rituals, or instrumental, governed by set of rules
and facilitated by linguistic usages.
Interest in social grouping and social organization.
Linguistics text probably fuller than collected at the time except Boas from
Northwest Pacific area. Wrote vivid personal style describing his on adventures in fieldwork.

Pitirim Sorokin(1889-1968) Russian-American sociologist, 55th president of American

Sociological Association
He was subsequent farmhand, itinerant artisan, factory worker, clerk, teacher,
conductor of a choir, revolutionary, political prisoner, journalist, student, editor of a
metropolitan newspaper, cabinet member, an exile, and professor at Russian, Czeck, and
American university. Scholar of International reputation. 1924, offered a chair in sociology
at University of Minnesota for six years. 1930, create Department of Sociology at Harvard
University. 1959, retired at age of 70, with credits of 30 volumes and over 200 contributions
to learned journals.

Provide complete account of sociology, psychologically based and philosophically

oriented. Macroscopic conspectus rather than detailed and particular problems.
His works are: Contemporary Sociological Theories(1928), Fads and Fables in
Modern Sociology and Related Science(1956), and Social and Cultural Dynamics(19371940), encyclopedic survey of forms of art, systems of truths, ethics, law, social relation,
war, and revolution.
1947, Society, Culture, and Personality published, best source of his views as whole,
staple topics of sociological writings such as groups, roles, social structure, and social
mobility.

Talcot Parsons(1902-1979) American sociologist

Structure of Social Action in 1937, reviewed works of numbered prominent social
theorists and attempted to lay foundations for general theory of social action-which provide
a solution to Hobbesian problem of social order by locating springs and orientations of
action in reference to normative aspects of social life. It involves basic rejection of theories
which purported to account for orderliness social life of self-interest, operation of coercive
force, or notions like spirit of the age.
Critical of positivist theories which human action automatic responses to external
stimuli. Elaborate scientific analysis for voluntariness, choices among alternative course of
action.
Action was not to be conceived as completely free but was grounded in and
circumscribed by norms and ultimate principles of action (values).
1951, The Social System, published acclaimed to be his major contribution to the
field of sociology.
Characteristics of sociological efforts:
Conception of sociology rejects philosophies and theories based on claims to
fundamental uniqueness of historical epochs.
Theory is primarily concerned with the universals of social life.
Intention to erect an integrated and systematic scheme that exposes the
dynamic relation between most significant variables in human society.
Scheme probably best regarded as all-embracing paradigm which sets scene
for frequently called theories (interrelated propositions about a much narrower range of
social phenomena).
Kind of terminology employed and mode of expression are highly abstract and
not immediately referable to the real world.
Any real social system consists of individuals who are interacting with others on the
basis of minimal degree of complementary expectation by means and according to shared
system of beliefs, standards, an d symbols.
Social action theory and structural functionalism.