Tr tu nhn to

Bin tp bi:
Trn Ngn Bnh

Tr tu nhn to
Bin tp bi:
Trn Ngn Bnh
Cc tc gi:
Huynh Tram Vo

Phin bn trc tuyn:

http://voer.edu.vn/c/764b3239

MC LC
1. Li ni u
2. GII THIU TNG QUAN V TR TU NHN TO
2.1. GII THIU TNG QUAN V TR TU NHN TO
2.2. GII THIU V TR TU NHN TO
2.3. LCH S HNH THNH V PHT TRIN CA TR TU NHN TO
2.4. NH NGHA TR TU NHN TO
2.5. KHI QUT CC LNH VC NG DNG CA TTNT
2.6. MT S TNG KT V TTNT
3. TR TU NHN TO NH L BIU DIN V TM KIM
3.1. LOGIC HNH THC
3.2. I SNH MU V PHP HP NHT
4. CC CU TRC V CHIN LC DNG CHO VIC TM KIM TRONG
KHNG GIAN TRNG THI
4.1. M U
4.2. CC CHIN LC DNG CHO TM KIM TRONG KHNG GIAN
TRNG THI (TK-KGTT)
4.3. DNG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI BIU DIN QU TRNH SUY
LUN BNG PHP TNH V T
5. TM KIM HEURISTIC
5.1. M U
5.2. THUT TON TM KIM HEURISTIC
5.3. S DNG HEURISTIC TRONG CC TR CHI
6. IU KHIN V CI T TM KIM TRONG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI
6.1. TM KIM DA TRN C S QUI
6.2. H THNG LUT SINH (H SINH PRODUCTION SYSTEM)
6.3. KIN TRC BNG EN (BLACKBOARD ARCHITECTURE)
7. GII QUYT VN DA TRN TRI THC (KNOWLEDGE BASED
PROBLEM SOLVING)
7.1. Gii thiu:
7.2. TNG QUAN V CNG NGH H CHUYN GIA
7.3. H chuyn gia DA trn LUT (RULEBASED ES)
7.4. SUY LUN DA TRN M HNH: (MODELBASED REASONING)
7.5. SUY LUN DA TRN TRNG HP: (caSeBASED REASONING)
8. SUY LUN KHNG CHC CHN
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8.1. Gii thiu

8.2. TIP CN THNG K I VI TNH KHNG CHC CHN
8.3. SUY LUN VI CC TP M (fUZZY LOGIC)
9. CC CH NNG CAO
9.1. Gii thiu
9.2. NHN XT V PHNG PHP HP GII
10. HC MY (MACHINE LEARNING)
10.1. Gii thiu
10.2. TIP CN K HIU: gII THUT QUY NP CY QUYT NH ID3
10.3. TIP CN KT NI: MNG NEURON
10.4. TIP CN X HI V NI TRI: GII THUT DI TRUYN (GENETIC
ALGORITHM - GA)
11. TI LIU THAM KHO
Tham gia ng gp

2/197

Li ni u
LI NI U
p ng nhu cu hc tp ca cc bn sinh vin, nht l sinh vin chuyn ngnh Tin
hc, Khoa Cng Ngh Thng Tin & Truyn thng - Trng i Hc Cn Th chng
ti tin hnh bin son cc gio trnh, bi ging chnh trong chng trnh hc theo
hng gip sinh vin c th t hc, t nghin cu. Gio trnh mn Tr tu nhn to ny
c bin son c bn da trn quyn Artificial Intelligence ca George F. Luger v
William A. Stubblefield, xut bn bi Wesley Publishing Company, Inc vo nm 1997;
v quyn Tr tu nhn to Cc cu trc v chin lc gii quyt vn - bin dch
bi Bi Xun Toi Trng Gia Vit pht hnh bi NXB Thng k nm 2000. Gio
trnh cng c bin son da trn kinh nghim ging dy nhiu nm mn Tr tu nhn
to ca chng ti.
Ti liu ny c son theo cng chi tit mn Tr tu nhn to dnh cho sinh vin
chuyn ngnh Tin hc - Khoa Cng Ngh Thng Tin & Truyn thng - Trng i Hc
Cn Th. Mc tiu ca n nhm gip cc bn sinh vin chuyn ngnh nm th t c
mt ti liu c ng dng lm ti liu hc tp, nhng cng khng loi tr s tham kho
ca cc i tng khc.
Chng ti ht sc lm c th ha trong phm vi c th cc ni dung trong gio trnh
so vi thi lng m mn hc cho php. D rt c gng nhng c l gio trnh vn
cn nhiu thiu st v hn ch. Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n v rt hoan nghnh cc
kin ng gp ca cc bn ng nghip gn, xa v ca cc bn sinh vin gio trnh
mn hc ny c hon chnh hn theo thi gian.
i Hc Cn Th, thng 08 nm 2006
V HUNH TRM TRN NGN BNH
Email : vhtram@cit.ctu.edu.vntnbinh@cit.ctu.edu.vn

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GII THIU TNG QUAN V TR TU

NHN TO
GII THIU TNG QUAN V TR TU NHN TO
GII THIU TNG QUAN V
TR TU NHN TO
Mc d trong cc th k 18, 19 v u th k 20, s hnh thc ha trong khoa hc v
ton hc to iu kin tin quyt v mt tr tu cho vic nghin cu tr tu nhn to,
nhng phi cho n th k 20 cng vi s ra i ca my tnh s th Tr tu nhn to (AI
: Artificial Intelligence) mi tr thnh mt ngnh khoa hc c sc sng. Cho n cui
nhng nm 1940, bng nhng chng trnh thng minh, cc my tnh s cho thy
c tim nng to ln ca chng trong vic cung cp b nh v sc mnh cho nhng
x l cn thit. Ngy nay, chng ta c th ci t cc h suy lun hnh thc vo trong
my tnh v kim tra mt cch thc nghim kh nng biu l tr thng minh ca chng.
Mt thnh phn khng th thiu c ca Tr tu nhn to l vic dng cc my tnh s
nh mt phng tin chn la to ra v th nghim cc l thuyt v tr tu. Khng
ch th, kin trc ca chng cn cung cp mt m hnh c trng cho nhng l thuyt
: tr tu l mt hnh thc x l thng tin. Nhng k thut v hnh thc c kho st
trong lnh vc Tr tu nhn to lun th hin mi quan h khng kht gia my tnh s
v nhng ct li l thuyt ca n.
Cng nh vi bt c khoa hc no khc, Tr tu nhn to (AI : Artificial Intelligence)
t n lin quan n mt tp hp nht nh nhng vn v trin khai mt nhm cc k
thut c th tip cn nhng vn . Mt lch s hnh thnh v pht trin ngn gn
v Tr tu nhn to, v nhng con ngi v nhng nhn nh nh hnh, mt s cc
nh ngha v cch nhn khi qut v cc lnh vc ng dng ca Tr tu nhn to c
trnh by di y s gip cho chng ta mt ci nhn tng quan v ngnh khoa hc cn
tng i mi m ny.
Download slide ti y

4/197

GII THIU V TR TU NHN TO

GII THIU V TR TU NHN TO
Ni dung chnh: Trong chng ny, chng ta s gii thiu mt cch khi qut v lch s
hnh thnh v pht trin ca khoa hc Tr tu nhn to, cc nh ngha mang tnh tng
i v Tr tu nhn to mt lnh vc khoa hc mi m vi sc pht trin nhanh chng
trong nhng thp nin gn y. Cc lnh vc ng dng quan trng ca Tr tu nhn to
v hiu qu thit thc ca chng trong cc mt cuc sng con ngi c cp n
mt cch chi tit sau . Cui chng, mt s c im mang tnh tng kt v Tr tu
nhn to cng s c trnh by.
Mc tiu cn t : Sau chng ny, sinh vin c th :

Bit khi qut v lch s hnh thnh v pht trin ca TTNT

Bit cc nh ngha v TTNT
Hiu v dn chng c mt s lnh vc ng dng ca TTNT
Hiu cc c im c bn ca GQV trong TTNT

Kin thc tin quyt : Cc hiu bit v lch s pht trin ca khoa hc my tnh.
Ti liu tham kho :
George F. Luger, William A. Stubblefield Albuquerque Artificial
Intelligence Wesley Publishing Company, Inc 1997 (Chapter 1)
Bi Xun Toi Trng Gia Vit (Bin dch) Tr tu nhn to Cc cu
trc v chin lc gii quyt vn - NXB Thng k, 2000 (Phn I)
PTS. Nguyn Thanh Thy Tr tu nhn to Cc phng php gii quyt
vn v k thut x l tri thc NXB Gio dc, 1995 (Chng 1)
Wikipedia Bch khoa ton th m - Lch s ngnh Tr tu nhn to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence
Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (Second Edition) by Stuart
Russell and Peter Norvig : Introduction on AI
http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/

5/197

LCH S HNH THNH V PHT TRIN CA TR

TU NHN TO
LCH S HNH THNH V PHT TRIN CA TR TU NHN TO
Nhng nm gn y, kh nhiu sch, bo, cng trnh nghin cu khoa hc cp n
cc k thut tnh ton, ngi ta hay nhc n nhiu thut ng nh: my tnh thng minh,
my tnh th h V, h chuyn gia, mng ng ngha, ... Cc ngn ng lp trnh nh LISP,
PROLOG m ng cho vic p dng hng lot cc h thng chng trnh c kh nng
thng minh.
Trc y, mi khi ni n Tr tu nhn to (TTNT) ngi ta thng quan tm n vic
to lp cc my tnh c kh nng suy ngh, thm ch trong mt s phm vi hp no
, c th cnh tranh hoc vt qu kh nng ca b no con ngi. Nhng hy vng
ny trong mt thi gian di nh hng rt nhiu n cc nghin cu trong phng th
nghim. Mc d nhng m hnh tng t cc my tnh thng minh c a ra hng
nhiu nm trc, nhng ch t khi Alan Turing cng b nhng kt qu nghin cu quan
trng u tin, ngi ta mi bt u thc s nghin cu n cc vn TTNT mt cch
nghim tc. Pht hin ca Turing cho rng chng trnh c th c lu tr trong b
nh sau c thc hin trn c s cc php ton c bn thao tc vi cc bit 0, 1.
iu ny to nn nn tng ca nhng my tnh hin i. Vic lu tr chng trnh
trong my cho php thay i chc nng ca n mt cch nhanh chng v d dng thng
qua vic np mt chng trnh mi vo b nh. Theo mt ngha no , kh nng ny
lm cho my tnh c kh nng hc v suy ngh. cng chnh l mt trong nhng biu
hin quan trng u tin ca nhng my tnh c trang b TTNT.
Nm 1956, chng trnh dn xut kt lun trong h hnh thc c cng b. Tip
theo , nm 1959 chng trnh chng minh cc nh l hnh hc phng v chng
trnh gii quyt bi ton vn nng (GPS - General Problem Solving) c a ra.
Tuy vy ch cho n khong nm 1960 khi McCathy MIT (Massachussets Institute
of Technology) a ra ngn ng lp trnh u tin dng cho tr tu nhn to LISP (list
processing), cc nghin cu v TTNT mi bt u pht trin mnh m. Thut ng TTNT
do Marvin Minsky mt chuyn gia ni ting cng MIT a ra nm 1961 trong bi
bo Steps Forwards To Artificial Intelligence. Nhng nm 60 c th xem l mt mc
quan trng trong qu trnh xy dng cc my c kh nng suy ngh. Cc chng trnh
chi c v cc chng trnh chng minh nh l ton hc u tin cng c cng b
trong khong thi gian ny.
Nhng b tc, hn ch thnh cng ca cc cng trnh nghin cu TTNT trong nhng
nm 60 chnh l do gii hn kh nng ca cc thit b, b nh v c bit l yu t thi
gian thc hin. Chnh nhng yu t ny khng cho php tng qut ha nhng thnh

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cng bc u t c trong cc h chng trnh TTNT xy dng. Tuy rng vo

gia nhng nm 70, b nh my tnh v thi gian tnh ton c nng cao ng k
v cht, song nhng cch tip cn khc nhau n TTNT vn cha em ti nhng thnh
cng tht s do s bng n t hp trong qu trnh tm kim li gii cho cc bi ton t
ra.
Cui nhng nm 70, mt s nghin cu c bn trong cc lnh vc nh x l ngn ng t
nhin, biu din tri thc, l thuyt gii quyt vn em li din mo mi cho TTNT.
Th trng tin hc bt u n nhn nhng sn phm TTNT ng dng u tin mang
tnh thng mi. l cc h chuyn gia c p dng trong cc lnh vc khc nhau.
H chuyn gia l cc phn mm my tnh, cha cc thng tin v tri thc v mt lnh
vc c th no , c kh nng gii quyt nhng yu cu ca ngi dng mt mc
no vi trnh nh mt chuyn gia c kinh nghim lu nm. Mt trong nhng h
chuyn gia u tin c s dng thnh cng trong thc t l h MYCIN, c thit k
v ci t ti trng i hc Tng Hp Stanford.
Mt s kin quan trng trong s pht trin ca khoa hc TTNT l s ra i ca ngn
ng PROLOG, do Alain Calmerauer a ra nm 1972. Nm 1981, d n ca Nht Bn
xy dng cc my tnh th h th V ly ngn ng PROLOG nh l ngn ng c s
lm thay i kh nhiu tnh hnh pht trin TTNT M cng nh chu u.
Giai on 1981 tr i ngi ta cm nhn kh r nt rng cc chuyn gia v TTNT ang
dn chuyn cc kt qu nghin cu t phng th nghim sang ci t cc ng dng c
th. C th ni y cng l giai on cnh tranh ro rit ca cc cng ty, cc vin nghin
cu hng u nhm a ra th trng cc sn phm phn mm ng dng k thut TTNT.
Cui nhng nm 80, u nhng nm 90 th trng cc sn phm dn dng c kh
nhiu sn phm trnh cao nh my git, my nh, . . . s dng TTNT. Cc h thng
nhn dng v x l hnh nh, ting ni ang ngy cng thc y s pht trin k thut
mng Neuron. S xch li ca hai cch tip cn: Tip cn m trong lp lun xp x v
k thut mng Neuron v ang gy c s quan tm c bit ca cc chuyn gia tin
hc. Bn cnh s xut hin ca cc h chuyn gia, cc ng dng cng nghip v qun l
x hi, qun l kinh t cng i hi s ra i ca cc h thng x l tri thc d liu
tch hp.
Th gii ang chuyn mnh trong nhng nghin cu v TTNT. Tuy vy cu hi liu k
thut TTNT c to nn nhng bc nhy vt trong cng ngh tin hc, c bit l trong
cng ngh my tnh nh ngi ta mong i hay khng vn cha c li gii p tha
ng.

7/197

NH NGHA TR TU NHN TO
NH NGHA TR TU NHN TO
Tr tu nhn to
Tr tu nhn to (AI: Artificial Intelligence) c th c nh ngha nh mt ngnh ca
khoa hc my tnh lin quan n vic t ng ha cc hnh vi thng minh. AI l mt b
phn ca khoa hc my tnh v do n phi c t trn nhng nguyn l l thuyt
vng chc, c kh nng ng dng c ca lnh vc ny. Nhng nguyn l ny bao
gm cc cu trc d liu dng cho biu din tri thc, cc thut ton cn thit p dng
nhng tri thc , cng cc ngn ng v k thut lp trnh dng cho vic ci t chng.
Tuy nhin nh ngha trn phi chp nhn mt thc t - tr tu t n l mt khi nim
khng c nh ngha mt cch r rng. Mc d hu ht chng ta u c th nhn ra
cc hnh vi thng minh khi nhn thy chng nhng rt kh c th a ra mt nh ngha
v tr tu.
V th m vn nh ngha Tr tu nhn to t n tr thnh mt s nh ngha tr tu:
c phi l mt nng lc duy nht hay ch l tn dng gi mt tp hp nhng kh nng
khc nhau v khng lin quan g n nhau ? Th no l kh nng sng to ? Th no l
trc gic ? C th kt lun ngay v tnh tr tu t vic quan st mt hnh vi hay khng
hay cn phi c biu hin ca mt c ch no nm bn trong ? Tt c nhng cu hi
ny vn cha c tr li v chng nu ra nhng vn cn c phng php lun
gii quyt.
Cho n nay, Tr tu nhn to vn cn l mt ngnh khoa hc tr, nhng mi quan tm
v nhng phng php ca n cha c r rng so vi tt c cc ngnh khoa hc
trng thnh trc . Song, mt trong nhng mc tiu trng tm ca n l quan tm
n vic m rng kh nng ca khoa hc my tnh hn l tm cch nh ngha nhng
gii hn ca n.
Cu hi :
Nu mt nh ngha theo s khi qut ca ring bn v Tr tu nhn to ?
Trc nghim Turing
Nm 1950, mt nh ton hc ngi Anh l Alan Turing vit nhng trang sch u
tin tr li mt cch c th cu hi: tr tu my c lin h nh th no vi my tnh k
thut s hin i. Tc phm My tnh v tr tu (Turing 1950) ca ng vn cn mang
tnh thi i i vi vic nh gi nhng tranh lun v kh nng to ra mt my tnh
8/197

thng minh, cng nh i vi nhng cu tr li ca tc phm ny cho cc tranh lun

trn.
Turing, ngi ni ting ch yu qua nhng ng gp ca ng cho l thuyt v kh nng
tnh ton xem xt cu hi: liu c th lm cho mt my tnh thc s c kh nng suy
ngh hay khng ? gii quyt nhng m h trong cu hi ny, ng xut thay
th cu tr li bng kt qu ca mt trc nghim mang tnh thc nghim trc nghim
Turing (Turing test) hay tr chi bt chc.
Trc nghim Turing o lng kh nng ca mt my tnh c coi l thng minh v so
snh vi kh nng ca con ngi mt i tng c xem l c hnh vi thng minh
nht v l chun mc duy nht v tr tu. Trong trc nghim ny, mt my tnh v mt
ngi tham gia trc nghim c t vo trong cc cn phng cch bit vi mt ngi
th hai, ngi ny c gi l ngi thm vn (hnh 1.1). Ngi thm vn khng th
nhn thy hay ni chuyn vi bt k ai trong trong hai i tng trn, cng khng bit
c chnh xc i tng no l ngi hay my tnh, v cng ch c th giao tip vi
hai i tng thng qua mt thit b son tho vn bn, chng hn nh mt thit b
u cui. Ngi thm vn c nhim v phn bit ngi vi my tnh bng cch ch da
trn nhng cu tr li ca h i vi nhng cu hi c truyn qua thit b lin lc ny.
Trong trng hp nu ngi thm vn khng th phn bit c my tnh vi ngi th
khi , theo Turing, my tnh ny c th c xem l thng minh.

