Chapter 3

DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
Basic non-isolated DC-DC converter
topologies: Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost, Cuk
in CCM and DCM mode
Non-ideal effects on converter
performance
Isolated DC-DC converters, switchedmode power supply
Control of DC-DC converters
High frequency transformer and inductor
design
Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.

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DC-DC Converter (Chopper)

DEFINITION: Converting the unregulated
DC input to a controlled DC output with a
desired voltage level.
General block diagram:

DC supply
(from rectifierfilter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)

DC output LOAD

Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)

APPLICATIONS:
Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers

Linear regulator
Transistor is
operated in linear
(active) mode.

+ VCE

IL
+

Output voltage

Vo

RL

Vs

Vo = I L RT
The transistor can
be conveniently
modelled by an
equivalent
variable resistor,
as shown.

MODEL OF LINEAR
REGULATOR
+ VCE

IL

RT

Vs

Power loss is high

at high current due
to:
Po = I L 2 RT
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+
RL

Vo

EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

Switching Regulator
Power loss is zero
(for ideal switch):
when switch is
open, no current
flow in it,
when switch is
closed no voltage
drop across it.
Since power is a
product of voltage
and current, no
losses occurs in the
switch.
Power is 100%
transferred from
source to load.

+ VCE

RL

Vs

+
Vo

MODEL OF LINEAR
REGULATOR

IL
SWITCH
RL

Vs

+
Vo

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Vo

(ON) (OFF) (ON)

closed open closed
DT

Switching regulator
is the basis of all
DC-DC converters

IL

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

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Buck (step-down) converter

L

S
Vd

RL

+
Vo

CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

iL
+ vL

S
Vd

RL

+
Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S

iL
+

vL
+

Vd

RL

Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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Circuit operation when switch

is turned on (closed)
Diode is reversed
biased. Switch
conducts inductor
current
This results in
positive inductor
voltage, i.e:

+ vL S
+
VD

Vd

iL
C

RL

+
Vo

vL
VdVo
opened
closed

vL = Vd Vo

closed

opened

It causes linear
increase in the
inductor current
di
vL = L L
dt
1
iL = vL dt
L

Vo

iL

iLmax
IL
iLmin

DT

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6

Operation when switch turned

off (opened)
+ vL -

Because of
inductive energy
storage, iL
continues to flow.
Diode is forward
biased
Current now flows
through the diode
and
vL = Vo

iL

Vd

+
Vo

RL

vL
VdVo
opened
closed

closed

opened

Vo

iL

iLmax
IL
iLmin
(1-D)T

DT
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7

Analysis for switch closed

The inductor voltage,
vL = Vd Vo
diL
=L
dt

vL
Vd Vo
closed
t

diL Vd Vo
=
dt
L

Note : since the deri vative of iL is a posi tive constant.

I
Therefore iL must
increase linearly.

iL
iL max

i L

iL min

From Figure

DT

diL iL iL Vd Vo
=
=
=
dt
L
t DT

(iL )closed

Vd Vo
=
DT
L

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Analysis for switch opened

For switch opened,
vL

vL = Vo
diL
=L
dt
V
di
L= o
dt
L

opened

Vd Vo

Note : since the deri vative of iL is a nega tive constant, iL must

decrease linearly.

iL
iL max
IL

i L

iL min

From Figure

DT

Vo
iL
diL iL
=
=
=
t (1 D)T
dt
L

(iL )opened

T
(1 D)T

Vo
=
(1 D)T
L
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Steady-state operation
iL

Unstable current
t
Decaying current

iL
t

Steady-state current

iL
t

Steady - state operation requires that i L at the

end of switching cycle is the same at the
begining of the next cycle. That is the change
of i L over one period is zero, i.e :

(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0

Vd Vo
Vo

DTs
(1 D)Ts = 0
L
L
Vo = DVd

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Average, Maximum and

Minimum inductor current
iL
Imax

iL

IL
Imin

Average inductor current = Average current in R L

Vo
IL = IR =
R
Maximum current :
iL Vo 1 Vo

= + (1 D)T
I max = I L +
2
R 2 L

1 (1 D)
= Vo +

2 Lf
R
Minimum current :
iL
1 (1 D )
= Vo
I min = I L

2
2 Lf
R
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Continuous current operation

iL
Imax

Imin

From previous analysis,

i
1 (1 D)
I min = I L L = Vo

2
2
R
Lf

For continuous operation, I min 0,

1 (1 D)
Vo
0
R
Lf
2

(1 D)
R
2f
This is the minimum inductor current to
ensure continous mode of operation.
Normally L is chosen be be >> Lmin