Hnh 1.1 Trc nghim Turing

Bng cch cch ly ngi thm vn vi my tnh cng nh ngi tham gia vo trc
nghim, th nghim ny bo m rng ngi thm vn s khng c thnh kin vi s
xut hin ca my tnh hay bt k mt c tnh my mc no trong li ni ca n. Tuy
nhin, vi mc ch c gng pht hin ra u l my tnh, ngi thm vn c th c
t do hi bt k cu hi no, cho d l nhng cu hi bng gi hay quanh co. Chng
9/197

hn, ngi thm vn c th yu cu c hai i tng thc hin mt php tnh lin quan
t nhiu n s hc vi gi nh rng my tnh s thc hin nhanh v chnh xc hn
ngi. i ph vi chin thut ny, mt my tnh thng minh cn phi bit khi no
th n nn a ra mt cu tr li sai cho nhng bi ton nhm t ra n ging con ngi.
Mt cch tng t, c th pht hin ra c tnh con ngi da vo bn cht cm xc,
ngi thm vn cng c th hi c hai i tng cc kin thc v th vn hay ngh
thut. V i ph vi chin thut ny i hi my tnh cng phi c nhng kin thc
lin quan n cm xc xut pht t con ngi.
Nhng c trng quan trng ca trc nghim ny l :
N a ra mt khi nim khch quan v tr tu, tc l hnh vi ca mt thc th thng
minh no p ng li mt tp hp cc cu hi c th. Vic ny cho chng ta mt
chun mc xc nh tr thng minh, ng thi trnh c nhng tranh lun khng
cn thit v bn cht ng ca n.
N trnh cho chng ta khi b lc ng bi nhng cu hi rc ri v hin thi cha th
tr li c, chng hn nh my tnh c s dng nhng suy lun thch hp bn trong n
hay khng, hay my tnh thc s c thc c nhng hnh ng ca n hay khng.
N loi tr bt c nh kin thin v no v bt buc ngi thm vn ch tp trung vo
ni dung cc cu tr li.
Nh nhng u im ny, trc nghim Turing cung cp mt c s cho nhiu s
nh gi m nhng s ny c dng thc s cho cc chng trnh TTNT hin i.
Ngi ta c th nh gi kh nng chuyn mn ca mt chng trnh v mt lnh vc
no bng cch so snh kt qu lm vic ca n vi mt chuyn gia khi cng gii
quyt mt tp cc bi ton cho trc. K thut nh gi ny ch l bin th ca trc
nghim Turing: mt nhm chuyn gia sau s c yu cu so snh kt qu thc hin
ca my v ngi trn mt tp hp c th cc bi ton m khng c thy cc i
tng. Chng ta s thy rng phng php lun ny tr thnh mt cng c khng th
thiu trong c hai giai on pht trin v kim chng ca cc h chuyn gia hin i.
Cu hi :
Hy so snh nhng im khc nhau c bn trong kh nng gii quyt vn gia my
tnh hin i vi con ngi ?

10/197

KHI QUT CC LNH VC NG DNG CA TTNT

KHI QUT CC LNH VC NG DNG CA TTNT
Hai mi quan tm nn tng nht ca cc nh nghin cu TTNT l biu din tri thc
(knowledge representation) v tm kim (search). S quan tm th nht ch n vn
nm bt theo mt ngn ng hnh thc, tc l mt dng thc thch hp my tnh
vn hnh, phm vi tri thc y m hnh vi thng minh i hi. Trong khi, tm kim
l k thut gii quyt vn theo cch kho st c h thng mt khng gian trng thi
bi ton (problem state), tc l cc giai on tun t v c chn la trong qu trnh gii
quyt vn .
Ging nh hu ht cc ngnh khoa hc khc, Tr Tu Nhn To cng c phn thnh
nhng ngnh con. Trong khi chia s mt tip cn gii quyt vn c bn, cc ngnh
con ny c cc mi quan tm n cc ng dng khc nhau. Phn sau s phc tho tng
th mt vi lnh vc ng dng chnh v nhng ng gp ca chng cho Tr tu nhn to.
Tr chi
Ngay t thi k u ca vic nghin cu vn tm kim trong khng gian trng thi,
ngi ta tin hnh nhiu th nghim bng cch s dng cc tr chi thng dng c
bn c nh c am (checker), c vua v tr 15 (15 puzzule). Ngoi sc quyn r
do tnh cht tr c vn c trong cc tr chi c bn c, c nhiu tnh nht nh lm cho
chng tr thnh mt i tng l tng ca thi k ny. Hu ht cc tr chi u s
dng mt tp hp cc lut chi c xc nh r rng. iu ny lm cho vic pht sinh
khng gian tm kim tr nn d dng v gii phng nhiu nghin cu khi nhng s m
h v phc tp vn c trong cc bi ton t cu trc hn. Hnh dng ca nhng bn c s
dng trong cc tr chi ny d dng c biu din vo my tnh, trong khi khng i
hi mt hnh thc kh hiu cn thit no nm bt nhng tinh t v ng ngha trong
nhng lnh vc bi ton phc tp hn. Do c th chi cc tr chi mt cch d dng nn
vic th nghim mt chng trnh chi tr chi khng phi tr mt gnh nng no v
ti chnh hay o c.
Cc tr chi c th pht sinh ra mt s lng khng gian tm kim cc k ln. Nhng
khng gian ny ln v phc tp i hi nhng k thut mnh nhm quyt nh
xem nhng chn la no cn c kho st trong khng gian bi ton. Nhng k thut
ny c gi l cc heuristic v chng to thnh mt lnh vc ln trong nghin cu
TTNT. Mt heuristic l mt chin lc gii quyt vn tt nhng tim n kh nng
tht bi, chng hn nh vic kim tra bit chc rng mt thit b khng nhy c
cm vo trc khi gi nh rng n b hng, hay c gng bo v qun c hong hu ca
bn khi b bt trong tr chi c vua. Nhiu th m chng ta gi l thng minh thuc v
cc heuristic c ngi ta s dng gii quyt cc vn .
11/197

Hu ht chng ta u c mt s kinh nghim vi nhng tr chi n gin ny, nn chng

ta cng c kh nng ngh ra v kim nghim tnh hiu qu ca nhng heuristic ca chnh
mnh. Chng ta khng cn i tm v hi kin chuyn gia trong mt s lnh vc chuyn
mn su nh l y hc hay ton hc (c vua l mt ngoi l d thy i vi quy tc ny).
V nhng l do , cc tr chi cung cp mt khng gian mnh mng cho vic nghin
cu cc tm kim heuristic. Cc chng trnh chi tr chi, tri ngc vi tnh n gin
ca chng, a ra nhng th thch ring ca chng, bao gm cc u th m cc nc
i ca anh ta c th khng d on trc c mt cch chc chn. S c mt ny ca
u th cng lm phc tp hn m hnh chng trnh do s thm vo mt yu t khng
d on trc c v s cn thit phi tnh n nhng yu t tm l cng nh l chin
thut trong chin lc ca tr chi.
Suy lun v chng minh nh l t ng
Chng ta c th cho rng chng minh nh l t ng l mt nhnh nghin cu c t
lu i nht ca Tr tu nhn to khi tm li ngun gc ca n qua cc tc phm Nh
l lun logic (logic theorist) (Newell v Simon 1963a) v Cng c gii quyt vn
tng qut (General problem solver) (Newell v Simon 1965b) ca Newell v Simon,
cho n trong nhng n lc ca Rusell v Whitehead xem ton b ton hc nh l s
dn xut hnh thc thun tu ca cc nh l t cc tin c s. Trong bt c trng
hp no, n chc chn vn l mt trong nhng ngnh phong ph nht ca lnh vc ny.
Nghin cu chng minh nh l t c nhiu thnh tch trong thi k u ca vic
hnh thc ho cc gii thut tm kim v pht trin cc ngn ng biu din hnh thc nh
php tnh v t.
Hu ht s quyn r ca chng minh nh l t ng u l khng ng tin cy v khng
ng vi nguyn tc chung ca logic. V l mt h hnh thc, logic t b sung cho mnh
s t ng ho. Ngi ta c th kho st mt s lng ln nhng bi ton khc nhau,
bng cch biu din m t ca bi ton v nhng thng tin c s lin quan nh l tin
logic, v xem nhng trng hp bi ton l nhng nh l cn phi chng minh. S
hiu bit thu o ny l c s cho vic nghin cu chng minh nh l t ng v cc
h suy lun ton hc.
Mt l do khc cho vic tip tc quan tm n cc my chng minh nh l t ng l
s nhn thc rng mt h thng kiu nh vy khng nht thit phi c kh nng gii
quyt nhng bi ton cc k phc tp mt cch c lp m khng c s tr gip no
ca con ngi. Nhiu my chng minh nh l hin i hot ng nh nhng tr l vin
thng minh khi chng cho php con ngi thc hin nhng cng tc i hi trnh
cao hn l phn tch mt bi ton ln thnh nhiu bi ton con v t ra nhng heuristic
tm kim trong khng gian nhng chng minh c th chn. My chng minh nh l
sau thc hin cng tc n gin hn nhng cng quan trng l chng minh cc b
, kim chng nhng gii quyt nh hn, v hon thnh nhng kha cnh hnh thc ca

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mt chng minh c phc tho bi s hp tc ca n vi con ngi (Boyer v More

1979).
Cc h chuyn gia
K t lc khoa hc gii quyt vn c nghin cu, ngi ta sm thc mt cch
su sc v c bn v tm quan trng ca tri thc chuyn ngnh. Ly v d mt bc s
chng hn, c ta khng th chn on bnh tt ch nh vo mt s k nng gii quyt
vn tng qut bm sinh; m c ta chn on tt l v c ta c nhiu kin thc y
hc. Tng t nh th, mt nh a cht gii pht hin cc m khong v anh ta bit p
dng mt cch hiu qu nhiu tri thc l thuyt v thc nghim v a l vo bi ton
ang nm trong tay anh ta. Tri thc chuyn gia v lnh vc l s kt hp gia kin thc
l thuyt v vn v mt tp hp cc quy tc gii quyt vn theo kiu heuristic
m kinh nghim khi s dng nhng quy tc ny t ra hiu qu trong lnh vc . Cc
h chuyn gia c ngi ta xy dng bng cch thu thp cc kin thc t chuyn gia
ngi v m ho n thnh dng thc m my tnh c th p dng cho nhng bi ton
tng t.
S tin cy vo tri thc ca chuyn gia chuyn ngnh trong cc chin lc gii quyt
vn ca h l mt c trng chnh ca cc h chuyn gia. Ngi ta vit ra mt s
chng trnh m ngi thit k cng l ngun tri thc chuyn ngnh, nhng s in
hnh hn nhiu nu chng ta xem xt nhng chng trnh c pht sinh t s cng tc
gia mt chuyn gia chuyn ngnh chng hn nh mt bc s, mt nh ho hc, mt nh
a cht hc hay mt k s, vi mt chuyn gia ring v tr tu nhn to. Chuyn gia
chuyn ngnh cung cp kin thc cn thit v chuyn ngnh thng qua nhng cuc tho
lun tng qut v cc phng php gii quyt vn ca anh ta, v bng cch biu din
nhng k nng trn mt tp hp cc bi ton mu c chn la cn thn. Chuyn gia
TTNT, hay cn gi l k s tri thc (knowledge engineer), nh ngi ta vn thng gi
l cc nh thit k h chuyn gia, c trch nhim th hin tri thc ny vo mt chng
trnh m chng trnh phi va hiu qu va c v thng minh trong cc hnh vi ca
n. Mt chng trnh nh th va hon thnh xong, cn phi tinh ch kin thc chuyn
mn ca n thng qua mt qu trnh cung cp cho n nhng bi ton mu gii,
cho chuyn gia chuyn ngnh ph bnh hnh vi ca n v thc hin bt c thay i hay
ci bin no cn thit i vi tri thc ca chng trnh. Qu trnh ny lp i lp li cho
n khi chng trnh t c mc hon thin mong mun.
Mt trong cc h chuyn gia sm nht khai thc tri thc chuyn ngnh gii quyt
vn l DENDRAL c pht trin ti Stanford vo cui nhng nm 1960 (Lindsay
et al.1980). DENDRAL c thit k phng on cu trc ca cc phn t hu c
t cng thc ho hc ca chng v cc thng tin v khi quang ph c lin quan n
cc lin kt ho hc c mt trong cc phn t. V cc phn t hu c thng rt ln,
nn s lng cu trc c kh nng tn ti i vi nhng phn t ny thng l khng
l. DENDRAL ch vo bi ton ca khng gian tm kim rng ln ny bng cch p

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dng tri thc heuristic ca cc chuyn gia ho hc vo bi ton lm sng t cu trc. Cc

phng php ca DENDRAL t ra c mt sc mnh ng k. Khi thng xuyn tm
thy cu trc ng trong hng triu kh nng khc nhau ch sau c vi php th. Phng
php ny t ra thnh cng n mc ngi ta s dng nhng phin bn ca h chuyn
gia ni trn trong cc phng th nghim ho hc khp ni trn th gii.
Trong khi DENDRAL l mt trong s nhng chng trnh u tin s dng tri thc
chuyn ngnh mt cch hiu qu t c kh nng gii quyt vn cp chuyn
gia, th MYCIN l h chuyn gia thit lp nn phng php lun cho cc h chuyn
gia hin i (contemporary expert systems) (Buchanan and Shortliff 1984). MYCIN s
dng tri thc y khoa chuyn gia chn on v k n iu tr cho bnh vim mng
no tu sng v nhng trng hp nhim trng vi khun trong mu.
MYCIN, c cc nh nghin cu pht trin Stanford vo gia nhng nm 1970, l
mt trong nhng chng trnh u tin ch n nhng bi ton suy lun bng thng
tin khng chc chn hoc khng y . MYCIN cung cp nhng gii quyt r rng v
logic v qu trnh suy lun ca n, s dng mt cu trc kim tra thch hp vi lnh vc
chuyn mn ca vn , v nhn bit c tnh nh gi mt cch tin cy hot ng
ca n. Nhiu k thut xy dng h chuyn gia ang dng hin nay c ngi ta
pht trin ln u trong d n MYCIN.
Nhng h chuyn gia c in khc bao gm chng trnh PROSPECTOR dng tm
ra nhng ni c cha qung m v xc nh loi qung m, da trn thng tin a l
v mt a im no (duda et al. 1979a, 1979b), chng trnh INTERNIST dng
chn on trong lnh vc ni khoa, Dipmeter Advisor dng phin dch cc kt qu
ca cc my khoan ging du (Smith and Baker 1983) v XCON dng nh hnh cc
my tnh h VAX.XCON c s dng t nm 1981, tt c cc my VAX v Digital
Equipment Corporation bn thi by gi u c nh hnh bng XCON. V s nhng
h chuyn gia khc ngy nay ang gii quyt nhng bi ton trong nhiu lnh vc khc
nhau nh y hc, gio dc, kinh doanh, thit k v khoa hc (Waterman 1986). Mt iu
th v m chng ta c th nhn thy l hu ht cc h chuyn gia c vit cho nhng
lnh vc kh chuyn bit v cp chuyn gia. Ni chung nhng lnh vc ny u
c nghin cu k v chng c nhng chin lc gii quyt vn xc nh mt
cch r rng.
Mc d cn tn ti nhng hn ch ny cc h chuyn gia vn ang chng minh gi tr
ca chng trong nhiu ng dng quan trng.
Cu hi :
Nu thm mt s u im ca h chuyn gia trn cc phng din tri thc, x hi hoc
ti chnh ?

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Hiu v m hnh ho ng ngha ngn ng t nhin

Mt trong nhng mc tiu c t lu i ca Tr tu nhn to l to ra cc chng trnh
c kh nng hiu ngn ng ca con ngi. Kh nng hiu ngn ng t nhin khng ch
l mt trong nhng biu hin cn bn nht ca tr thng minh con ngi m s t ng
ho n mt cch thnh cng s gy ra mt tc ng ngoi sc tng tng i vi nng
lc v hiu qu chnh ca nhng chic my tnh. Ngi ta b ra nhiu cng sc
vit cc chng trnh c kh nng hiu ngn ng t nhin. Tuy nhng chng trnh ny
c c mt s thnh cng trong nhng ng cnh hn ch, nhng cc h thng c
kh nng s dng ngn ng t nhin mt cch linh hot v tng qut theo cch nh con
ngi vn cn ngoi tm tay nhng phng php lun hin nay.
Hiu ngn ng t nhin lin quan n nhiu th hn nhiu so vi ch phn tch cc cu
thnh cc phn ring r nhng nhm cu ca chng v tm nhng t trong t in.
Kh nng hiu thc s tu thuc vo kin thc nn tng rng ln v lnh vc ca bi
vn v nhng thnh ng dng trong lnh vc , cng nh l kh nng ng dng nhng
kin thc tng qut tu thuc theo ng cnh gii quyt nhng trng hp b st hay
ti ngha, l mt c im bnh thng trong li ni con ngi.
V d nh chng ta th xem xt nhng kh khn khi tin hnh mt cuc hi thoi v
bng chy vi mt ngi bit ting Anh nhng khng bit g v lut chi, cc u
th, hoc lch s ca mn chi. Liu ngi ny c th hiu c hay khng ngha
ca cu: With none down in the top of the nith anh the go-ahead run at second, the
managercalled this relief from the bull pen ? Tuy tng t ring l trong cu ny l c
th hiu c, nhng cu ny vn c coi l sai ng php ngay c i vi ngi thng
minh nht trong s nhng ngi khng am hiu bng chy.
Cng vic tp hp v t chc kin thc nn tng ny c tin hnh theo cch m sao
cho cch y c th p dng c cho s lnh hi ngn ng, hnh thnh nn vn ch
yu ca vic t ng ho qu trnh hiu ngn ng t nhin. p ng yu cu ny, cc
nh nghin cu pht trin nhiu k thut dng cu trc ho ngha ng ngha, cc
k thut ny c dng xuyn sut khoa hc Tr tu nhn to.
Do vic hiu ngn ng t nhin i hi nhng khi lng kin thc khng l, hu ht
cc cng trnh c ngi ta thc hin trong nhng lnh vc vn c hiu r v
chuyn mn ho. Mt trong nhng chng trnh khai thc sm nht phng php lun
th gii qui m ny l SHRDLU ca Winograd, mt h ngn ng t nhin c kh
nng tr chuyn v hnh dng n gin ca cc khi c nhiu hnh dng v mu sc
khc nhau (winograd 1973). SHRDLU c th tr li c nhng cu hi kiu nh khi
mu g ang nm trn hnh lp phng mu xanh da tri ? v d kin nhng hnh ng
kiu nh di chuyn hnh chp mu ln vin gch mu xanh l cy. Nhng bi ton
loi ny, lin quan n vic m t v thao tc nhng sp xp n gin ca cc khi

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xut hin v thng xuyn gy ngc nhin trong gii nghin cu TTNT v c ngi
ta bit n di ci tn l nhng bi ton th gii ca khi.
Mc cho SHRDLU thnh cng vi vic tr chuyn v s sp xp ca cc khi, nhng
phng php ca n khng khi qut c vt ra khi th gii cc khi.
Nhng k thut biu din c s dng trong chng trnh ny qu n gin nn khng
t chc nm bt ng ngha ca nhiu lnh vc phong ph v phc tp hn mt
cch c kt qu. Nhiu s u t nghin cu v hiu ngn ng t nhin trong thi gian
gn y c ngi ta dnh ht cho vic tm ra nhng hnh thc biu din, m v c bn
dng trong mt phm vi rng ln cc ng dng m nhng ng dng ny t bn thn
chng cn cha thch nghi tt vi cu trc c th ca lnh vc . Ngi ta kho st
mt s lng nhng k thut khc nhau (hu ht u l nhng m rng hay ci tin ca
k thut mng ng ngha) cho mc ch ny v dng chng vo vic pht trin nhng
chng trnh c kh nng hiu ngn ng t nhin trong nhng lnh vc tri thc cp bch
nhng l th. Sau cng, trong nghin cu gn y (grosz 1997, marcus 1980), cc m
hnh v cch tip cn stochastic, m t cch cc tp hp t cng xut hin trong cc
mi trng ngn ng, c dng khc ho ni dung ng ngha ca cu. Tuy nhin,
hiu ngn ng t nhin mt cch tng qut l vn vn cn vt qu gii hn hin nay
ca chng ta.
Cu hi :
Trnh by mt s ng dng c th m bn bit cho vic x l ngn ng t nhin ang p
dng vo cc lnh vc cuc sng hin nay ?
M hnh ho hot ng ca con ngi
Mc d kh nhiu vn ni trn dng tr tu con ngi lm im ta tham kho
xem xt tr tu nhn to, thc t khng din bin theo cch m nhng chng trnh
cn phi ly s t chc ca tr c con ngi lm kiu mu cho chng. Thc ra nhiu
chng trnh TTNT c thit k gii mt s bi ton cn thit m khng cn ch
n tnh tng t ca chng so vi kin trc tr c con ngi. Ngay c cc h chuyn gia,
trong khi nhn c nhiu tri thc t cc chuyn gia con ngi, cng khng thc s c
gng bt chc nhng qu trnh tr tu bn trong ca con ngi. Nu nh s hot ng
ch l nhng c tnh m theo mt h thng s c nh gi, th c th l khng c
my l do m phng cc phng php gii quyt vn ca con ngi. Trong thc
t, nhng chng trnh s dng cc phng php khng theo kiu con ngi gii
quyt cc bi ton thng thnh cng hn nhng chng trnh theo kiu con ngi. Tuy
nhin, m hnh ca nhng h thng r rng bt chc mt s kha cnh ca cch gii
quyt vn theo kiu con ngi vn l mt mnh t mu m trong nghin cu cho c
hai ngnh khoa hc tr tu nhn to v tm l hc.