L Lmin =

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Output voltage ripple

iL
L

iR
iC

imax

iL

+
Vo

Vo / R

iL=IR
imin

ic = iL + iR
Q
Q = CVo Q = CV o Vo =
C
From figure, use triangle area formula :
1 T i
TiL
Q = L =
2 2 2
8
TiL (1 D )
Vo =
=
8C 8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
Vo (1 D)
=
r=
Vo
8 LCf 2
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Design procedures for Buck

SWITCH

Vd
(input
spec.)

f=?
D=?
TYPE ?

Lmin= ?
L = 10Lmin
C
ripple ?

RL
Po = ?
Io = ?

Calculate D to obtain required output

voltage.
Select a particular switching frequency:
preferably >20KHz for negligible acoustic
noise
higher fs results in smaller L, but higher device
losses. Thus lowering efficiency and larger heat
sink. Also C is reduced.
Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT.
Low power MOSFET can reach MHz range.

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Design procedures for Buck

Determine Lmin. Increase Lmin by about 10
times to ensure full continuos mode.
Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
Capacitor ratings:
must withstand peak output voltage
must carry required RMS current. Note RMS
current for triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the
peak capacitor current given by iL/2

Wire size consideration:

Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as
peak. RMS value for iL is given as:

I L , RMS

2 iL 2
= IL +

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Examples of Buck converter

A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery

source. Given L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm,
f=20KHz and D=0.4. Calculate: (a) output voltage
(b) maximum and minimum inductor current, (c)
output voltage ripple.

A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and

output of 25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz.
The power output is 125W. (a) Determine the duty
cycle, (b) value of L to limit the peak inductor
current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit
the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.

Design a buck converter such that the output

voltage is 28V when the input is 48V. The load is
8Ohm. Design the converter such that it will be in
continuous current mode. The output voltage ripple
must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the frequency
and the values of each component. Suggest the
power switch also.
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Boost (step-up) converter

D

Vd

RL

Vo

CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER

iL

+ vL
Vd

+
RL

Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

L

+ vL Vd

+
S

RL

Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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Boost analysis:switch closed

iL

+ vL
Vd

vL = Vd
diL
=L
dt
diL Vd

=
dt
L

vL
Vd
CLOSED
t

Vd V o

diL iL iL
=
=
dt
t DT
Vd
diL

=
dt
L

(iL )closed

+
vo

iL
iL

DT

Vd DT
=
L
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Switch opened
iL

+ vL Vd

vL = Vd Vo
diL
=L
dt
diL Vd Vo

=
dt
L
diL iL
=
dt
t
iL
=
(1 D)T

+
vo
-

vL
Vd
OPENED
t

Vd Vo
iL
iL

( 1-D )T
DT

diL Vd Vo

=
dt
L
(Vd Vo )(1 DT )
(iL )opened =
L
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Steady-state operation
(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0
Vd DT (Vd Vo )(1 D)T

=0
L
L
Vd
Vo =
1 D

Boost converter produces output voltage

that is greater or equal to the input
voltage.
Alternative explanation:
when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.
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Average, Maximum,
Minimum inductor current
Input power = Output power
Vo 2
Vd I d =
R
2
Vd

2
V
(
1
)

D
=
d
Vd I L =
R
(1 D) 2 R
Average inductor current
Vd
IL =
(1 D) 2 R
Max, min inductor current
Vd
Vd DT
iL
=
+
I max = I L +
2
2
2L
(1 D) R
I min

Vd
Vd DT
iL
= IL
=

2
2
2L
(1 D) R
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Continuous Current Mode

(CCM)
For continous operation,
vL

I min 0
Vd DT

0
2
2L
(1 D) R
D(1 D )2 TR
Lmin =
2
2
D(1 D ) R
=
2f

Vd

Vd

VdVo
imax
iL
imin
imax
iD

Ripple factor
Vo
Q = DT = CVo
R
Vo DT Vo D
Vo =
=
RCf
RCf
V
D
r= o =
Vo
RCf

imin
Io=Vo / R

ic

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DT

T
22

Examples
The boost converter has the following
parameters: Vd=20V, D=0.6, R=12.5ohm,
L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum
and minimum inductor current, (c) output
voltage ripple.