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M hnh ha hot ng con ngi, ngoi vic cung cp cho TTNT nhiu phng php
lun c bn, chng t c rng n l mt dng c mnh cng thc ha v th
nghim nhng l thuyt v s nhn thc ca con ngi. Nhng phng php lun gii
quyt vn c cc nh khoa hc my tnh pht trin em n cho cc nh tm
l hc mt s n d mi kho st tr tu con ngi. Hn c vic m rng c cc
l thuyt v s nhn thc trong th ngn ng khng r rng s dng vo u thi k
nghin cu hay l t b c bi ton m t ton b nhng hot ng bn trong ca tr
c con ngi (nh ngh ca cc nh hnh vi hc), nhiu nh tm l hc a ngn
ng v l thuyt khoa hc my tnh vo cng thc ha cc m hnh tr tu con ngi.
Nhng k thut ny khng ch cung cp mt vn t vng cho vic m t tr tu con
ngi m s th hin trn my tnh nhng l thuyt ny to cho cc nh tm l hc
mt c hi th nghim, ph bnh v ci tin mt cch thc nghim nhng tng
ca h (luger 1994).
Lp k hoch v robotics
Lp k hoch (planning) l mt kha cnh quan trng trong nhng c gng nhm ch
to ra cc robot c th thc hin c nhim v ca chng vi mt trnh nht nh
v kh nng linh hot v phn ng vi th gii bn ngoi. Ni mt cch khc ngn gn,
vic lp k hoch gi nh rng robot c kh nng thc hin nhng hnh ng s cp
(atomic action) nht nh. N c gng tm ra mt chui cc hnh ng cho php hon
thnh mt cng tc cp cao hn, chng hn nh i qua mt cn phng cha y
nhng chng ngi vt.
C nhiu nhng l do khin cho vic lp k hoch tr thnh mt bi ton kh khn,
ngoi l do khng ng k nht l kch thc qu ln ca khng gian nhng chui bc
i c th tn ti. Ngay c mt my tnh cc k n gin cng c kh nng to ra mt s
lng khng l nhng chui bc i c th. V d, chng ta hy tng tng rng, mt
robot c kh nng di chuyn v pha trc, pha sau, bn phi, bn tri v cn xem xt
c bao nhiu cch khc nhau m robot c th dng di chuyn quanh cn phng
v robot phi la chn mt ng i quanh chng theo mt phng php no c hiu
qu. Vit mt chng trnh c kh nng tm ra ng i tt nht mt cch thng minh
vi iu kin nh vy, m khng b chn vi bi khi lng khng l cc kh nng d
kin, i hi phi c nhng k thut phc tp biu din tri thc v khng gian v
kim sot vic tm kim trong mi trng cho php.
Mt phng php m con ngi vn p dng lp k hoch l phn r vn tng
bc (hierarchical problem decoposition). Nu bn ang lp k hoch cho chuyn du
lch n Lun n, th ni chung nhng vn nh sp xp chuyn bay, n sn bay,
lin h vi hng hng khng, vn chuyn ng b ti Lun n s c bn xem xt
mt cch ring l, cho d tt c chng u l b phn ca mt k hoch ton th ln hn.
Tng vn ny c th c tip tc phn r thnh nhng vn con (subproblem) nh
hn nh tm mt bn thnh ph, xem xt h thng giao thng, v tm mt ni n

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ph hp iu kin v ti chnh. Cch lm ny khng nhng lm gim bt mt cch hiu

qu khng gian tm kim m n cn cho php chng ta tit kim c nhng k hoch
con c th dng trong tng lai.
Trong khi con ngi lp k hoch mt cch chng my kh khn, th vic to ra mt
chng trnh my tnh c th lm c cng vic nh vy l mt thch thc gh gm.
Mt cng tc c v n gin l ph v mt vn ln thnh nhiu vn con lin quan
thc s cn n nhng heuristic phc tp v kin thc bao qut v lnh vc ang lp k
hoch. Quyt nh xem cn gi li nhng k hoch con no v tng qut ha chng nh
th no cho s s dng trong tng lai l mt vn phc tp tng ng.
Mt robot thc hin mt dy cc hnh ng mt cch m qung m khng bit phn
ng li vi nhng thay i trong mi trng ca n hoc khng c kh nng pht hin
v sa cha trong chnh k hoch ca n kh c th c ngi ta coi l thng minh.
Thng thng, mt robot s phi lm thnh cng thc mt k hoch da trn thng tin
khng y v sa cha hnh vi ca n khi thi hnh k hoch. Robot c th khng c
nhng gic quan thch hp nh v tt c nhng chng ngi vt trn con ng i
vch ra. Mt robot nh vy phi bt u di chuyn qua cn phng da vo nhng g m
n nhn thc c v iu chnh ng i ca n khi pht hin ra nhng chng ngi
vt khc. Thit lp cho cc k hoch cho php c th phn ng li vi nhng iu kin
ca mi trng l mt nhim v ch yu khc trong lp k hoch.
Ni chung, thit k robot l mt trong nhng lnh vc nghin cu ca TTNT mang li
nhiu hiu bit su sc h tr cho phng php gii quyt vn theo kiu hng thnh
vin (agent - oriented). B tht bi bi nhng phc tp trong vic bo m ln ca
khng gian biu din cng nh bi m hnh ca cc thut ton tm kim dng cho vic
lp k hoch theo kiu truyn thng, cc ngnh nghin cu, gm c agre v chapman
(1987) v brooks (1991a), pht biu li vn ln hn ny da trn cc thut ng v
s tng tc ln nhau gia nhiu thnh vin (agent) theo kiu bn t qun. Mi thnh
vin chu trch nhim v phn ng gp ca chnh n trong nhim v ca bi ton v
thng qua s phi hp gia chng li gii tng qut s hin ra.
Cc ngn ng v mi trng dng cho TTNT
Nghin cu Tr tu nhn to to ra mt s nhng sn phm ph, l nhng tin b
trong cc ngn ng lp trnh v cc mi trng pht trin phn mm. V nhiu l do, bao
gm c qui m tng th ca hu ht cc chng trnh TTNT, khuynh hng pht sinh
ra cc khng gian khng l ca cc thut ton tm kim, v nhng kh khn trong vic
tin on cc hnh vi ca cc chng trnh iu khin bng heuristics, cc nh lp trnh
TTNT b thc p phi xy dng nn mt tp hp cc phng php lp trnh.
Cc mi trng lp trnh bao gm c cc k thut cu to tri thc (knowledge
structuring) nh lp trnh hng i tng (object-oriented programming) v cc c cu

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t chc h chuyn gia. Cc ngn ng cp cao nh Lisp v Prolog, l cc ngn ng tch

cc h tr kiu pht trin theo module, khin cho vic qun l tnh s v phc tp
ca chng trnh d dng hn. Cc gi chng trnh ln tm cho php ngi lp trnh
to dng li qu trnh thc thi ca mt thut ton phc tp v cho php tho g nhng
phc tp khi tm kim bng iu khin ca heuristics. Khng c cng c k thut ,
kh m tin c rng ngi ta c th xy dng nn nhng h thng TTNT gy ch
nh vy.
K thut ny hin nay l nhng cng c chun dng cho cng ngh phn mm, v tng
i c quan h vi ht nhn l thuyt ca TTNT. Nhng k thut khc nh l lp trnh
hng i tng, c quan tm ng k c trn l thuyt v thc tin. Cc ngn ng
pht trin cho vic lp trnh tr tu nhn to gn b mt thit vi cu trc l thuyt ca
lnh vc .
My hc
Tuy thnh cng trong vai tr nhng my gii quyt vn , hc vn cn l mt s nan
gii i vi cc chng trnh TTNT. Khuyt im ny dng nh rt nghim trng, c
bit l khi kh nng hc l mt trong nhng thnh phn quan trng nht lm nn hnh
vi thng minh. Mt h chuyn gia c th thc hin nhng tnh ton ln v rt tn km
nhm gii quyt mt bi ton. Tuy th khng ging nh con ngi, nu a cho n cng
bi ton y hoc mt bi ton tng t ln th hai, n s khng nh li gii ln trc.
N thc hin li chui tnh ton ln na. iu ny ng cho c ln th hai, th ba,
th t, v bt c khi no n gii quyt bi ton hu nh khng th gi l hnh
vi ca mt my gii quyt vn thng minh.
Hu ht cc h chuyn gia u b cn tr bi tnh cng nhc trong cc chin lc gii
quyt vn ca chng v s kh khn khi phi thay i khi lng ln m chng
trnh. Gii php d thy i vi nhng kh khn ny l hoc cho cc chng trnh
hc tp trn chnh kinh nghim, s tng t, v nhng v d ca chng, hoc l ni
cho chng bit phi lm g.
Tuy rng hc l mt lnh vc kh khn trong nghin cu, mt vi chng trnh c
vit xut rng y khng phi l mt mc tiu khng th t c. C th mt
chng trnh nh th gy ch nht l AM - Automated Mathematician - c thit k
khm ph cc quy lut ton hc (lenat 1977, 1982). Ban u ngi ta a cho AM
cc khi nim v tin ca l thuyt tp hp, sau n tm ra nhng khi nim
ton hc quan trng nh l lc lng (cardinality) v s hc s nguyn, v nhiu kt qu
khc ca l thuyt s. AM phng on cc l thuyt mi bng cch cp nht c s tri
thc hin hnh ca n, v s dng cc heuristic theo ui kh nng ng quan tm
nht trong hng lot cc la chn c th.

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Mt nghin cu khc c nh hng ti d lun ca winston v s quy np cc khi nim

cu trc, chng hn nh hnh cung t mt tp hp cc v d trong tr chi th gii
ca khi (winston 1975a). Thut ton ID3 t ra thnh cng trong vic hc cc mu
tng qut t cc v d (quinlan 1986a). Menta-dendral hc cc lut phin dch d liu
quang ph khi trong ha hc hu c t cc mu d liu v cc hp cht ca cu trc
bit. Teiresias, mt i din kh thng minh ca cc h chuyn gia c th chuyn i
li ch o cp cao thnh cc lut mi cho c s d liu ca n (davis 1982). Hacke
ngh ra cc k hoch thc hin cc thao tc trong tr th gii cc khi thng qua mt
qu trnh lp li nhiu ln vic t ra mt k hoch, th nghim n, v hiu chnh bt c
l hng no pht hin ra trong k hoch d tuyn (sussman 1975). Nhng nghin cu
trong vic hc trn c s gii thch cho thy tnh hiu qu ca tri thc u tin trong
qu trnh hc (mitchell et al. 1986, dejong and mooney 1986).
S thnh cng ca cc chng trnh hc my thuyt phc rng c th tn ti mt tp hp
cc nguyn tc hc tng qut cho php xy dng nn cc chng trnh c kh nng hc
tp trong nhiu lnh vc thc t.
X l phn tn song song v tnh ton kiu ny sinh
Hu ht cc k thut ni n trong ti liu ny u s dng tri thc c biu din r
rng v cc thut ton tm kim c thit k mt cch cn thn ci t tr tu. Mt
cch tip cn rt khc l tm cch xy dng cc chng trnh thng minh bng cch s
dng cc m hnh tng t nh cu trc n-ron (neuron) ca b no con ngi.
Mt s neuron n gin gm c mt thn t bo c rt nhiu nhng ch nh ra theo
nhnh, gi l cc t chc cy (dendrite), v mt nhnh n gi l trc (axon). Cc t
chc cy nhn tn hiu t cc neuron khc. Khi nhng xung lc kt hp ny vt qu
mt ngng nht nh no , th neuron pht ng v mt xung lc, hay cn gi l
cm (spike), chy xung trc. Cc nhnh cui trc hnh thnh nn cc khp thn
kinh (synapse) vi nhng t chc cy ca cc neuron; cc khp thn kinh c th thuc
loi kch thch (excitatory) hay ngn chn (inhibitory). Mt khp thn kinh kch thch s
cng thm vo tng s tn hiu i n neuron; cn khp thn kinh ngn chn th tr bt
i tng s ny.
M t mt neuron nh vy l qu sc n gin, nhng n thu tm tt c nhng c
trng lin quan n cc m hnh tnh ton neuron. c bit mi n v tnh ton tnh
ton mt s chc nng u vo ca n ri chuyn kt qu n cc n v lin h trong
mng. Thay v s dng cc k hiu v php ton r rng, tri thc ca cc h ny ny
sinh ra khi ton b mng cc kt ni neuron v cc gi tr ngng.
V nhiu l do, cu trc neuron hin ang ht sc hp dn dng lm c ch ci t tr
tu. Cc chng trnh TTNT truyn thng c khuynh hng d gy v v nhy cm qu
ng khi phi ng u vi s nhiu lon: thay v gim gi tr mt cch t t, nhng

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chng trnh nh vy thng thnh cng hon ton hoc tht bi hon ton. Tr tu con
ngi linh hot hn nhiu; chng ta c th tip nhn c tt u vo nhiu lon, chng
hn nh nhn ra mt khun mt trong mt cn phng ti t gc nhn hp hay theo di
duy nht mt cuc i thoi trong ba tic n o. Ngay c khi khng th gii quyt c
mt s vn , chng ta ni chung vn c th a ra mt s phng on c l v coi
nh li gii ca bi ton. Do cc cu trc neuron thu tm tri thc vo trong mt s
lng ln cc n v c nghin tht nh, nn chng t ra c trin vng hn trong vic
i snh mt cch ton phn cc d liu nhiu lon v khng y .
Cu trc neuron cng vng chc hn v tri thc phn b kh ng u xung quanh mng.
Kinh nghim ca nhng ngi b mt mt phn no b do bnh tt hay tai nn cho
thy rng h khng b mt cc vng nh ring bit, m ng hn l cc qu trnh tr no
ca h phi chu ng nhiu s gim st tng th.

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MT S TNG KT V TTNT
MT S TNG KT V TTNT
S dng my tnh vo suy lun trn cc k hiu, nhn dng, hc, v mt s
hnh thc suy lun khc.
Tp trung vo mt s vn khng thch hp vi cc li gii mang tnh thut
ton. iu ny da trn c s tin tng vo php tm kim heuristic nh mt k
thut gii quyt vn TTNT.
S quan tm n cc k thut gii quyt vn bng nhng thng tin khng
chnh xc, thiu ht hoc c nh ngha mt cch ngho nn, v s s dng
cc hnh thc biu din cho php ngi lp trnh b p c nhng thiu st
ny.
Suy lun nhng c trng nh tnh quan trng ca tnh hung.
Mt c gng gii quyt nhng vng mc v ngha, ng ngha cng nh l
hnh thc c php.
Nhng cu tr li khng chnh xc cng nh ti u, nhng trong mt chng
mc no c coi l . y l kt qu ca s tin cy ct yu vo cc
phng php gii quyt vn theo kiu heuristic trong nhng tnh hung m
kt qu ti u hoc chnh xc l qu tn km hoc khng th thc hin c.
S dng nhng khi lng ln tri thc chuyn ngnh trong gii quyt vn .
y l c s cho cc h chuyn gia.
S dng cc tri thc cp meta (meta-level knowledge) tng thm s tinh vi
cho vic kim sot cc chin lc gii quyt vn . Tuy rng y l mt vn
rt kh khn, c ch trong mt s kh t cc h thng gn y, n ni
bt ln nh mt lnh vc nghin cu ch yu.
TNG KT CHNG I:
Phn ni dung chng I nu ln vi nt v lch s hnh thnh v pht trin ca khoa
hc TTNT, mt vi nh ngha mang tnh khi qut v mt lnh vc khoa hc y th
thch v tim nng l TTNT. Nhng lnh vc ng dng TTNT t rt lu i v vn ang
pht trin cho n hin nay. Cc khi nim nh l lun, quy lut, biu din, hin nay
vn ang c nghin cu mt cch cn thn bi v nhng nh khoa hc my tnh i
hi phi hiu chng theo kiu thut ton. Trong khi , hon cnh chnh tr, kinh t v
o c trn ton cu hin nay buc chng ta phi ng u vi trch nhim v hu
qu ca nhng sng ch hay pht minh khoa hc. S tc ng qua li gia nhng ng
dng v nhng kht vng mang tnh nhn o hn i vi TTNT tip tc t ra nhng
vn phong ph v y thch thc. Nhng chng tip theo s i su hn vo nhng
k thut c dng trong TTNT m chng u tin ny cp n.

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Bi tp chng I
T sng to trnh by v chng minh mt nh ngha v Tr tu nhn to
theo nh bn hiu.
Tho lun v tiu chun m Turing nu ra trong Trc nghim Turing nhm
quy nh cho mt phn mm my tnh c coi l thng minh? Nu quan
im ca ring bn v tiu chun i vi mt phn mm my tnh thng
minh?
Cho bit mt vi lnh vc bi ton m bn thy c th chng minh c rng
cn phi thit k mt gii php h chuyn gia ? Nu cc hiu qu c th t
c v nhng kh khn c th gp phi ?
Theo kin ring ca bn, hy trnh by mt s hiu qu c kh nng tc ng
tiu cc i vi x hi ca cc k thut Tr tu nhn to?

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TR TU NHN TO NH L BIU
DIN V TM KIM
LOGIC HNH THC
LOGIC HNH THC
Ni dung chnh : Trong chng ny, chng ta gii thiu php tnh v t nh mt ngn
ng biu din dng cho Tr tu nhn to. Nhng u im ca vic dng php tnh v t
bao gm mt ng ngha hnh thc (formal semantics) c nh ngha chnh xc cng
vi cc lut suy din vng chc v y . Chng ny bt u bng vic nhc li php
tnh mnh , nh ngha c php v ng ngha ca php tnh v t. Tip theo, chng ta
tho lun v cc lut suy din ca php tnh v t v vic s dng chng trong gii quyt
vn . Phn cui chng s minh ha cch s dng php tnh v t ci t mt c s
tri thc trong lnh vc t vn u t ti chnh.
Mc tiu cn t : Sau chng ny, sinh vin c th :

Hiu Logic mnh v Logic v t

Vn dng cc php bin i tng ng
Bit biu din tri thc ca vn bng logic v t bc nht.
Vn dng cc php suy din chng minh mt vn n gin.
Vn dng php hp nht v gii thut i snh mu

Kin thc tin quyt : Khi nim v Tr tu nhn to, Logic mnh , Logic v t,
Ti liu tham kho :
George F. Luger, William A. Stubblefield Albuquerque Artificial
Intelligence Wesley Publishing Company, Inc 1997 (Chapter 2)
Bi Xun Toi Trng Gia Vit (Bin dch) Tr tu nhn to Cc cu
trc v chin lc gii quyt vn - NXB Thng k, 2000 (Phn II)
Wikipedia Bch khoa ton th m - Php tnh v t bc nht
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_calculus

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PHP TNH MNH

nh ngha K hiu php tnh mnh
Mnh :
Mnh l mt pht biu c th khng nh tnh ng hoc sai.
Cc k hiu (symbol) ca php tnh mnh l cc k hiu mnh : P, Q, R, S,
(thng thng n l cc ch ci in hoa nm gn cui bng ch ci ting Anh), cc k
hiu chn l chn tr (truth symbol) : true, false hay cc php ton kt ni nh : , ,
?, , =
Cc k hiu mnh (propositional symbol) biu th cc mnh (proposition) hay cc
pht biu v th gii thc m gi tr ca chng c th l ng hoc sai.
Th d 2.1: Cc mnh
vi miChic xe hi kia mu vi mi
vi miNc th tvi mi
Cu :
Cu trong php tnh mnh c cu to t nhng k hiu s cp (atomic symbol)
theo cc lut sau y :
Tt c cc k hiu mnh v k hiu chn l u l cu (sentences) : true, P,
Q v R l cc cu.
Ph nh ca mt cu l mt cu : ? P v ? false l cc cu
Hi hay v ca hai cu l mt cu : P ? P l mt cu
Tuyn hay hoc ca hai cu l mt cu : P ? P l mt cu
Ko theo ca mt cu c mt cu khc l mt cu : P Q l mt cu.
Tng ng ca hai cu l mt cu : P Q = R l mt cu
Cc cu hp l c gi l cc cng thc dng chun (well-formed formula) hay WFF.
Trong cc cu php tnh mnh , cc k hiu ( ) v [ ] dng nhm cc k hiu vo
cc biu thc con v nh kim sot c th t ca chng trong vic nh gi biu
thc v din t. V d (P Q) = R hon ton khc vi P (Q = R).

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Biu thc :
Mt biu thc l mt cu hay cng thc dng chun, ca php tnh mnh khi v ch
khi n c th c to t nhng k hiu hp l thng qua mt dy nhng lut ny.
Th d 2.2: (( P Q) R = ? P ? Q R l mt cu dng chun trong php tnh mnh
v : P, Q, R l cc mnh v do l cc cu.
P Q, hi ca hai cu l mt cu.
(P Q) R, ko theo ca mt cu l mt cu.
? P v ? Q, ph nh ca cc cu l cu.
? P ? Q, tuyn ca hai cu l cu.
? P ? Q R, tuyn ca hai cu l cu.
(( P Q) R = ? P ? Q R, tng ng ca hai cu l cu.
y l cu xut pht, n c xy dng thng qua mt lot cc lut hp l v do
n c dng chun.

Ng ngha ca php tnh mnh

S gn gi tr chn l cho cc cu mnh c gi l mt s din gii (interpretation),
mt s khng nh chn tr ca chng trong mt th gii kh hu (possible world) no
. Mt cch hnh thc, mt din gii l mt nh x t cc k hiu mnh vo tp hp
{T, F}.
Php gn gi tr chn l cho cc mnh phc tp thng c m t thng qua bng
chn tr nh sau :

Th d 2.3: Chn tr ca mnh

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c cho nh trong bng sau :

Hai biu thc trong php tnh mnh l tng ng nhau nu chng c cng gi tr
trong mi php gn chn tr. Mt s cng thc bin i tng ng ca cc mnh
c cho nh trong bng sau:

Bng 2.1 Bng cng thc bin i t ng ng

Nhng ng nht thc trong bng 2.1 trn c dng bin i cc biu thc mnh
sang mt dng khc v mt c php nhng tng ng v mt logic. C th dng cc
ng nht thc ny thay cho cc bng chn tr chng minh hai biu thc mnh l
tng ng nhau.
Cu hi :
S dng bng chn tr, hy chng minh s tng ng ca cc ng nht thc trong
bng 2.1.
Php tnh v t
Trong php tnh mnh , mi k hiu cu s cp P, Q, biu th mt mnh v
chng ta khng th tc ng vo tng phn ring l ca cu. Php tnh v t (predicate
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calculus) cung cp cho chng ta kh nng ny. Chng hn, t mnh vi mihm qua
tri mavi mil P, t chng ta c th to ra mt v t ch thi tit m t quan h
gia mt ngy v thi tit trong ngy y: thi_tit (hm_qua, ma). Thng qua cc lut
suy din, chng ta s c th thao tc trn cc biu thc php tnh mnh , truy xut v
suy ra nhng cu mi.
K hiu v t : l tp hp gm cc ch ci, ch s, k hiu vi mi_vi mi, v c
bt u bng ch ci.
Th d 2.4: X3, tom_and_jerry
K hiu v t c th l:
K hiu chn l: true, false
Hng: dng ch mt i tng / thuc tnh trong th gii.
Hng c k hiu bt u bng ch thng: helen, yellow, rain,
Bin: dng ch mt lp tng qut cc i tng/thuc tnh.
Bin c k hiu bt u bng ch hoa: X, People, Students,
Hm: dng ch mt hm trn cc i tng.
Hm c k hiu bt u bng ch thng: father, plus,
Mi k hiu hm c mt ngi n, ch s lng cc i s ca hm.
Vt: dng nh ngha mt mi quan h gia khng hoc nhiu i tng.
V t c k hiu bt u bng ch thng: likes, equals, part_of,
Biu thc hm: l mt k hiu hm theo sau bi n i s.
V d: father(david) price(bananas) like(tom, football)
Mc (term): l mt hng, mt bin hay mt biu thc hm
Cu s cp: l mt hng v t vi n ngi theo sau bi n thnh phn nm trong cp
du ( ), cch nhau bi du ,, v kt thc vi du .
- Tr chn l true, false l cc cu s cp.
- Cu s cp cn c gi l: biu thc nguyn t, nguyn t hay mnh

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Th d 2.5 : friends(helen, marry). likes(hellen, mary).

likes(helen, sister(mary)). likes(X, ice-cream).
K hiu v t trong cc cu ny l friends, likes.
Cu: c to ra bng cch kt hp cc cu s cp s dng:
Cc php kt ni logic:

Cc lng t bin:
+ Lng t ph bin vi mi: dng ch mt cu l ng vi mi gi tr ca bin
lng gi
V d: vi miX likes(X, ice-cream).
+ Lng t tn ti $: dng ch mt cu l ng vi mt s gi tr no ca bin
lng gi.
V d: $Y friends(Y,tom).
Th d 2.6 :

Ng ngha - Php tnh v t

Tng t nh php tnh mnh , ng ngha ca php tnh v t cung cp mt c s
xc nh chn tr ca cc biu thc dng chun. Chn tr ca cc biu thc ph thuc
vo nh x t cc hng, cc bin, cc v t v cc hm vo cc i tng v quan h
trong lnh vc c cp.
S thng dch (cch din gii) ca mt tp hp cc cu php tnh v t: l mt s gn cc
thc th trong min ca vn ang cp cho mi k hiu hng, bin, v t v hm.
Gi tr chn l ca mt cu s cp c xc nh qua s thng dch. i vi cc cu
khng nguyn t, s dng bng chn l cho cho cc php ni kt, v:

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 Gi tr ca cu vi miX <cu> l true nu <cu> l T cho tt c cc php gn

c th c cho X.
Gi tr ca cu $ X <cu> l true nu tn ti mt php gn cho X lm cho
<cu> c gi tr T.
Th d 2.7: Cho trc mt tp hp cc quan h gia nh nh sau :

Ta c th suy lun:
parent(eve,abel) parent(eve,cain)
parent(adam,abel) parent(adam,cain)
sibling(abel,cain) sibling(cain,abel)
sibling(abel,abel) sibling(cain,cain) ! Khng c ngha
Php tnh v t bc nht (First order predicate calculus)
Php tnh v t bc nht cho php cc bin lng gi tham chiu n cc i tng trong
min ca vn ang cp nhng KHNG c tham chiu n cc v t v hm.
Th d 2.8 : V d khng hp l: vi mi(Likes) Likes(helen, ice-cream)
V d hp l:

Hu ht bt k cu ng ng php no cng c th biu din trong php tnh v t bc

nht bng cch s dng cc k hiu, cc php kt ni v k hiu bin.

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Cc lut suy din

Ng ngha ca php tnh v t cung cp mt c s cho l thuyt hnh thc v suy din
logic. Kh nng suy ra nhng biu thc ng mi t mt tp hp cc khng nh ng
l mt c trng quan trng ca php tnh v t. Logic v t dng cc lut suy din sau :
Lut Modus Ponens (MP): P

Q
Th d 2.9: Nu ta c quan st sau y vi minu tri ma th sn tvi mi(P Q) v
vi mitri ang mavi mi(P) th ta d dng suy ra c vi misn tvi mi(Q).
Lut Modus Tollens (MT):

Lut trin khai ph bin (Universal Instantiation):

vi miX P(X)
a thuc min xc nh ca X
P(a)
Th d 2.10: Cho trc:

Download slide bi ging ti y

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I SNH MU V PHP HP NHT

I SNH MU V PHP HP NHT
Php hp nht
Php hp nht (unification) l mt thut ton dng xc nh nhng php th cn thit
lm cho hai biu thc v t i snh (match) nhau.
Hp nht v cc lut suy din khc nh Modus ponens cho php chng ta to ra cc suy
din da trn mt tp hp cc khng nh logic. Php hp nht phc tp do c th thay
th mt bin vi bt k mc no gm c nhng bin v nhng biu thc hm khc vi
phc tp ty . Nhng biu thc ny t thn chng li c th cha cc bin.
Th d 2.11: i snh foo(X,a,goo(Y)) vi:
foo(X,b,foo(Y)) khng i snh
foo(X,Y) khng i snh
moo(X,a,goo(Y)) khng i snh
foo(fred,a, goo(Z)) {fred/X, Z/Y}
foo(W,a,goo(jack)) {W/X,jack/Y}
foo(Z,a,goo(moo(Z))) {Z/X,moo(Z)/Y}
Ni chung mt qu trnh gii quyt vn s i hi nhiu suy din v do cn nhiu
php hp nht ni tip nhau. Cc chng trnh gii quyt vn logic phi duy tr tnh
nht qun ca cc php th bin. iu ny c pht biu trong gii thut i snh mu.
Gii thut i snh mu
Hng / hng i snh : ch khi chng ging ht nhau
Hng a / bin X i snh:
Bin cha kt buc: bin tr thnh kt buc vi hng {a/X}
Bin kt buc : xem (1)
Bin / bin i snh:

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 Hai bin cha kt buc: lun lun i snh

Mt bin kt buc v mt bin cha kt buc: xem (2)
Hai bin kt buc: xem (1)
Biu thc / biu thc i snh: ch khi cc tn hm hoc v t, s ngi ging nhau th
p dng i snh tng i s mt.
Lu : Phm vi ca mt bin l mt cu. Mt khi bin b kt buc, cc php hp
nht theo sau v cc suy lun k tip phi gi s kt buc ny.
Cu hi :

ng dng : Chng trnh t vn ti chnh

Hat ng ca chng trnh l tr gip ngi dng trong vic quyt nh c nn u t
vo mt ti khon tit kim hay th trng chng khon hay khng, mt s nh u t
cng c th mun phn b s tin ca h thnh hai khon. Vic u t s c gi
cho nhng nh u t da trn thu nhp ca h v s tin hin ti m h c trong ti
khon tit kim. H lm vic theo cc quy tc sau :
Cc c nhn khng tin tit kim cn u tin tng tin tit kim, bt k thu
nhp l bao nhiu.
Cc c nhn c tin tit kim v thu nhp nn xem xt vic u t mo
him hn nhng c kh nng em li li nhun hn vo th trng chng
khon.
Cc c nhn vi thu nhp thp nhng tin tit kim c th chia phn thu
nhp thm vo tit kim v chng khon, nhm lm tng s tin tit kim trong
khi vn mun tng thu nhp thng qua chng khon.
S tng xng gia tin tit kim v thu nhp c xc nh bi s thnh vin gia nh
m mt c nhn cn chu cp. Quy tc l :
Tit kim l 5000$/ ngi ph thuc
Thu nhp 15000$ + (4000$ / ngi ph thuc)
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Ta xy dng h thng logic vi cc cu v t nh sau:

With: minsavings(X) = 5000 * X minincome(X)=15000+(4000*X)

thc hin mt phin t vn, thng tin m t v mt nh u t no c b sung
vo tp hp cc cu v t. Chng hn mt c nhn vi 3 thnh vin ph thuc, c s tin
trong ti khon tit kim l 22.000$ v c thu nhp n nh l 25.000$ s c m t
nh sau :
amount_saved(22000)
earnings(25000,steady)
dependents(3)
S dng php hp nht v modus ponens, mt chin lc u t ng n ngi ny c
th c rt ra nh l mt h qu logic t nhng m t ny :
Hp gii (10), (11) vi (7) bng i snh {25000/X, 3/Y}, ta c :
income(inadequate)
Hp gii (9), (11) vi (4) bng i snh {22000/X, 3/Y}, ta c :
savings_account(adequate)
Hp gii (12), (13) vi (3) suy ra investment (combination)

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Nh vy hnh thc u t c t vn t h l kt hp c vic gi tin vo ti khon tit

kim v u t vo chng khon.
TNG KT CHNG II:
Trong chng ny, chng ta c gii thiu php tnh v t nh mt ngn ng biu
din dng cho vic gii quyt vn trong AI. Chng ta nh ngha cc khi nim
v bin, hng, hm, biu thc, v ng ngha ca ngn ng ny. Da trn ng ngha
ca php tnh v t, cc lut suy din cng cho php suy din cc cu t mt tp hp cc
biu thc cho trc. Phn cui chng nh ngha mt thut ton hp nht v i snh
mu dng xc nh cc php thay th bin lm cho hai biu thc i snh nhau, mt v
d minh ha ng dng c th cho gii thut ny l bi ton h t vn ti chnh. Trong
chng tip theo, l thuyt v nhng k thut tm kim trn khng gian trng thi bi
ton s c gii thiu.
Bi tp chng II
Jane c bn thnh vin gia nh ph thuc, thu nhp bng lng hng thng l 30.000$
v ti khon tit kim ca c ta l 20.000$. Hy a ra cc v t thch hp m t tnh
trng ti chnh ca Jane cho chng trnh t vn ti chnh v tin hnh cc php hp
nht, suy din cn thit xc nh phng thc u t thch hp cho c ta.
Chuyn cc cu sau y thnh cu trong logic v t:

Tt c cc con mo u l ng vt.
Khng c con ch no l loi b st.
Tt c cc nh khoa hc my tnh u thch mt h iu hnh no .
Mi a tr u thch Coca-cola.
Khng c a tr no thch n rau.
Mt s ngi thch ko, mt s khc th khng.
Khng c sinh vin no hc m thi rt mn ny.

Cho mt vn c pht biu nh sau:

John thch mi loi thc n.

To l thc n.
G l thc n.
Tt c mi th n c m vn cn sng th l thc n.
Bill n u phng v Bill vn cn sng.
Sue n mi th m Bill n.
Hy biu din vn trn theo logic v t bc nht.
Dng gii thut i snh mu chng minh vi miJohn thch u phngvi
mi

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Cu chuyn di y c ly t quyn sch Algorithms + Data structures = Programs

(Thut ton + Cu trc d liu = Chng trnh) ca N. Wirth (1976):
vi miTi ci mt ga ph (W), b ta c mt c con gi ln (D). Cha ti (F), ngi
thng xuyn n thm chng ti phi lng c con ring ca v ti v ci c ta. V
th cha ti tr thnh con r ti v con gh ti tr thnh m ti. Vi thng sau , v ti
sinh mt a con trai (S1), n tr thnh em r ca b ti, cng nh tr thnh ch ti. V
ca b ti, tc l con gh ca ti, cng sinh mt a con trai (S2).vi mi
S dng php tnh v t, hy to ra mt tp hp cc biu thc biu din hon cnh trong
cu chuyn trn. Hy a ra cc biu thc nh ngha cc quan h gia nh c bn nh
nh ngha b v chng hn, v s dng modus ponens trn h ny chng minh kt
lun vi miTi cng chnh l ng tivi mi.