Design a boost converter to provide an

output voltage of 36V from a 24V source.
The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty
cycle ratio, switching frequency, inductor
and capacitor size, and power device.

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Buck-Boost converter
S

Vd

+
C

RL

Vo

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

S

D
iL

Vd

vL

Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S
Vd

D
iL

vL

Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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Buck-boost analysis
Switch closed
diL
vL = Vd = L
dt
diL Vd

=
dt
L

vL

VdVo

iL iL Vd
=
=
t DT L
Vd DT
(iL ) closed =
L

imax
iL
imin
imax
iD

Switch opened
diL
vL = Vo = L
dt
diL Vo

=
dt
L

imin
Io=Vo / R

ic

Vo
iL
iL
=
=
t (1 D)T L
(iL ) opened

Vd

Q
DT

Vo (1 D)T
=
L
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Output voltage
Steady state operation :
Vd DT Vo (1 D )T
+
=0
L
L
D
Vo = Vs

1 D

NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter

either be higher or lower than the source
voltage.
If D>0.5, output is higher
If D<0.5, output is lower

Output voltage is always negative

Note that output is never directly
connected to load. Energy is stored in
inductor when switch is closed and
transferred to load when switch is opened.
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Average inductor current

Assuming no power loss in the converter,
power absorbed by the load must equal
power supplied the by source, i.e.
Po = Ps
Vo2
= Vd I s
R
But average source current is related to
average inductor current as :
Is = ILD
Vo2

= Vd I L D
R
Substituting for Vo ,
Vo2
Po
Vd D
IL =
=
=
Vd RD Vd D R (1 D ) 2
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L and C values
Max and min inductor current,
Vd D
Vd DT
iL
=
+
I max = I L +
2
2
2L
R (1 D )
Vd D
Vd DT
iL
=

I min = I L
2
2
2L
R (1 D)
For continuous current,
Vd D
Vd DT
+
=0
2
2L
R (1 D )
(1 D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Output voltage ripple,
Vo
Q = DT = CVo
R
Vo DT Vo D
Vo =
=
RC
RCf
Vo
D
r=
=
Vo
RCf
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Cuk Converter
L1

C1

L2

iL1

+ vc1-

iL2

vc2

C2

RL

+
Vo

CIRCUIT OF CUK CONVERTER

L1

i C 1 = i L 2

iL1
V

C1
S

L2
iL2
+

vc2

C2

RL

+
Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

iC1 = iL1

L1
iL1
V
d

C1
S

L2
iL2
+
vc2

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C2

RL

+
Vo

29

Cuk analysis: from capacitor

current point of view
iC1

iL1
CLOSED

OPENED
t

iL2

The average voltage across C1 is computed by KVL,

VC1 = Vd Vo
When the switch is closed, diode is off and the current in C1 is :
(iC1 )closed = iL 2
When the switch is opened, the current in L1 and L2 force the
diode on. The current in C1 is :
(iC1 )open = iL1
The power absorbed by the load is equal to the power supplied
by the source, i.e.
Vo I L 2 = Vs I L1

For periodic operation, the average current is zero,

[(iC1 )closed ]DT + (iC1 )open (1 D)T = 0
Substituting,
I L 2 DT + I L1 (1 D)T = 0
I L1
D
=
I L 2 (1 D)

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Cuk analysis
The power absorbed by the load is equal to the
power supplied by the source, i.e.
Vo I L 2 = Vs I L1
I L1 Vo
=
I L2
Vs
Combining, output voltage can be written as :
Vo
D
=

Vs
(1 D)
Note that the output stage (L2, C2 adnR) are in
the same configuration as the buck converter. Hence,
Vo
1 D
=
Vo
8 L2C 2 f 2
In time interval DT when switch is closed,
di L1
v L1 = vd = L1
dt
i L1 Vd

=
DT
L1
or
V DT Vd D
i L1 = d
=
L1
L1 f
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Cuk design parameters

For L2, in time interval DT when switch is closed,
0 = + vc1 v L 2 + Vo
v L 2 = vc1 + Vo = (Vd Vo ) + Vo = Vd
di
v L 2 = L2 L 2
dt
or

V DT Vd D
i L 2 = d
=
L2
L2 f

For continuous current operation,

(1 D) 2 R
L1, min =
2 Df
L 2, min =

(1 D ) R
2f

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Cuk analysis from inductor

current point of view
L1

L2

iL1
V

iL2

C1
S

+
vc2

RL

C2

Vo

+
SWITCH IS OPENED

vL1

vd

Closed

vL2

vd

Closed

-vo

-vo

Open

Open

iL2

iL1

IL1

iL1
t
DT

iL1

t
DT

In steady state, it can be assumed that VL1 and VL 2 are zero.

VC1 = Vd + Vo , (Note the polarity of Vo ).
It also can be seen that VC1 is larger than Vd and V0
When the switch is off, i L1 and i L 2 flow through the diode.
Capacitor C1is charged through the diode by energy from
Vd and L1. The inductor voltage can be written as :
v L1 = Vd + VC1
which is negative since VC1 is larger than Vd .
This causes i L1 to decrease
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Cuk analysis

L1

iC1 = i L 2

iL1
V

L2
iL2

C1
S

vc2

C2

RL

Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

vL1

vd

Closed

vL2

vd

Closed

-vo

-vo

Open

Open

iL2

iL1

IL1

iL1
t
DT

t
DT

Similarly on the output side,

Vo = Vd
which which causes i L1 to decrease.
When the switch is on, VC1 reverse - biased the diode. The
inductor current i L 2 and i L 2 flow through the switch.
Since VC1 > Vo capacitor C1 discharged through the switch,
transferring energy to the noutput L2.Therefore i L 2 increases.
The input feeds energy to L1, causing i L1 to increase.
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34

Cuk Analysis
Equating the integral of the voltages across L1 and L2,
L1 : Vd DT + (Vd Vc1 )(1 D ) = 0
1
Vc1 =
Vd
1 D
L2 : (Vc1 Vo ) DT + (Vo )(1 D )T = 0
1
Vc1 = Vo
D
Combining :
Vo
D
=
Vd 1 D
Note the polarity of the output

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Converters in CCM: Summary

S

Buck
Vo Vd = D

RL

+
Vo

L
V

D
+
Vo
RL

RL

+
Vo

S
D

L1
iL1
V
d

C1

L2

+vc1-

iL2

1 D

8 LCf 2
(1 D) R
Lmin =
2f

Boost

Vo Vd =

1
1 D
D
Vo Vd =
RCf
D (1 D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Buck Boost
D
Vo Vd =
1 D
D
Vo Vd =
RCf
(1 D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f

Vo Vd =

Cuk

+ Vo Vd = D
+ C2 R
1 D
L V
vc2
o
1 D

=
V
V
o
d

8 LCf
(1 D ) 2 R
L1 =
2 Df
(1 D ) R
L2 =
2f

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36

Buck in discontinuous current

mode (DCM)
+v -

L
Average inductor voltage
is zero,
S
iL
(Vd Vo ) DT Vo D1T = 0
+
C
Vd
VD
(Vd Vo ) D = Vo D1

Vo D

=
Vd D + D1
BUCK CONVERTER
Average inductor current
equals resistor current
vL
Vd Vo
(because average capacitor
opened
current is zero)
closed
closed
Vo
IL = IR =
R
From figure,
V o
1 1
1

I L = I max DT + I max DiL1T

2
T 2
Imax
1
= I max ( D + D1T )
2
is
Voltage across inductor,
Imax
v L = Vd Vo

di L Vd Vo
=
dt
L
I
i
i
L = L = max
t
DT
DT

DT

RL

+
Vo

opened

t
D1T
T

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Buck in DCM
Solving for I max and using (Vs Vo ) D,
Vo D1T
Vs Vo
I max = i L =
DT =
L
L

Substitute,
Vo
1
1 Vo D1T
I max ( D + D1 ) =
( D + D1 ) =
2
2 L
R
Which gives,
D12 + DD1

2L
=0
RT

Solving for D1 ,
D1 =

D D2 +

8L
RT

Hence,

D
2D

Vo = Vd
= Vd
+
D
D
2 8L

1
+
+
D
D

RT

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38

Example
For the buck converter,
Vd = 24V , L = 200uH , R = 20, C = 100uF , f = 10 KHz , D = 0.4
a) Show that the inductor current is discontinuous :
b) Determine the output voltage, Vo
For discontinous current, D1 < 1 - D
D1 can be calculated by :
8L
D D2 +
RT
D1 =
2
6