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CC CU TRC V CHIN LC
DNG CHO VIC TM KIM TRONG
KHNG GIAN TRNG THI
M U
M U
Bng cch biu din bi ton di dng th khng gian trng thi (state space graph),
chng ta c th dng l thuyt th (graph theory) phn tch cu trc v phc tp
ca bi ton ny ln cc th tc dng gii quyt n.
Mt th s bao gm mt s nt (node) v mt s cung (arc), hay cn gi l lin kt
(link), ni gia cc cp nt. Trong m hnh khng gian trng thi ca bi ton, cc nt
ca th c dng biu din cc trng thi ri rc trong qu trnh , nh cc kt
qu ca nhng suy din logic hay cc cu hnh ca mt bng tr chi chng hn. Cn
cc cung th biu din s chuyn tip gia cc trng thi . Nhng chuyn tip ny
tng ng vi cc bc suy din logic hoc cc di chuyn hp lut ca mt tr chi.
L thuyt th l mt cng c tt nht ca chng ta trong vic suy lun v cu trc ca
cc i tng v cc mi quan h. Tht vy, y cng chnh l mt trong nhng nguyn
nhn dn n s sng to ra n vo thi k u th k XVIII.
Nh ton hc ngi o Leonhard Euler pht minh ra l thuyt th gii quyt
bi ton cc cy cu ca Konigsberg. Thnh ph Konigsberg nm trn c hai b v
hai hn o ca mt con sng. Ngi ta ni cc o v hai b sng vi nhau bng by
chic cu nh hnh 3.1

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Hnh 3.1 - Biu din khng gian trng thi h thng cu thnh ph Konigsberg
Bi ton Konigsberg t cu hi l liu c th i khp thnh ph m ch ngang qua mi
cy cu mt ln hay khng? Mc d nhng ngi dn y khng ai tm c li i no
nh vy, nhng h vn nghi ng l c th, ng thi cng khng ai chng minh c l
khng c kh nng. Nh pht minh dng l thuyt th, Euler to ra cch biu din
phng n la chn cho bn thnh ph nh trn hnh 3.2

Hnh 3.2 - th ca h thng cu Konigsberg

Cc b sng (bs1 v bs2) v cc hn o (1 v 2) u c m t bng cc nt ca
th; cn cc cy cu c biu din bng cc cung c nh du ni gia cc nt (c1, c2,
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..., c7). th ny biu din cu trc bn cht ca h thng cu, b qua cc c trng
ph khc nh khong cch v hng chng hn.
Cu hi :
Chu trnh Hamilton l con ng s dng tt c cc nt ca th ng mt ln ? Bn
ngh c tn ti mt con ng nh vy trong th h thng cu Konigsberg ?
NH NGHA TM KIM TRONG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI
Mt khng gian trng thi (state space) c biu din bng mt nhm gm bn yu t
[N, A, S, GD], trong :
N (node) l tp hp cc nt hay cc trng thi ca th. Tp ny tng ng vi cc
trng thi trong qu trnh gii bi ton.
A (arc) l tp cc cung (hay cc lin kt) gia cc nt. Tp ny tng ng vi cc bc
trong qu trnh gii bi ton.
S (Start) l mt tp con khng rng ca N, cha (cc) trng thi ban u ca bi ton.
GD (Goal Description) l mt tp con khng rng ca N, cha (cc) trng thi ch ca
bi ton. Cc trng thi trong GD c m t theo mt trong hai c tnh:
c tnh c th o lng c cc trng thi gp trong qu trnh tm kim.
c tnh ca ng i c hnh thnh trong qu trnh tm kim.
ng i ca li gii (solution path) l ng i qua th ny t mt nt trong S n
mt nt trong GD.
Mt ch c th m t nh mt trng thi, nh bng thng cuc trong tr chi Tic - tac toe hay mt cu hnh ch trong tr 8 . Nhng mt khc, ch cng c th c m
t nh mt c tnh no ca chnh ng i li gii.
Trong bi ton di chuyn ca ngi bn hng (hnh 3.6 v 3.7), qu trnh tm kim s
kt thc khi tm c ng i ngn nht qua tt c cc nt ca th. Trong bi ton
phn tch ng php, ng i ca qu trnh phn tch thnh cng i vi mt cu s cho
bit r im kt thc.
Cc cung ca khng gian trng thi tng ng vi cc bc trong qu trnh gii bi ton,
v cc ng i qua khng gian ny s biu din cc li gii trong cc giai on hon
thnh khc nhau. Cc ng i s c kho st, bt u t trng thi xut pht v tip
tc i xuyn qua th, cho n khi gp c mt m t ch tha mn hoc n khi
khng i c na. Vic to ra cc trng thi mi trn ng i s c thc hin bng
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cch p dng cc thao tc, nh cc di chuyn hp l trong tr chi hay quy tc suy
din trong bi ton logic v trong h chuyn gia chng hn, vo cc trng thi hin hu
trn ng i.
Nhim v ca thut ton tm kim l tm ra ng i li gii trong mt khng gian bi
ton nh vy. Thut ton tm kim phi lu vt cc ng i dn t nt xut pht n
nt ch, v cc ng i ny cha hng lot thao tc dn n li gii ca bi ton. Mt
c trng ph bin ca th, ng thi l vn pht sinh khi thit k thut ton tm
kim trn th, l i khi tip cn mt trng thi no bng nhiu ng i khc
nhau.
Th d 3.1: Tr chi tictac-toe
Cch biu din khng gian trng thi ca Tic-tac-toe nh trong hnh 2.1. Trng thi xut
pht l mt bng rng, v ch kt thc (hay m t ch) l mt trng thi dng bng c
3 x trong mt hng, mt ct, hay mt ng cho (gi s ch l mt thng cuc i
vi X). ng i t trng thi xut pht n trng thi ch s cho ta hng lot nc i
cho mt vn thng.
Cc trng thi trong khng gian ny l cc cch sp xp tp hp { rng, X, O} trong
chn trng ca trng thi bt u, nh vy ta s c 39 cch sp xp, nhng hu ht
chng khng bao gi xy ra trong mt vn chi thc t. Cc cung s c to ra bi cc
nc i ng lut trong cuc chi, sau khi lun phin t X v O vo mt v tr cha
dng n. Khng gian trng thi ny l mt th ch khng phi mt cy, v c th t
n mt s trng thi nm mc th ba v cc mc su hn bng cc ng i khc
nhau. Tuy vy khng c vng lp no trong khng gian trng thi ny v cc cung c
hng ca th khng cho php i li mt nc i, ngha l khng c php i
ngc tr li mt cu trc mt khi i n trng thi no . Do , khng cn phi
kim tra v vng lp trong vic to ra ng i. Mt cu trc th c c tnh nh
vy gi l th c hng khng lp li (directed acyclic graph), hay DAG v ph bin
trong cc qu trnh tm kim khng gian trng thi.
Vic biu din khng gian trng thi cho chng ta mt phng tin xc nh mc
phc tp ca bi ton. Trong Tic-Tac-Toe c chn cch i u tin vi tm kh nng c
th xy ra i vi mi cch i ; tip theo l by kh nng c th xy ra na cho tng
cch i lt th hai, Nh vy c tt c 9 x 8 x 7 x hay 9! ng i khc nhau c
th c to ra. Mc d my tnh hon ton c kh nng thm d ht s lng ng
i ny (362880), nhng nhiu bi ton quan trng c mc phc tp theo qui lut s
m hay giai tha vi qui m ln hn nhiu. C vua c 10120 cch i c th xy ra cho
mt vn chi, c am c 1040 cch i, mt s trong c th khng bao gi xy ra
mt vn chi thc t. Cc khng gian ny rt kh hoc khng th no kho st cho n
ht c. Chin lc tm kim i vi mt khng gian ln nh vy thng phi da vo
cc heuristic lm gim bt mc phc tp cho qu trnh tm kim.
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Th d 3.2: Tr 8
Nguyn bn ca tr chi l tr 15 nh hnh 3.3, c 15 vin gch nh s khc nhau
c t va vo 16 vung theo bng. C mt vung trng nn cc vin gch
c th di chuyn loanh quanh to ra cc sp xp khc nhau. Mc tiu l tm ra mt
chui bc di chuyn cc vin gch vo trng sp xp bng thnh mt cu hnh
ch no . Khng gian trng thi bi ton ln xem xt (16! nu cc trng thi
i xng c xem xt ring bit).

Hnh 3.3 - Tr 15 v 8
Tr 8 l mt phin bn vi kch thc 3 x 3 ca tr 15 , v n to ra khng gian
trng thi nh hn so vi tr 15 nn thng c dng cho nhiu v d. Cc cch
di chuyn ng lut l:

Di chuyn trng ln pha trn (Up)

Di chuyn trng v bn phi (Right)
Di chuyn trng xung pha di (Down)
Di chuyn trng v bn tri (Left)

p dng mt di chuyn, phi bo m rng khng di chuyn trng ra ngoi bng.

Do , tt c bn cch di chuyn ny khng phi lc no cng c th p dng. Nu
xc nh mt trng thi xut pht v mt trng thi ch th c th a ra mt s
khng gian trng thi ca qu trnh gii ton. Ging nh tr chi Tic-tac-toe khng gian
trng thi ca tr 8 cng l mt th (vi hu ht cc trng thi u c nhiu nt
cha), nhng khc Tic-tac-toe l c vng lp. M t ch (GD) ca khng gian trng thi
ny l mt trng thi c th, tc mt cu hnh bng c th no . Khi tm c trng
thi ny trn ng i, qu trnh tm kim kt thc. ng i t trng thi xut pht n
trng thi ch l dy cc bc di chuyn theo yu cu.

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Hnh 3.4 Khng gian trng thi trong tr 8 .

Th d 3.3: ng i ca ngi bn hng
Gi s c mt ngi bn hng phi giao hng cho nm thnh ph v sau phi quay v
nh. ch ca bi ton l tm con ng ngn nht cho ngi giao hng i n tng
thnh ph, ri quay v thnh ph xut pht. Hnh 3.5 cho mt trng hp ca bi ton
ny.

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Hnh 3.5 Mt v d ca bi ton TSP

Cc nt trong th biu din cc thnh ph, v mi cung u c ghi km mt trng
s cho bit ph tn i li trn cung . Chi ph ny c th l s km phi di chuyn bng
t hay gi v my bay gia hai thnh ph. thun tin, chng ta gi thit ngi bn
hng sng thnh ph A v s quay v y, mc d gi thit ny ch gim t bi ton n
thnh ph xung bi ton (n-1) thnh ph.

Hnh 3.6 Khng gian trng thi cho qu trnh tm kim ng i (TSP)
ng i [A,D,C,B,E,A], vi chi ph tng ng 450 km l v d v mt con ng c
th i. M t ch yu cu mt con ng c chi ph thp nht. Ch rng m t ch
ny l mt c tnh ca ton b con ng, khng phi l mt trng thi n l. y l
m t ch dng th hai trong nh ngha v tm kim trong khng gian trng thi ni
trn.
Download slide bi ging ti y

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CC CHIN LC DNG CHO TM KIM TRONG

KHNG GIAN TRNG THI (TK-KGTT)
CC CHIN LC DNG CHO TM KIM TRONG KHNG GIAN
TRNG THI (TK-KGTT)
Tm kim hng d liu v tm kim hng mc tiu
Mt khng gian trng thi c th c tm kim theo hai hng: t cc d liu cho trc
ca mt bi ton hng n mc tiu hay t mc tiu hng ngc v cc d liu.
Trong tm kim hng t d liu (data-driven search) hay cn gi l suy din tin
(forward chaining), tin trnh gii bi ton bt u vi cc s kin cho trc ca bi ton
v mt tp cc lut hp thc dng thay i trng thi. Qu trnh tm kim c thc hin
bng cch p dng cc lut vo cc s kin to ra cc s kin mi, sau cc s kin
mi ny li c p dng cc lut sinh ra cc s kin mi hn cho n khi chng c
th a ra mt gii php tha mn iu kin mc tiu.
Cng c th dng mt phng php khc: bt u t mc tiu m chng ta mun gii
quyt, kho st xem c th dng nhng lut hp thc no t n mc tiu ny, ng
thi xc nh xem cc iu kin no phi c tha mn c th p dng c chng.
Cc iu kin ny s tr nn nhng mc tiu mi, hay cn gi l cc mc tiu ph
(subgoals) trong tin trnh tm kim. Qu trnh tm kim c tip tc nh th, hot ng
theo chiu ngc, qua ht cc ch ph k tip nhau cho n khi gp cc s kin thc
ca bi ton. Phng php ny s tm ra mt chui cc bc i, hay cc lut, dn t
cc d liu n mt ch, mc d n thc hin theo th t ngc li. Phng php ny
gi l tm kin hng t mc tiu (goal-driven-reasoning) hay suy din li (backward
chaining) v n gi cho chng ta v mt th thut n gin khi c gii bi ton m cung
bng cch i ngc t cui ln u.
Tm li, suy lun hng d liu nm ly cc s kin ca bi ton ri p dng cc lut
v cc bc i hp thc to ra nhng s kin mi dn n mt ch; suy lun hng
mc tiu th tp trung vo ch, tm cc lut c th dn n ch, ri ln ngc ra cc
lut v cc ch ph k tip i n cc s kin cho trc ca bi ton.
Trong bc phn tch cui cng, cc h gii bi ton hng mc tiu cng nh hng
d liu u tm kim trong cng mt th khng gian trng thi; tuy nhin th t v s
lng trng thi thc s cn tm c th khc nhau.

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Nhng h gii ton c bin son bng cch dng mt trong hai phng php hng
d liu v hng mc tiu quyt nh theo cch no tu thuc cu trc ca bi ton phi
gii. Nn tm kim hng mc tiu nu:
Mc tiu hay gi thit c cho trong pht biu bi ton hoc c th d dng cng thc
ho. Trong mt h chng minh nh l ton hc chng hn, mc tiu chnh l nh l
phi chng minh. Nhiu h thng chn on bnh cn nhc cc chn on c tim nng
theo cch h thng ho, xc nhn hay loi b chng bng php suy lun hng ch.
C mt s lng ln cc lut ph hp vi cc s kin ca bi ton, v do to ra mt
s lng ngy cng nhiu cc kt lun, tc l cc ch. Vic chn sm mt ch c th
loi b hu ht cc nhnh r ny, lm cho vic tm kim hng mc tiu c hiu qu hn
nh thu gn khng gian. Trong mt h chng minh nh l ton chng hn, s lng
lut cha trong mt nh l cho trc t hn rt nhiu so vi s lng lut c th p dng
cho ton b tp cc tiu .
Cc d liu ca bi ton khng c cho trc, nhng h gii ton yu cu phi c.
Trong trng hp ny, tm kim hng ch c th gip thu thp cc d liu dn ng.
Trong chng trnh chn on y khoa chng hn, c th p dng hng lot cc php th
chn on. Cc bc s ch dng nhng php th no cn thit xc nhn hay loi b
mt gi thit c th.
Nh vy tm kim hng mc tiu s dng nhng hiu bit v mc tiu cn c hng
dn qu trnh tm kim thng qua cc lut thch hp, ng thi loi b nhiu nhnh ca
khng gian .
Tm kim hng d liu thch hp vi bi ton thuc loi:
Tt c hay hu ht cc d liu u c cho trc trong pht biu ban u ca bi ton.
Cc bi ton din dch thng ph hp vi khun mu ny bng cch a ra mt tp
hp cc d liu v yu cu h thng cung cp mt cch din dch bc cao. Cc h thng
dng phn tch d liu c th (nh cc trnh PROSPECTOR hay DIPMETER dng
din dch cc d liu a cht hoc tm xem nhng khong cht no c nhiu kh
nng tm thy ti mt a im) thch hp vi cch tip cn hng d liu.
C mt s lng ln ch c tim nng, nhng ch c vi cch s dng cc s kin v
cc thng tin cho trc trong trng hp bi ton c th. Chng trnh DENDRAL, mt
h chuyn gia dng tm kim cu trc phn t ca cc hp cht hu c da vo cng
thc ca chng, vo d liu phn tch khi ph, v vo cc kin thc ha hc, l mt v
d v trng hp ny. i vi mt hp cht hu c bt k, c th c rt nhiu cu trc
phn t. Tuy nhin, d liu phn tch khi ph ca hp cht s cho php DENDRAL
loi b hu ht, ch gi li mt t trong cu trc .

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Rt kh hnh thnh nn mt ch hay mt gi thuyt. Trong vic tham vn h chuyn

gia DENDRAL chng hn, c rt t hiu bit ban u v cu trc c th c ca mt hp
cht.
Cu hi :
Xc nh phng php tm kim hng d liu hay tm kim hng mc tiu l thch
hp hn trong vic gii quyt cc vn di y. Gii thch s la chn ca bn :
a) Chn on cc trc trc v thit b trong mt xe t.
b) Bn gp mt ngi cho bit l anh em h xa vi bn, c cng mt ng t tn l John.
Bn cn kim tra li thng tin ny.
c) Mt ngi khc cng cho bit l anh em h xa ca bn. Anh ta khng bit ng t tn
g nhng bit rng khng qu tm i. Bn hy tm ng t ny hoc xc nh khng c
ng t .
d) Mt chng minh nh l trong hnh hc phng.
e) Mt chng trnh dng kim tra v din gii kt qu c ca my d ng bin
bng sng phn m, chng hn dng thng bo cho mt tu ngm ln bit sp c mt
tu ngm nh, mt con c voi hay mt n c c ly no .
f) Mt h chuyn gia gip cho con ngi phn loi cy trng theo c tnh, chng loi,

Cc chin lc tm kim trn th

Khi gii bi ton bng tm kim hng mc tiu hay hng d liu, d dng phng
php no th h gii ton cng phi tm mt ng i t trng thi xut pht dn n
ch trong th khng gian trng thi. Trnh t ca cc cung trong ng i ny tng
ng vi cc bc theo th t ca li gii. Nu h gii ton c cung cp mt nh
tin tri hay mt c ch khng th sai lm chn ng i li gii, th vic tm kim
s khng cn cn thit na. H gii ton ny s vn hnh mt cch chnh xc qua khng
gian n mt ch ng yu cu, to nn mt ng i khi n i qua. V khng
bao gi c cc nh tin tri nh vy, nn h gii ton phi xem xt nhiu ng i qua
khng gian cho n khi tm c ch. Ln ngc (backtrack) l mt k thut dng
th mt cch c h thng tt c nhng ng i trong mt khng gian trng thi.
Trong phn k tip s gii thiu cc thut ton tm kim ging nh thut ton ln ngc,
cc thut ton ny s dng cc danh sch theo di cc trng thi trong khng gian tm
kim. Nhng thut ton ny bao gm tm kim su (depth-first-search), tm kim rng

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(breadth-first-search),khc vi thut ton ln ngc ch chng s cung cp mt c ch

linh hot hn cho vic thc hin cc chin lc tm kim th khc nhau.
Tm kim su v tm kim rng
Cng vi vic nh hng tm kim (hng d liu hay hng mc tiu), mt thut ton
tm kim cn phi xc nh th t m theo cc trng thi s c kho st trong cy
hoc th. Phn ny s cp n hai kh nng i vi th t xem xt cc nt trong
th: Tm kim su (DFS) v tm kim rng (BFS).

Hnh 3.8 th v d cho tm kim rng v tm kim su

Chng ta cng kho st th trong hnh 3.8. Cc trng thi c k hiu (A,B,C,)
sao cho chng s c tham kho theo cc k hiu trong qu trnh tho lun ny.
Trong tm kim su, khi mt trng thi c xem xt, tt c cc con ca n c xt n
ri n cc th h sau ca cc con u c xem xt u tin trc bt k mt trng
thi anh em no ca n. Tm kim su s tin su hn vo trong khng gian tm kim bt
k khi no cn c th. Ch khi no khng tm c cc con chu xa hn ca trng thi
th mi xem xt n cc trng thi anh em ca n. Tm kim su s tin hnh kim
tra cc trng thi trong th hnh 3.8 theo th t A, B, E, K, S, L, T, F, M, C, G, N, H,
O, P, U, D, I, Q, J, R. Thut ton ln ngc cng thc hin theo kiu tm kim su.
Ngc li, tm kim rng s kho st khng gian ny theo tng mc. Ch n khi trong
mt mc cho trc khng cn mt trng thi no kho st th thut ton mi chuyn
sang mc tip theo. Tm kim rng trong th hnh 3.8 s xem xt cc trng thi theo
th t A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U.