1
2 8( 200)(10 )(10 K )
= 0.4 + 0.4 +
= 0.29

2
20

Since D1 < (1 - D), i.e. 0.29 < 0.64, circuit in DCM

D
= 13.97V .
Vo = Vd
+
D
D

1
Figure below shows the relationship between the output
voltage and duty ratio for the parameters of this example.

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39

Boost Converter in DCM

Average inductor voltage
is zero,
Vd DT + (Vd Vo ) D1T = 0
(Vd Vo ) D = Vo D1
Vo D + D1
=

Vd D
Average diode current is :
1 1
1
I D = I max D1T = I max D1
T 2
2
is the same as the change in
inductor current when the
switch is closed,
V DT
I max = i L = d
L
Vo
1 V DT
=
ID = d
D
1
2 L
R
Solving for D1 ,
V 2 L
D1 = o

V
RDT

d
Substituti ng,

L
V

RL

BOOST CONVERTER
vL

Vd
opened
closed

closed

opened

t
Vd-Vo
iL

Imax

iD

Imax

DT

t
D1T
T

Vo

Vd

2
Vo D 2 RT

=0

2
V
L
d

Vo 1
2 D 2 RT
= 1+ 1+
Vd 2
L

Power
Electronics and
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

40

Non-ideal effects:
switch/diode voltage drop
Example : Buck converter
+

VQ _

_
Vd

VD
+

+
Vo
_

During switch closed (on),

v L = Vd Vo VQ
where VQ is the voltage across the conducting switch
During switch open (off),
v L = Vd VD
where VD is the voltage across the diode.
The average voltage across the inductor is zero for
the switching period,
VL = (Vd Vo VQ ) D + (Vd VD )(1 D) = 0,
Solving,
Vo = Vd D VQ D VD (1 D)
Which is less than Vo = Vd D for the ideal case.
Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

41

Inductor (winding) resistance

Example : Boost converter
iL
+ vL -

rL

Vd

+
vo
-

Power absorbed by the load and the inductor resitance (rs),

must equal power supplied by the source, i.e.
Ps = Po + PrL
Vd I L = Vo I D + I L 2 rL
But, the average (DC) diode current,
I D = I L (1 D)
Substituting,
Vd I L = Vo I L (1 D) + I L 2 rL
Which becomes,
Vd = Vo (1 D ) + I L rL

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

42

But,

Inductor resistance

V R
ID
= o
(1 D) (1 D)
Hence,
Vo rL
+ Vo (1 D)
Vd =
R (1 D )
Solving,

V
1

Vo = d

rL
(1 D ) 1 +

2
R (1 D )
The output equation is similar for ideal boost converter but
includes a correction factor to account for inductor resistance
Efficiency :
Po
Vo 2 R
= 2
=
Po + Ploss Vo R + I L 2 rL
Id =

Substituting for I L ,
Vo 2 R
1
=
=
2
rL
Vo R
2
1
+
rL
Vo R +
(1 D)
R (1 D) 2

As the duty ratio increases, the efficiency of boost

converter decreases.
Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

43

Other non-idealities
Capacitors Equivalent Series Resistor
(ESR)
Producing ripple greater than ideal capacitor
Output C must be chosen on the basis of ESR
and not only capacitance value.

Switching losses

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

44

Switch-mode power supply

(SMPS)
Advantages over linear power
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction
Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems
However above certain ratings,
SMPS is the only feasible choice
Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)
Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

45

Linear and switched mode

power supplies block diagram
Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
E

+Vo

Vce=Vd-Vo
Rectifier

Vd

Line
Input
1 / 3 50/60 Hz
Isolation
Transformer

Base/gate
Drive

RL

Vo
-

Error
Amp.