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Chng ta thc hin tm kim rng bng cch dng cc danh sch open (m) v closed
(ng) theo di tin trong khng gian trng thi . Danh sch open s lit k cc
trng thi va c sinh ra, nhng con ca chng cha c kho st. Th t m cc
trng thi b loi ra khi open s xc nh th t tm kim. Danh sch closed th ghi cc
trng thi c xem xt ri.

Hnh 3.9 Cc bc thc hin tm kim rng trn th 3.8

Thut ton tm kim rng (BFS) :
Procedure breadth-first-search;
Begin % khi u
Open:= [start];
Closed:= [ ];
While open [ ] do % cn cc trng thi cha kho st
Begin
Loi b trng thi ngoi cng bn tri khi open, gi n l X;
If X l mt ch then tr li kt qu (thnh cng) % tm thy ch
else begin

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Pht sinh cc con ca X;

a X vo closed;
Loi cc con ca X trong open hoc closed; % kim tra vng lp
a cc con cn li vo u bn phi ca open % hng ch
end;
End;
Tr li kt qu (tht bi); % khng cn trng thi no
End;
Cc trng thi con sinh ra nh cc lut suy din, cc nc i hp l ca tr chi hoc
cc ton t chuyn trng thi. Mi ln lp li s to ra tt c cc con ca trng thi X v
b sung chng vo danh sch open. Ch rng danh sch open c duy tr di dng
mt hng i (queue), tc cu trc d liu vo trc ra trc (first in first out :
FIFO). Cc trng thi c b sung vo bn phi danh sch v c ly ra t bn tri.
Cch sp xp theo hng ny s sp xp vic tm kim n cc trng thi nm trong danh
sch open lu nht, lm cho qu trnh tr thnh tm kim rng. Cc trng thi con
c kho st ri ( xut hin trong danh sch open hoc danh sch closed) u b loi
b. Nu thut ton kt thc v iu kin ca vng lp while khng cn c tho mn
na (open = [ ]) tc l n tm kim xong ton b th m khng tm thy ch mong
mun: Cuc tm kim tht bi.
V tm kim rng xem xt mi nt tng mc ca th trc khi i su vo khng gian
nn tt c cc trng thi u c tip cn n u tin theo con ng ngn nht k
t trng thi xut pht. Do tm kim rng s m bo tm c ng i ngn nht
t trng thi xut pht n trng thi ch. Hn na, v tt c cc trng thi u c tm
thy trc theo con ng ngn nht cho nn bt k trng thi gp ln th hai no cng
c tm thy theo con ng c chiu di bng hoc ln hn. V khng c c hi
cc trng thi trng lp c tm thy theo mt ng i tt hn, nn thut ton ny s
loi b c mi trng thi trng lp.
Tip theo, chng ta s xy dng thut ton tm kim su trn khng gian trng thi.
Trong khi xem xt thut ton ny, cn lu mt iu l cc trng thi con chu u
c b sung vo hay b loi b ra t u bn tri ca danh sch open: Danh sch open
c duy tr di dng mt ngn xp (stack), tc cu trc vo sau ra trc (last in
first out : LIFO). Vic t chc danh sch open theo dng ngn xp s hng qu trnh
tm kim nhm vo cc trng thi c sinh ra mi nht, lm cho tm kim pht trin
theo chiu su.
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Hnh 3.10 Cc bc thc hin tm kim su trn th 3.8

Tm kim su c tin hnh bng cch ci bin thut ton dng cho tm kim rng:
Thut ton tm kim su (BFS) :
Procedure depth first search;
Begin % khi u
Open:= [start];
Closed:= [ ];
While open [ ] do % cn cc trng thi cha kho st
Begin
Loi b trng thi ngoi cng bn tri khi open, gi n l X;
If X l mt ch then tr li kt qu (thnh cng) % tm thy ch
else begin
Pht sinh cc con ca X;
a X vo closed;

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Loi cc con ca X trong open hoc closed; % kim tra vng lp

a cc con cn li vo u bn tri ca open % ngn xp
end;
End;
Tr li kt qu (tht bi); % khng cn trng thi no
End;
Khc vi tm kim rng, tm kim su khng m bo s tm c ng i ngn nht
n mt trng thi gp ln u. Vo su trong tm kim ny, c th tm thy mt ng
i khc dn n trng thi bt k. Nu di ng i l quan trng i vi mt trnh
gii ton, th khi thut ton gp mt trng thi trng lp, n cn gi li phin bn gp
theo ng i ngn nht. C th thc hin iu ny bng cch lu gi mi trng thi
di dng mt b ba: (trng thi , trng thi cha, chiu di ng i). Khi pht sinh
trng thi con, ch cn tng tr s di ng i ln mt n v v ct gi li cng vi
trng thi con . Nu mt trng thi con bt gp theo nhiu ng i, thng tin ny c
th c s dng gi li phin bn tt nht. Cn ch , vic gi li phin bn tt nht
ca mt trng thi trong mt tm kim su n gin s khng m bo c vic tm
thy ch theo ng i ngn nht.
Cng ging nh vic la chn gia tm kim hng d liu hay hng mc tiu khi
nh gi mt th, vic s dng tm kim rng hay tm kim su cng ty thuc vo
bi ton c th phi gii. Nhng c trng quan trng bao gm: vic tm ng i ngn
nht dn n ch, vic phn nhnh ca khng gian trng thi, cc ti nguyn v thi
gian v khng gian c sn, chiu di trung bnh ca cc ng dn n nt ch v c
vic liu chng ta mun c tt c cc li gii hay ch cn li gii u tin tm thy.
a ra cu tr li cho cc vn ny, mi cch u c nhng u im v khuyt im
ring.
Tm kim rng: V lc no cng xem xt tt c cc nt mc n ri mi chuyn sang
mc n+1 nn tm kim rng bao gi cng tm c ng i ngn nht n mt nt
ch. Trong nhng bi ton nu bit r c mt li gii n gin th li gii ny s c
tm thy. Tuy nhin, nu bi ton c h s phn nhnh khng gian ln, ngha l cc trng
thi c s lng con chu trung bnh tng i cao th s bng n t hp ny c th gy
cn tr cho vic tm kim mt li gii. L do l v tt c cc nt cha c m rng vi
mi mc tm kim u phi c gi li trong danh sch open. Do , i vi khng
gian trng thi c h s phn nhnh cao, iu ny c th tr nn rt phc tp.
phc tp ca khng gian tm kim rng c o theo s lng trng thi trong danh
sch open, l mt hm m ca chiu di ng i ti mi thi im bt k. Nu mi
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trng thi trung bnh c B con th s lng trng thi mt mc s bng B ln s trng
thi mc trc . Nh vy s c Bn trng thi mc n. Tm kim rng s phi a
tt c trng thi ny vo danh sch open khi n bt u xem xt mc n. iu ny c th
khng c php nu cc ng i li gii qu di.
Tm kim su: Tm kim su s nhanh chng i su vo khng gian tm kim. Nu bit
r ng i li gii s di, tm kim su s khng mt thi gian cho vic tm kim mt
s ln cc trng thi cn trong th. Mc khc, tm kim su cng c th sa ly vo
su v ch khi b qua nhng ng i ngn hn dn n ch, hay thm ch c th
b sa ly trong mt ng i di v tn m khng dn n ch no c.
Tm kim su hiu qu hn nhiu i vi nhng khng gian trng thi c h s phn
nhnh ln v n khng phi gi tt c cc nt ng vi mt mc trong danh sch open.
phc tp ca khng gian tm kim su l mt hm tuyn tnh ca di ng i.
Ti mi mc, open ch cha con ca mt trng thi duy nht. Nu th c s lng con
trung bnh l B i vi mi trng thi th tm kim su c phc tp ca khng gian l
B x n trng thi t n mc su n trong khng gian .
Cu tr li tt nht cho vic chn dng tm kim su hay tm kim rng l kho st
khng gian bi ton mt cch cn thn. Trong c vua chng hn, tm kim rng l khng
th c. Trong cc tr chi n gin hn th tm kim rng khng nhng l gii php
c th m cn l gii php duy nht trnh tht bi.
Cu hi :
Gi s cn vit chng trnh tm ra cch thc xoay mt khi rubic 3x3x3 (c ghp
bi 27 nt) v ng 6 mt mu. Bit rng b nh trong ca my tnh b hn ch, bn s
chn gii thut duyt th no trong hai gii thut tm kim su v tm kim rng
gii quyt vn ? Gii thch ngn gn s la chn ca bn ?
Tm kim su bng cch o su nhiu ln
Mt tho hip th v cho hai thut ton ny l s dng mt gii hn su cho qu trnh
tm kim su. Gii hn su s buc phi chu tht bi trn mt con ng tm kim khi
ng dn ti su qu mt mc no . iu ny gy ra mt qu trnh qut khng
gian trng thi ging nh tm kim rng ti su . Khi bit chc c mt li gii nm
trong mt phm vi no hoc khi b gii hn v thi gian, nh trong khng gian qu
rng ca c vua chng hn, th bin php hn ch s lng trng thi phi c xem
xt n. Lc tm kim su vi su gii hn c th l thch hp nht. Hnh sau y
trnh by mt tin trnh tm kim su ca bi ton tr 8 , trong gii hn su bng
nm s to ra qu trnh qut ton b khng gian su ny.

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Hnh 3.11 Khng gian trng thi vi su gii hn bng 5 cho tr 8

Gii php ny a n mt thut ton tm kim khc phc c nhiu nhc im
ca c tm kim su ln tm kim rng. Phng php tm kim su o su nhiu ln
(depth first interactive deepening Korf 1987) thc hin tm kim su vi su
gii hn bng mt. Nu khng tm c ch, n tip tc thc hin tm kim su vi
su gii hn bng hai, Thut ton c tip tc nh th bng cch mi ln lp th tng
su gii hn thm mt n v. Trong mi ln lp thut ton p dng gii thut tm
kim su hon chnh n su gii hn . Gia hai ln lp, khng c mt thng tin
no v khng gian trng thi c gi li.
V thut ton tm kim ht khng gian tng mc nn vn bo m s tm c con
ng ngn nht dn n ch. V ch thc hin tm kim su trong mi ln lp nn
phc tp ca khng gian ti mc n bt k l B x n, trong B l s lng trng thi con
trung bnh ca mt nt.
iu th v l mc d phng php tm kim su o su nhiu ln c v km hiu qu
v thi gian so vi tm kim su ln tm kim rng, nhng thc t phc tp v thi
gian ca n cng bc nh ca hai phng php trn: O (Bn).

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DNG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI BIU DIN

QU TRNH SUY LUN BNG PHP TNH V T
DNG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI BIU DIN QU TRNH SUY
LUN BNG PHP TNH V T
M t khng gian trng thi ca mt h logic:
th khng gian trng thi ca logic v t bao gm cc nt, mi nt biu din cho mt
trng thi ca qu trnh gii bi ton v cc lut suy din c th c dng hnh thnh
v m t cc cung gia cc trng thi ny. Theo cch ny, cc bi ton trong php tnh
v t, nh vic xc nh mt biu thc no c phi l h qu logic ca mt tp cc
khng nh cho trc hay khng, c th gii quyt bng phng php tm kim.
Th d 3.4: Gi s p, q, r, l cc mnh , ta c th gi thuyt c cc khng nh sau :

T tp cc khng nh ny v cc modus ponen ca cc lut suy din, mt s cc mnh

nht nh (p, r v u) c th c suy din ra; cn cc mnh khc (nh v v q)
khng th suy din c v thc t chng khng i theo mt cch logic t cc khng
nh ny. Quan h gia cc khng nh ban u v cc suy din c biu din trong
th c hng nh hnh 3.12.
Vi cch biu din ny, vic xc nh mt mnh cho trc c phi l mt h qu
logic ca mt tp cc mnh hay khng s tr thnh bi ton tm ng i t mt nt
xut pht n nt ch. N cng c quy v bi ton tm kim trn th. Chin lc
tm kim c dng y s l tm kim hng d liu, v n i t nhng g bit
(cc mnh ng) n ch. Theo cch khc, chin lc hng mc tiu cng c th
c p dng vo cng khng gian bng cch xut pht t mnh cn chng minh
(ch) v i ngc theo cc cung tm s h tr i vi ch trong cc mnh
ng. Ngoi ra, chng ta cn c th tm kim trn khng gian suy din ny theo chiu
su hay chiu rng.

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Hnh 3.12 th khng gian trng thi cho th d 3.4

th V / Hoc (And / Or Graph)
th V / Hoc l mt cng c quan trng m t cc khng gian tm kim trong
nhiu bi ton ca Tr tu nhn to, bao gm c cc bi ton gii quyt bng cch chng
minh theo nh l logic v cc h chuyn gia.
th V / Hoc c s phn bit cc nt V (And) vi cc nt Hoc (Or):
Nu cc tin ca mt mnh c ni vi nhau bng ton t , chng
c gi l cc nt V, ng thi cc cung ni vi nt ny c lin kt vi
nhau bng mt du lin kt cong.
Nu cc tin ca mt mnh c ni vi nhau bng ton t , chng
c xem l cc nt Hoc. Cc cung ni t cc nt Hoc n nt b m ca
chng s khng c lin kt nh vy.
Th d 3.5: Gi s cc mnh sau y l ng:

Tp cc khng nh ny s sinh ra th V / Hoc nh trong hnh v sau:

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Hnh 3.13 th AND/OR cho bi ton

Cc cu hi c th c t ra l:
h l ng?
h c cn ng nu b sai?
Trong v d trn, chin lc tm kim hng mc tiu xc nh h l ng trc ht
phi chng minh c a ln e ng. Nt a ng l tt nhin, nhng mun e ng th c c
ln a u phi ng, hai nt ny c cho trc l ng. Khi chng trnh gii bi
ton xc nh tt c cc cung ny l cc mnh ng, th cc gi tr ng s c
tng hp li cc nt V kim chng gi tr ng ca h.
Ngc li, chin lc tm kim hng d liu xc nh h ng phi xut pht t cc
s kin bit (c, a v b) v bt u bng vic b sung cc mnh mi vo tp mnh
bit ny ph hp theo cc qui nh ca th V / Hoc, e hoc d s l mnh
u tin c b sung vo tp s kin . Nhng b sung ny s to kh nng suy din
ra cc s kin mi. Qu trnh ny c tip tc cho n khi ch c chng minh.
TNG KT CHNG III:
Chng III gii thiu cc c s l thuyt trong tm kim khng gian trng thi, s
dng l thuyt th phn tch cu trc v mc phc tp ca cc chin lc gii
quyt vn bi ton. Cc cch thc c th s dng m hnh ha vic gii quyt vn
di dng mt tm kim trn th trng thi ca bi ton cng c nu ra.
ng thi cng so snh gia hai cch suy lun hng d liu v hng mc tiu, gia
tm kim su v tm kim rng. Phn cui chng, th And/Or cho php chng ta p
dng tm kim khng gian trng thi vo vic thc hin cc suy din logic. Tuy nhin,
hu ht cc chin lc ny u mang tnh hnh thc, chng tip theo s i su hn vo

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nhng mo gii trong cc chin lc tm kim khng hnh thc p dng cho nhng
khng gian bi ton c trng nhm thu hp qu trnh tm kim trn cc khng gian ny.
Bi tp chng III
Xt th trng thi sau y, vi mi chin lc tm kim bn di hy lit k vi danh
sch th t cc nt c duyt qua.

Tm kim rng (BFS).

Tm kim su (DFS).
Tm kim su vi su gii hn l 3.
Tm kim su o su nhiu ln.

Gi s P l nt mc tiu ca th bn di, nu dng gii thut tm kim su o su

nhiu ln duyt th khng gian trng thi ny, hy cho bit danh sch th t cc
nt m gii thut duyt qua.

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TM KIM HEURISTIC
M U
M U
George Polya nh ngha heuristic l s nghin cu v cc phng php v cc qui tc
trong vic khm ph v pht minh (Polya 1945). Ngha ny c th xut pht t gc
Hy Lp ca ng t eurisco ngha l ti pht hin. Khi Archimedes nhy ra khi bn
tm v chp ly chic m min bng vng, ng ta la ln Eureka! c ngha Ti
tm thy n!. Trong tm kim khng gian trng thi, heuristic l cc lut dng chn
nhng nhnh no c nhiu kh nng nht dn n mt gii php chp nhn c.
Cc chng trnh gii quyt nhng vn tr tu nhn to s dng heuristic c bn theo
hai dng:
Vn c th khng c gii php chnh xc v nhng iu khng r rng trong
din t vn hoc trong cc d liu c sn. Chn on y khoa l mt v d.
Tp hp cc triu chng cho trc c th do nhiu nguyn nhn gy ra, bc s
c th dng heuristic chn kt qu chn on no thch hp nht v a ra
k hoch iu tr.
Vn c th c gii php chnh xc, nhng chi ph tnh ton tm ra n
khng cho php. Trong nhiu vn (nh c vua chng hn), khng gian trng
thi pht trin rt nhanh v rt rng v s lng cc trng thi c th xy ra tng
theo hm m hoc giai tha cng vi su tm kim. Trong nhng trng hp
ny, cc k thut tm kim th s nh tm kim su hay tm kim rng s khng
tm c gii php trong mt gii hn thi gian. Heuristic s gim bt phc
tp bng cch hng vic tm kim theo con ng c nhiu ha hn nht. Nh
loi b bt cc trng thi khng ha hn v con chu ca chng ra khi vic
xem xt nn thut ton heuristic c th khc phc vic bng n trng thi v
tm ra mt gii php c th chp nhn c.
Ging nh tt c cc lut khm ph v pht minh khc, heuristic c th sai lm. Heuristic
ch l mt phng on cha cc thng tin v bc tip theo s c chn dng trong vic
gii quyt mt vn . N thng da vo kinh nghim hoc trc gic. V cc heuristic
s dng nhng thng tin hn ch nn chng t khi c kh nng on trc chnh xc
cch hnh x ca khng gian trng thi nhng giai on xa hn. Heuristic c th dn
n mt thut ton tm kim ch t c gii php gn ti u hoc hon ton khng tm
c bt k gii php no. y l mt hn ch thuc v bn cht tm kim heuristic.

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Cc heuristic v vic thit k thut ton thc hin tm kim heuristic t lu l s

quan tm ch yu ca cc cng trnh nghin cu tr tu nhn to. Chi game v chng
minh nh l l hai ng dng lu i nht, c hai u cn n cc heuristic thu gim
bt khng gian gii php c th. Khng th no kim tra ht mi suy lun c th sinh
ra trong lnh vc ton hoc mi nc i c th c trn bn c vua, tm kim heuristic
thng l cu tr li thc t duy nht. Gn y vic tm kim trong cc h chuyn gia
cng xc nhn mc quan trng ca cc heuristic nh l mt phn khng th thiu
trong qu trnh gii quyt vn .
Thut ton heuristic gm hai phn: Hm nh gi heuristic v thut ton s dng n
trong tm kim khng gian trng thi.
Xt tr chi Tic-tac-toe, tm kim n ht khng gian, s lng trng thi s l rt
ln nhng khng phi l khng th vt qua. Mi nc i trong chn nc u tin u
c tm kh nng t qun c k tip v n lt mnh mi nc i ny li c by kh
nng t qun c cho nc i tip tc ... Mt phn tch n gin cho bit s lng cc
trng thi cn c xem xt cho qu trnh ny l 9 x 8 x 7 x ... x 1 = 9!.
p dng mt nhn xt trc quan nh da theo tnh cht i xng ca cu hnh bn c c
th lm gim nh khng gian tm kim xung mt t. Nhiu cu hnh ca bi ton tng
ng nhau trong cc thao tc. Chng hn, thc t ch c ba nc i cho qun c u
tin: cnh, gc hoc gia. Cc rt gn i xng mc th hai ca cc trng thi
s gim tip s lng ng i c th xy ra trong khng gian xung n tng s 12
x 7! . N nh hn khng gian ban u nhng vn pht trin theo hm giai tha.