Vo

Vref

Basic Block diagram of SMPS

DC-DC CONVERSITION + ISOLATION

EMI
FILTER

High
Frequency
rectifier
and
filter

RECTIFIER
AND
FILTER

DC
Unregulated
Base/
gate
drive

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

PWM
Controller

DC
Regulated
Vo

Vref

error
Amp

46

High frequency transformer

Basic function :
i) Input - output electrical isolation
ii) step up/down time - varying voltage
Basic input - output relationship
v1 N1
=
;
v2 N 2

i1 N 2
=
i2 N1

Models :
i1

N1

N2

i2

V1

V2

i1

+
V1

Ideal model

N1

N2

i2
+

Lm

V2

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

Model used for

most PE application

47

Flyback Converter
C

LM

Vs

+
Vo

Flyback converter circuit

iS

i1

+ vSW
0
iLM

iLM

Vs
+ vSW

- +v D
v2
iC
+

iR

+
Vo

i2
Model
with magnetising
inductance

is=iLM
Vs

N2

+
v1
-

iLM

Vs

N1

iD

N1

N2

+
v1
v1=Vs
N1
+
v1

+
Vo

N2

v2= -VS
+

N
v1 Vo 1
N2

N
Vsw = Vs + Vo 1
N2

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

0 Switch closed
iD
+
Vo

Voltage and current

conditions when switch
opened
48

Flyback waveforms
v1
Vs

DT

-V(N1/N2)

is

iLM
DT

iD

DT
iLm

iC

Vo/ R

DT

DT

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

49

Analysis: switched closed

diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm
dt
diLm iLm iLm Vd
=
=
=
dt
dt
DT
Lm
Vd DT
(
)
iL
=
closed
L
m

On the load side of the transformer,

N2
N2
v2 = v1
= Vd

N1
N1
N2
vD = Vo Vd
<0
N1
Therefore,
i1 = 0
i2 = 0
Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

50

Analysis: switch opened

N
v1 = V0 1 ;
N2

v2 = V0

N
N
v1 = v2 1 = V0 1
N2
N2
Lm

N
= v1 = V0 1
dt
N2

diL m

diL m
dt

iL m
dt

iL m

(1 D )T

V0 N1
Lm N 2

V (1 D)T N1

(iL m )open = 0
Lm
N2
For steady - state operation,

(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0

m

V DT V0 (1 D )T N1

= 0
d
+
Lm
Lm
N
2
V0 = Vd

D N1

(1 D) N 2

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

51

Output voltage
Input output relationship is similar to buckboost converter.
Output can be greater of less than
input,depending upon D.
Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is
present.

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

52

Average inductor current

Ps = P0

V0 2
Vd I s =
R
I s is related to I Lm as :
Is =

I Lm DT
T

( )

= I Lm D

Substitute and solving for I Lm

V02
Vd I Lm D =
R
V0 2
I Lm =
Vd DR

( )

The average inductor current is also written as :

2
Vd D N 2
V0 N 2
I Lm =

2
(1 D) R N1
(1 D) R N1
Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

53

Max, Min inductor current,

Lmin, C values
I Lm

,max

= I Lm

I Lm ,min = I Lm

iLm

N 2 V d DT
+
=

+
2
2
2 Lm
(1 D ) R N1
iLm

Vd D

N 2 Vd DT

2
2
2 Lm
(1 D ) R N1
Vd D

For continuos operation, I Lm , min = 0

2

N 2 Vd DT Vd D
=

=
2
2 Lm
2 Lm f
(1 D ) R N1
Vd D

(Lm )min

Vd (1 D) R N1
=

2f
N2

The ripple calculation is similar to boost converter,

r=

V0
D
=
V0
RCf
Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

54

Full-bridge converter
SW1

SW3

Lx

NS

vp

VS

+
Vo

NS

SW4

+
vx

SW2

SW1,SW2

SW3,SW4

DT

VP
VS

T
2

T
+ DT
2

T
2

T
+ DT
2

-VS
Vx
N
VS S
NP

DT

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

55

Full bridge: basic operation

Switch pair: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].
Each switch pair turn on at a time as
shown. The other pair is off.
AC voltage is developed across the
primary. Then transferred to secondary via
high frequency transformers.
On secondary side, diode pair is high
frequency full wave rectification.
The choke (L) and acts like the buck
converter circuit.
Ns
D
Output Voltage Vo = 2Vs

N
p

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

56

Control of DC-DC Converter

Vo (desired)

Vo (actual)

Vcontrol
Comparator

Sawtooth
Waveform

Switch control
signal

Sawtooth
Waveform
Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2

Switch
control
signal

ton 2
ton 1
T

Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 2)
Dr. Zainal Salam

57