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Hnh 4.1 Khng gian trng thi bi ton Tic-tac-toe thu gim bi tnh i xng
Tuy nhin, mt heuristic n gin c th loi b vic tm kim hu nh ton b: heuristic
nc i chc thng nht, ngha l chn v tr t qun c m c nhiu ng chc
thng nht giao nhau. Trong trng hp cc trng thi u c s lng bng nhau, chn
trng thi u tin.
Sau thut ton ny s chn la v chuyn n trng thi c gi tr heuristic cao nht
(xem hnh). Nh trong hnh v, qun X s chn t vo v tr trung tm bn c. Ch
khng ch cc trng thi tng ng khc b loi b m tt c con chu ca chng cng
b loi. Hai phn ba khng gian trng thi ny b loi ngay t nc i u tin.

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3 nc i thng qua gc 4 nc i thng qua gia 2 nc i thng qua cnh

Hnh 4.2 - Heuristic nc i chc thng nht
Sau nc i u tin, i th c th chn mt trong hai nc i tng ng nhau. D
chn nc i no, heuristic cng c p dng cho cc bc tip theo. Khi qu trnh
tm kim tip tc, tng bc i s nh gi cc con ca mt nt duy nht m khng yu
cu tm kim ht khng gian. Mc d kh tnh chnh xc s lng trng thi phi c
kim tra theo cch ny nhng vn c th tnh phng on mt gii hn trn. Trong thc
t s lng s t hn 9! rt nhiu.

Hnh 4.3 Khng gian trng thi c thu gim bi heuristic

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Download slide bi ging ti y

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THUT TON TM KIM HEURISTIC

THUT TON TM KIM HEURISTIC
Tm kim leo ni (Hill climbing Pearl 1984)
Cch n gin nht thc hin tm kim heuristic l tm kim leo ni. Chin lc leo
ni pht trin trng thi con tt nht s c chn cho bc tip theo, khng lu gi li
bt k thng tin no v cc nt anh em ln cha m ca n. Qu trnh tm kim s dng
li khi tip cn trng thi tt hn so vi mi trng thi con ca n. Hnh dung mt ngi
leo ni hm h nhng m qung lun lun chn leo ln nh theo con ng dc nht
c th c cho n khi khng cn leo tip c na. V khng ghi li thng tin ca qu
trnh xy ra nn thut ton ny khng th phc hi li t nhng tht bi trong chin
lc ca n.
Hn ch ch yu ca chin lc leo ni l c xu hng ri vo mt cc i cc b.
Khi n c mt trng thi tt hn so vi mi trng thi con ca n, thut ton dng
li. Nu trng thi ny khng phi l ch m ch l mt im cc i cc b, thut ton
s tht bi trong vic tm li gii. Nh vy hiu qu hot ng ch c th c ci thin
trong mt phm vi gii hn no , nhng trong ton b khng gian c th khng bao
gi t c s ti u tng th.
Tm kim tt nht u tin (Best first search)
Xt th khng gian tm kim nh hnh di y (con s cnh mi nt cho bit gi tr
c lng tt ca nt trong khng gian, gi tr thp nht l tt nht). Gi s nt
ch cn tm kim l P.

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Hnh 4.4 th cho gii thut tm kim tt nht u tin

Cu hi :
Trnh by danh sch cc nt c duyt dng thut ton leo ni cho th trong hnh
4.4 ?
Ging nh cc thut ton tm kim su v rng, tm kim tt nht cng dng cc danh
sch lu gi trng thi: danh sch open cha cc nt c trin khai trong qu trnh
tm kim v danh sch closed cha cc nt xt. Mt bc mi c b sung vo thut
ton l sp xp cc trng thi trong danh sch open ph hp vi gi tr heuristic c
lng tt ca chng so vi ch. Nh vy mi bc lp ca vng lp s xem xt
trng thi c ha hn nht trong danh sch open v loi b trng thi ny ra khi open.
Nu gp trng thi ch, thut ton ny s cung cp con ng li gii dn n ch
. Nu ngc li, phn t u tin ca open khng phi l ch, thut ton s p dng
cc lut ph hp pht sinh con chu. Trng hp mt trng thi con no c sn
trong open hoc closed, thut ton cng s kim tra chc chn rng s chn c nt
cung cp con ng li gii ngn hn. Cc trng thi lp hai ln s khng c gi li.
Nh cp nht kp thi ngun gc ca cc nt trong open v closed nn thut ton ny
c nhiu kh nng tm c ng i ngn nht dn n ch. Khi open c duy tr
di dng mt danh sch c sp xp, n thng c t chc nh l mt hng u tin
(Priority queue). Di y trnh by cc bc p dng thut ton tm kim cho th
trong hnh trn.

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1. open = [A5]; closed = []2. nh gi A5; open = [B4,C4,D6]; closed = [A5]3. nh gi

B4; open = [C4,E5,F5,D6]; closed = [B4,A5]4. nh gi C4; open = [H3,G4,E5,F5,D6];
closed = [C4,B4,A5]5. nh gi H3; open = [O2,P3,G4,E5,F5,D6]; closed =
[H3,C4,B4,A5]6. nh gi O2; open = [P3,G4,E5,F5,D6]; closed =
[O2,H3,C4,B4,A5]7. nh gi P3; Tm c li gii!
Ci t hm nh gi heuristic (heuristic evaluation function)
By gi ta nh gi hiu qu ca vi heuristic khc nhau c dng gii tr 8 .
Hnh di y trnh by trng thi xut pht v trng thi ch ca tr chi cng vi ba
trng thi u tin trong qu trnh tm kim.
Heuristic n gin nht s m s sai khc so vi trng thi ch trong tng trng thi.
Trng thi c s sai khc t nht s gn ch hn v l trng thi tt nht kim tra
k tip.

Hnh 4.5 Trng thi bt u v kt thc trong tr 8

Tuy nhin heuristic ny khng s dng ht cc thng tin trong mt cu hnh bn c v
n khng a vo khong cch m cc sai khc. Mt heuristic tt hn l s cng tt
c cc khong cch li thnh tng s m mt phi di chuyn v v tr ng ca n
trong trng thi ch (khong cch Manhattan).
C hai heuristic ny u c hn ch l khng th bit r nhng kh khn khi i ch hai
. l trng hp hai nm cnh nhau v v tr ng ca chng l phi i ch cho
nhau, ta phi mt nhiu (ch khng phi hai) nc i mi t chng li c ng v tr.
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Mt heuristic mun tnh ton iu ny phi nhn t nht l gp i khong cch i vi

mi trng hp c hai i ch trc tip.
Heuristic khong cch Manhattan cho chng ta mt d on c v chnh xc hn so
vi heuristic s sai khc so vi trng thi ch. Mc ch ca chng ta l dng nhng
thng tin hn ch c sn trong mt m t trng thi a ra nhng chn la thng
minh. Vic thit k cc heuristic tt l mt vn mang tnh kinh nghim, c phn on
v trc gic, nhng gi tr cui cng ca mt heuristic phi c o bng hiu qu thc
s ca n trong tng tnh hung bi ton.
V heuristic c th sai lm nn c kh nng thut ton tm kim s dn n mt con
ng khng a n ch. Vn ny xut hin trong tm kim su, mt gii
hn su c s dng pht hin nhng con ng tht bi. tng ny cng
c th p dng cho tm kim heuristic. Nu hai trng thi c gi tr heuristic bng nhau
th nn kim tra trng thi no gn trng thi gc ca th hn. Trng thi gn gc hn
s c nhiu kh nng l con ng ngn nht dn n ch. Khong cch t trng thi
xut pht c th o c bng cch duy tr mt s m chiu su cho tng trng thi
m. S m ny bng 0 i vi trng thi xut pht v tng ln mt n v sau mi
mc tm kim. N ghi li di thc t phi thc hin i t trng thi xut pht n
tng trng thi. S m ny c th cng thm vo gi tr heuristic ca tng trng thi
hng vic tm kim theo khuynh hng chn nhng trng thi gn trng thi xut pht
hn trong th.
Do hm nh gi f s bao gm tng ca hai phn:
f(n) = g(n) + h(n)
trong g(n) o chiu di thc t trng thi n bt k v trng thi xut pht v h(n) l
c lng heuristic cho khong cch t trng thi n n trng thi ch.
Chng hn, trong bi ton tr 8 trn, chng ta c th gi h(n) l s cn phi di
ch. Khi hm nh gi ny c p dng cho tng trng thi con (A), (B), (C) trong
hnh 4.5, cc gi tr cho hm f ln lt l 6, 4 v 6.
Mt heuristic dng hm nh gi f(n) nh trn kt hp vi thut ton tm kim tt nht
u tin best-first-search, c gi l thut ton A (algorithm A)
Cu hi :
Mt m Caesar l mt cch m ha n gin da vo php hon v vng
trn cc ch trong bng ch ci, vi ch ci th i c thay th bi ch ci
th (i + 1). V d, trong mt m Caesar dch 4 bc, t Ceasar s c m
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ha thnh Geiwev. Nu mt heuristic m bn ngh c th dng gii cc

mt m Ceasar ?
Tnh kh chp, tnh n nht v kh nng cung cp thng tin ca heuristic
C th chng ta phi nh gi cch hnh x ca cc heuristic trn mt s phng din.
V d, c th chng ta khng ch cn mt gii php m cn cn thut ton tm con
ng ngn nht dn n ch. Mt s tnh cht di y l cn xem xt i vi vic
nh gi hiu qu ca mt heuristic :
Tnh kh chp :
Mt heuristic dng tm ra con ng dn n ch ngn nht bt c khi no n c
tn ti c gi l heuristic kh chp (admissible). Ni cch khc, tnh kh chp ca
heuristic l n s bo m tm thy ng i ngn nht n trng thi ch.
Mt thut ton tm kim c th chp nhn c nu n c m bo s tm thy mt
ng i ti thiu dn n li gii, bt k lc no con ng c mt. Trong vic xc
nh tnh kh chp ca mt heuristic, chng ta nh ngha hm nh gi f* :
f*(n) = g*(n) + h*(n)
Vi g*(n) l gi ca ng i ngn nht t nt bt u n nt n, cn h*(n) l gi thc
s ca ng i ngn nht t nt n n nt mc tiu. Nh vy f*(n) l chi ph thc ca
con ng ti u t nt xut pht n nt ch i qua nt n.
Nu thut ton A dng hm nh gi f, trong h(n) h*(n) th n c gi l thut
ton A*(algorithm A)
Tnh n nht :
Khi c mt trng thi c pht hin nh s dng tm kim heuristic, liu c bo m
rng v sau s khng tm c mt trng thi nh vy vi khong cch ngn hn tnh t
trng thi xut pht. y chnh l thuc tnh ca s n nht (monotocinity). Ni cch
khc, tnh n nht ca mt heuristic l n s bo m ng i ngn nht n mi trng
thi.
Mt heuristic h s l n nht nu :
i vi tt c cc trng thi n v n+1, ta c :
h(n) - h(n+1) cost(n, n+1),

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trong cost(n, n+1) l chi ph thc tnh ca ng i t trng thi n n trng thi n+1.
Gi tr heuristic ca trng thi ch l 0, tc h(goal) = 0.
Kh nng cung cp thng tin :
Chng ta c th t cu hi liu c mt heuristic no tt hn nhng ci khc hay
khng? Heuristic ny tt hn heuristic kia theo ngha no ? y l kh nng cung cp
thng tin (informedness) ca mt heuristic.
i vi hai heuristic h1 v h2, nu h1(n) h2(n) ng vi tt c cc trng thi n trong
khng gian tm kim th heuristic h2 c gi l c kh nng cung cp thng tin nhiu
hn so vi h1.

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S DNG HEURISTIC TRONG CC TR CHI

S DNG HEURISTIC TRONG CC TR CHI
Th tc minimax
Xt cc tr chi hai i th i khng, chng hn tr chi nim. chi nim, mt s
token (vt biu hin nh ng xu, l bi, mnh g, ...) c t trn bn gia hai i th.
mi nc i, ngi chi phi chia ng token thnh hai ng nh c s lng khc
nhau. ng vi mt s token va phi, khng gian trng thi ny c th trin khai n
cng. Hnh sau biu din khng gian trng thi ca tr chi c 7 token.

Hnh 4.6 Khng gian trng thi ca tr chi nim

Khi chi cc tr chi c th trin khai ht khng gian trng thi, kh khn ch yu l
phi tnh ton phn ng ca i th. Mt cch x l n gin nht l gi s i th ca
bn cng s dng kin thc v khng gian trng thi ging nh bn v p dng kin
thc kin nh thng cuc. Mc d gi thit ny c nhng hn ch ca n nhng
n cng cho chng ta mt c s hp l d on hnh vi ca i th. Minimax s tm
kim khng gian ca tr chi ny theo gi thit .
Hai i th trong mt tr chi c gi l MIN v MAX. MAX i din cho i th
quyt ginh thng li hay c gng ti a ha u th ca mnh. Ngc li MIN l i th

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c gng ti thiu ha im s ca MAX. Ta gi thit MIN cng dng cng nhng thng
tin nh MAX.
Khi p dng th tc Minimax, chng ta nh du lun phin tng mc trong khng gian
tm kim ph hp vi i th c nc i mc . Trong v d trn, MIN c quyn
i trc, tng nt l c gn gi tr 1 hay 0 ty theo kt qu l thng cuc i vi
MAX hay MIN. Minimax s truyn cc gi tr ny ln cao dn trn th qua cc nt
cha m k tip nhau theo lut sau:
- Nu trng thi cha m l nt MAX, gn cho n gi tr ti a ca cc con chu ca n.
- Nu trng thi cha m l nt MIN, gn cho n gi tr ti thiu ca cc con chu ca n.
Gi tr c gn cho tng trng thi bng cch s ch r gi tr ca trng thi tt nht
m i th ny c th hy vng t c. Cc gi tr ny s c dng la chn cc
nc i c th c. Kt qu ca vic p dng Minimax vo th khng gian trng thi
i vi tr chi Nim c th hin nh hnh trn. V tt c cc nc i u tin c th
xy ra cho MIN s dn n cc nt c gi tr 1 nn i th MAX lun c th bt tr
chi ginh thng li cho mnh bt k nc i u tin ca MIN l nh th no (ng
i thng li ca MAX c cho theo mi tn m).
p dng minimax n su lp c nh
Khi p dng Minimax cho cc tr chi phc tp, him khi c kh nng m rng th
khng gian trng thi n cc nt l. Thay vo khng gian trng thi ny ch c th
c trin khai n mt s mc xc nh ph thuc tim nng v thi gian v b nh
chng hn. Chin lc ny c gi l tnh trc n nc i (n move lookahead). V
gi tr cc nt trong th con ny khng phi l trng thi kt thc ca tr chi nn
chng khng phn nh gi tr thng cuc hay thua cuc. Chng ch c th c gn mt
gi tr ph hp vi mt hm nh gi heuristic no . Gi tr c truyn ngc v nt
gc khng cung cp thng tin thng cuc hay thua cuc m ch l gi tr heuristic ca
trng thi tt nht c th tip cn sau n nc i k t nt xut pht. Vic tnh trc ny
s lm tng hiu qu ca heuristic v n c p dng vo mt phm vi ln hn trong
khng gian trng thi. Minimax s hp nht tt c cc gi tr ca cc nt con chu ca
mt trng thi thnh mt gi tr duy nht cho trng thi .
Trong cc th tr chi c tm kim bng mc hay lp, MAX v MIN lun phin
nhau chn cc nc i. Mi nc i ca mt i th s xc nh mt lp mi trn th.
Cc chng trnh tr chi ni chung u d tnh trc mt su lp c nh (thng
c xc nh bng cc gii hn v khng gian hoc thi gian ca my tnh). Cc trng
thi trn mc c nh gi theo cc heuristic v cc gi tr ny s c truyn ngc
ln bng th tc Minimax, sau thut ton tm kim s dng cc gi tr va nhn c
chn la mt nc trong s cc nc i k tip. Bng cch ti a ha cho cc cha m

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MAX v ti thiu ha cho cc cha m MIN, nhng gi tr ny i li theo th n con

ca trng thi hin hnh. Sau trng thi hin hnh dng chng tin hnh la chn
trong cc con ca n. Hnh sau trnh by qu trnh Minimax trn mt khng gian trng
thi gi thuyt tnh trc bn lp.

Hnh 4.7 Minimax i vi mt khng gian trng thi gi nh

Hnh 4.8 gii thiu mt ng dng ca Minimax su lp c nh vo tr chi Tic-tactoe.

Hnh 4.8 Minimax hai lp c p dng vo nc i m u tr chi Tic-tac-toe

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 y s dng mt heuristic hi phc tp hn, n c o mc tranh chp trong tr

chi. Heuristic chn mt trng thi cn o, tnh tt c cc ng thng m ra cho MAX,
ri tr i tng s cc ng thng m ra cho MIN. Gii thut tm kim s c gng ti a
ha s chnh lch (hiu s) . Nu c mt trng thi bt buc thng cuc cho MAX, n
s c nh gi l +, cn vi trng thi bt buc thng cuc cho MIN th c nh
gi l -. Hnh 4.8 trnh by heuristic ny c p dng cho hai mc bt u khng gian
trng thi.
Cu hi :
Khi mt my tnh s dng gii thut minimax chi c, my tnh chi tt
hn khi thi gian cho php tnh ton cho nc c k tip l lu hn.
Hy gii thch mt cch ngn gn iu ny.
Th tc ct ta alpha beta (alpha-beta prunning)
Minimax yu cu phi c s phn tch qua hai bc i vi khng gian tm kim: Bc
u truyn xung n su ca lp p dng heuristic v bc sau truyn ngc cc
gi tr trn cy. Minimax ln theo tt c cc nhnh trong khng gian bao gm c nhng
nhnh m mt thut ton thng minh hn c th b qua hay ta bt. Cc nh nghin cu
trong lnh vc chi game xy dng mt k thut tm kim gi l ct ta alpha beta
nhm nng cao hiu qu tm kim trong cc bi ton tr chi hai i th.
tng ca tm kim alpha beta rt n gin: Thay v nu nh tm kim ton b
khng gian n mt su lp c nh, tm kim alpha beta thc hin theo kiu tm
kim su. C hai gi tr, gi l alpha v beta c to ra trong qu trnh tm kim. Gi
tr alpha lin quan vi cc nt MAX v c khuynh hng khng bao gi gim. Ngc
li gi tr beta lin quan n cc nt MIN v c khuynh hng khng bao gi tng. Gi
s c gi tr alpha ca mt nt MAX l 6, MAX khng cn phi xem xt gi tr truyn
ngc no nh hn hoc bng 6 c lin quan vi mt nt MIN no bn di. Alpha
l gi tr thp nht m MAX c th nhn c sau khi cho rng MIN cng s nhn gi
tr tt nht ca n. Tng t nu MIN c gi tr beta l 6 n cng khng cn xem xt cc
nt nm di n c gi tr ln hn hoc bng 6.
bt u thut ton tm kim alpha beta, ta i xung ht su lp theo kiu tm
kim su, ng thi p dng nh gi heuristic cho mt trng thi v tt c cc trng thi
anh em ca n. Gi thuyt tt c u l nt MIN. Gi tr ti a ca cc nt MIN ny s
c truyn ngc ln cho nt cha m (l mt nt MAX). Sau gi tr ny c gn
cho ng b ca cc nt MIN nh l mt gi tr beta kt thc tt nht. Tip theo thut
ton ny s i xung cc nt chu khc v kt thc vic tm kim i vi nt cha m ca
chng nu gp bt k mt gi tr no ln hn hoc bng gi tr beta ny. Qu trnh ny

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gi l ct ta beta ( cut). Cch lm tng t cng c thc hin cho vic ct ta alpha
( cut) i vi cc nt chu ca mt nt MAX.
Hai lut ct ta da trn cc gi tr alpha v beta l:
Qu trnh tm kim c th kt thc bn di mt nt MIN no c gi tr beta
nh hn hoc bng gi tr alpha ca mt nt cha MAX bt k ca n.
Qu trnh tm kim c th kt thc bn di mt nt MAX no c gi tr alpha
ln hn hoc bng gi tr beta ca mt nt cha MIN bt k ca n.
Vic ct ta alpha beta nh vy th hin quan h gia cc nt lp n v cc nt
lp n+2 v do quan h ton b cc cy con bt ngun lp n+1 u c th loi khi
vic xem xt. Ch rng gi tr truyn ngc thu c hon ton ging nh kt qu
Minimax, ng thi tit kim c cc bc tm kim mt cch ng k.

A c = 3 (Tr nt A s khng ln hn 3)B b ct ta , v 5 > 3C c = 3 (Tr nt C s

khng nh hn 3)D b ct ta , v 0 < 3E b ct ta , v 2 < 3Tr nt C l 3
Hnh 4.9 Thc hin gii thut ct ta alpha beta
TNG KT CHNG IV:

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Cc heuristic tm kim c gii thiu thng qua cc tr chi n gin nh tr

8 , Tic-tac-toe, v cng c pht trin n cc khng gian bi ton phc tp
hn. Chng ny cng trnh by vic p dng heuristic cho cc tr chi i khng
c hai ngi chi, dng cch rt gn ti thiu trn su lp v ct ta alpha - beta
thc hin vic tnh trc cc nc i v d on hnh vi ca i th. Vic p dng cc
heuristic ny lm cho khng gian bi ton tr nn ngn gn hn, thi gian tm kim
mt li gii c th chp nhn c l ti thiu v qu trnh tm kim v th cng tr nn
n gin hn kh nhiu. Phn chng V tip theo, chng ta s xem xt cc k thut cao
cp hn cho vic ci t cc thut ton.
Bi tp chng IV
Xt bi ton tr 8 nh sau:

Dng cc hm lng gi heuristic sau, hy trin khai khng gian trng thi ca bi ton
theo gii thut leo ni n mc 5:
h1 = s lng cc v tr sai khc so vi trng thi goal.
h2 = tng s di ngn nht ca cc v v tr ng (khong cch Manhattan)
Trong cy tm kim di y, mi nt c 2 gi tr i km: gi tr bn tri ca nt (in
nghing) th hin gi tr heuristic ca nt, v gi tr bn phi nt th hin th t nt
c duyt qua. Vi mi chin lc tm kim di y, hy vit danh sch th t cc
nt c duyt, so snh v cho bit ta dng gii thut tm kim no trn cy :

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Tm kim rng BFS

Tm kim su DFS
Tm kim tt nht u tin
Tm kim leo ni

Thc hin gii thut Minimax trn cy sau y:

S c g khc bit nu nh ta dng gii thut ct ta alpha beta nh tr nt gc cho

cy?
Hy p dng gii thut ct ta alpha-beta cho cc cy sau y. Cho bit cc nhnh c
ct l alpha-cut hay beta-cut v gi tr nt gc sau khi nh tr:

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77/197

IU KHIN V CI T TM KIM
TRONG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI
TM KIM DA TRN C S QUI
TM KIM DA TRN C S QUI
Tm kim quy
Mt chuyn i trc tip ca thut ton tm kim su thnh dng quy s minh ha
cho s tng ng ca quy v lp li n gin. Thut ton ny s dng cc bin
ton cc closed v open duy tr danh sch cc trng thi:
Function Depthsearch ; % open v closed ton cc
Begin
If open rng then tr li (tht bi);
Trng thi hin hnh := phn t u tin ca open;
If trng thi hin hnh l trng thi ch
then tr li (thnh cng)
Else
begin
Open := open - phn t u tin ca open;
Closed := closed + trng thi hin hnh;
For mi trng thi con ca trng thi hin hnh doIf cha c trong closed hay open %
xy dng ngn xp
then b sung con vo u danh sch open
end;
Tm kim su; % quy
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End;
Tm kim su nh va c trnh by s khng s dng ht sc mnh ca php quy.
N vn cn kh nng n gin ha th tc bng cch s dng chnh php quy (thay g
mt danh sch open) sp xp cc trng thi trong khng gian trng thi. Trong phin
bn ny ca thut ton, mt danh sch closed ton cc s c dng pht hin cc
trng thi lp li, cn danh sch open th tim n trong cc mu tin hot ng ca mi
trng quy.
Function Depthsearch (trng thi hin hnh); % closed ton cc
Begin
If trng thi hin hnh l trng thi ch then
tr li (thnh cng);
For mi trng thi hin hnh c con cha c kim tra do
begin
Con := con cha c kim tra k tip;
If con khng phi l thnh vin ca closed
thenif depthsearch (con) = thnh cng
then tr li (thnh cng);
end;
Tr li (tht bi);
End; % tm kim n cng
Thay v pht sinh tt c cc con ca mt trng thi v a chng vo danh sch open,
thut ton ny pht sinh mi ln mt con v tm kim theo php quy cc nt chu
ca tng con trc khi pht sinh cc anh em ca n. Thut ton ny s gn mt th
t cho cc bc pht sinh trng thi. Trong tm kim theo quy i vi mt trng thi
con, nu c mt con no ca trng thi ny l ch, thut ton quy s tr li thnh
cng v b qua tt c cc trng thi anh em. Ngc li, cc trng thi anh em k tip
c pht sinh. C nh vy thut ton s tm kim ton b th ln lt theo tng
su mt.

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Thut ton quy cho php b qua danh sch open trong sut qu trnh thc hin. C
ch m mt ngn ng lp trnh s dng ci t quy l dng mu tin hot ng
(activation record) cho tng ln gi quy. Qu trnh ln ngc s tc ng khi tt c
cc con chu ca mt trng thi khng phi l ch, lm cho bc quy tht bi.
Vic thc hin quy cho php lp trnh vin thu hp tm nhn ca h vo mt trng
thi duy nht cng vi cc con ca n thay v phi duy tr mt danh sch open gm nhiu
trng thi.
Tm kim trong khng gian trng thi l mt qu trnh quy. tm ng i t trng
thi hin hnh n ch, bn chuyn n mt trng thi con v thc hin php quy.
Nu trng thi con khng dn n ch, bn th ln lt cc trng thi anh em ca
n. Php quy s chia mt bi ton ln v kh (tm kim khp khng gian) thnh cc
bi ton nh v n gin hn (pht sinh cc con ca mt trng thi) v p dng chin
lc quy cho tng bi ton nh . Qu trnh c tip tc nh vy cho n khi pht
hin c ch hoc ht khng gian.
Tm kim hng mu (Pattern directed search)
Trong phn ny chng ta s p dng tm kim quy vo khng gian cc suy din logic,
kt qu s l mt th tc tm kim tng qut dng cho php tnh v t.
Gi s cn phi vit mt thut ton xc nh xem mt biu thc php tnh v t cho
trc c phi l kt qu logic ca mt tp cc khng nh no hay khng. Thut ton
ny phi tm mt trnh t suy din to nn biu thc ch. Thut ton s ngh mt tm
kim hng mc tiu vi cu hi ban u to nn ch v cc modus ponens xc nh
cc chuyn tip gia cc trng thi. Cho trc mt ch, thut ton s dng phng php
ng nht chn cc php ko theo c kt lun ph hp vi ch . Sau khi ng nht
ch vi kt lun ca php ko theo v p dng cc thay th va suy ra c, tin
ca php ko theo s tr thnh mt ch mi gi l ch ph (subgoal). Sau thut
ton s thc hin quy i vi ch ph ny. Nu ch ph ph hp vi mt s kin
trong c s tri thc, cuc tm kim kt thc. Chui suy din dn t ch ban u n cc
s kin cho trc s chng minh ch xut pht l ng.
Phin bn hon chnh ca thut ton tm kim hng mu c th tr li mt tp cc ng
nht tha mn tng ch ph l:
Function pattern_search (current_goal);
Begin
If current_goal closed then return fail
else Thm current_goal vo closed;

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while cn d kin hoc lut ng nht do

begin case
current_goal ng nht vi d kin:
return tp php th;
current goal l p:
pattern_search(p);
if pattern_search tht bi then return {}
else return fail
current_goal ng nht vi kt lun ca lut (q p):
begin
p dng php th ng nht mc tiu vo tin (q);
pattern_search (q);
if pattern_search thnh cng
then return hp ca tp php th ca p v q;
else return fail;
end;
current_goal c dng (p1 p2 ):
begin
for mi thnh phn pido
begin
pattern_search(p i );
if pattern_search tht bi then return fail;

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else p dng cc php th vo cc pi cn li;

end;
if pattern_search thnh cng cho tt c cc pi
then return hp ca cc tp php th;
else return fail;
end;
current_goal c dng (p1 p2):
begin
repeat cho mi pi
pattern_search(p i );
until khng cn thnh phn pi no hoc thnh cng;
if pattern_search thnh cng then return {php th};
else return fail;
end;
return fail;
End;
Download slide bi ging ti y

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H THNG LUT SINH (H SINH PRODUCTION

SYSTEM)
H THNG LUT SINH (H SINH PRODUCTION SYSTEM)
nh ngha h sinh
H sinh l mt m hnh tnh ton quan trng trong tr tu nhn to v c hai mt: thc
hin cc thut ton tm kim v m hnh ha vic gii cc bi ton ca con ngi.
Mt h sinh c nh ngha bi:
Tp lut sinh(Production rules): Mi lut sinh c dng condition action
(iu kin hnh ng). Phn iu kin ca lut l mt mu cho bit khi no
th c th p dng lut. Phn hnh ng quy nh cc bc gii ton tng ng
iu kin.
B nh lm vic (Working memory): Cha mt m t v trng thi hin thi
ca bi ton trong qu trnh suy lun. M t ny l mt mu s c i snh
vi phn iu kin ca mt lut sinh chn ra bc gii thch hp. Khi phn
iu kin ca lut ph hp vi ni dung trong b nh lm vic, hnh ng pht
sinh t iu kin s c thc hin lm thay i ni dung b nh lm vic.
Chu trnh nhn dng - hnh ng (Recognize act cycle) : L cu trc iu
khin ca h sinh.
Cu trc iu khin ca mt h sinh kh n gin: B nh lm vic c khi u vi
m t ca bi ton. Trng thi hin hnh ca vic gii bi ton c duy tr di dng
mt tp cc mu trong b nh lm vic. Cc mu ny c i snh vi phn iu kin
ca cc lut sinh, cc lut c iu kin ph hp vi mu trong b nh lm vic c gi
l tp lut tranh chp (conflict set). Sau mt trong cc lut sinh ny s c chn v
c kch hot. kch hot mt lut, phn hnh ng ca n c thc hin v lm
thay i ni dung b nh lm vic. Chu trnh iu khin s lp li vi ni dung c
thay i trong b nh lm vic. Qu trnh ny kt thc khi ni dung ca b nh lm vic
khng cn ph hp vi iu kin ca lut no na.
Mt qu trnh gii quyt tranh chp (conflict resolution) s chn mt lut t tp lut
tranh chp kch hot. Chin lc gii quyt tranh chp c th rt n gin nh chn
lut u tin c iu kin ph hp hoc c th da vo cc heuristic chn lut phc tp.
y l mt khu quan trng cc h sinh c th a kh nng iu khin heuristic vo
mt thut ton tm kim.
Mt s ca h sinh c m t nh hnh sau:

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Hnh 5.1 Cu trc h sinh

Th d 5.1: Mt chng trnh h sinh n gin dng sp xp mt dy cc ch ci
a,b,c theo th t t in. Trong v d ny, mt lut sinh s c p dng nu iu kin
ca n ph hp vi mt phn ca dy ch ci trong b nh lm vic. Khi mt lut c
kch hot, phn dy ph hp vi iu kin lut ny c thay th bi dy phn hnh
ng ca lut .

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Hnh 5.2 Cc bc thc hin ca mt h sinh n gin

Mt s v d v h sinh
Th d 5.2: Bi ton tr 8
Khng gian tm kim do tr 8 sinh ra va phc tp kho st v cng va
nh c th theo di, cho nn ta thng hay s dng n minh ha cho cc chin
lc tm kim khc nhau nh tm kim su, tm kim rng, cng nh cc chin lc tm
kim heuristic. N cng thch hp vi vic gii bng h sinh. Cc nc i hp l c
trnh by nh cc lut trong hnh. Trong trng hp trng thi bt u v trng thi ch
ca tr chi c xc nh, chng ta c kh nng p dng mt h sinh cho khng gian
tm kim ca bi ton.

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Hnh 5.3 Tr 8 di dng mt h sinh

Th d 5.3: Bi ton ng i qun m (Knights tour problem)
Bi ton ng i qun m trn bn c vua cng c th c gii bng cch s dng h
sinh. Mi nc i s c biu din bng mt lut m phn iu kin ca n l v tr ca
qun c ti mt v phn hnh ng ca n l v tr hp l sau khi di chuyn qun c.
Mi su lut sinh s biu din cho tt c cc nc i hp l ca qun c. Khi u, b
nh lm vic cha trng thi bn c hin ti v trng thi ch. Vng lp iu khin s
p dng cc lut cho n khi trng thi hin ti ging trng thi ch ri dng li. Mt
chin lc gii quyt tranh chp s kch hot lut u tin v khng to vng lp. V qu
trnh tm kim c th dn n nhng kt thc cht nn chu trnh iu khin cho php ln
ngc.

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Hnh 5.4 Gii php h sinh cho bi ton ng i qun m

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iu khin tm kim trong cc h sinh

M hnh h sinh cho chng ta c nhiu c hi b sung iu khin heuristic cho mt
thut ton tm kim. Nhng c hi c th p dng khi chn chin lc tm kim
hng d liu hay tm kim hng mc tiu, trong cu trc cc lut hoc khi chn chin
lc gii quyt tranh chp.
iu khin chn chin lc tm kim hng d liu (suy din tin) hay tm kim
hng mc tiu (suy din li)
Tm kim hng d liu bt u vi mt m t bi ton (nh mt tp cc tin logic,
cc triu chng ca ngi bnh, hay mt khi d liu cn suy din ...) ri suy ra cc kin
thc mi t d liu . Qu trnh ny c thc hin bng cch p dng cc lut suy
din, cc nc i hp l trong mt tr chi hoc cc thao tc sinh ra trng thi khc vo
m t hin hnh ca bi ton, ng thi a thm cc kt qu vo m t bi ton. Qu
trnh ny tip tc cho n khi tip cn mt mc tiu.

Hnh 5.5 Tm kim hng d liu trong mt h sinh

M t ca qu trnh suy lun hng mc tiu ny nhn mnh s gn ging ca n vi
m hnh h sinh ca vic tnh ton. Trng thi hin ti ca bi ton c a vo b nh
lm vic. Chu trnh nhn dng hnh ng s i snh trng thi hin ti vi tp lut
sinh (theo th t). Khi cc d liu ny ph hp vi phn iu kin ca mt trong cc
lut sinh , phn hnh ng ca lut sinh s b sung thm (bng cch thay i b nh
lm vic) mt thng tin mi vo trng thi hin ti ca bi ton.

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V tt c cc lut sinh u c dng CODITION ACTION. Khi CONDITION ph hp

vi mt s phn no trong b nh lm vic, ACTION s c thc hin.
Hnh trn trnh by qu trnh tm kim hng d liu n gin da vo mt tp cc lut
sinh c biu din di dng php ko theo ca php tnh mnh . Chin lc gii
quyt tranh chp n gin l chn lut va mi c kch hot. Theo rng buc ny,
lut u tin s c chn. Qu trnh thc hin s dng li khi tip cn mt mc tiu.
Hnh ny cng gii thiu trnh t cc lut kch hot v trng thi b nh lm vic trong
qu trnh thc hin cng vi th ca khng gian tm kim.
Ta cng c th p dng tm kim hng mc tiu trong cc h sinh. thc hin iu
ny, mc tiu c a vo b nh lm vic v c i snh vi phn ACTION ca
cc lut sinh (bng php hp nht chng hn) v phn CODITION cu lut s c b
sung vo b nh lm vic v tr thnh cc mc tiu mi ca qu trnh tm kim. Qu
trnh ny c tip tc cho n khi mt s kin c tm thy, thng l trong m t ban
u ca bi ton. Qu trnh tm kim s dng li khi cc CODITION ca tt c cc lut
sinh c kch hot u l ng. Hnh sau l mt v d v suy lun hng mc tiu. Cn
ch rng ta s dng li khi cc CODITION ca tt c cc lut sinh c kch hot u
l ng. Tm kim hng mc tiu s kch hot lot lut sinh khc v tin hnh qu trnh
tm kim trn khng gian khc so vi kiu hng d liu.

Hnh 5.6. Tm kim hng mc tiu trong mt h sinh

Cu hi :
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Mt h sinh s dng ng c suy din l mt chu trnh nhn dng hnh ng (i snh
gii quyt tranh chp thi hnh lut). Hy cho bit im khc bit c bn ti bc
i snh (match) khi h thng tin hnh suy din tin v suy din li ?
iu khin tm kim thng qua cu trc lut
Cu trc ca cc lut trong mt h sinh bao gm s phn bit gia phn iu kin
(CONDITION) vi phn hnh ng (ACTION) v th t m cc iu kin c th, s
quyt nh cch tm kim trong khng gian.
Trong biu din ca php tnh v t, cc biu thc ch nh ngha cc quan h thc trong
mt lnh vc bi ton ch khng khng nh v th t din dch cc thnh phn ca
chng do c th c mt vi cch biu din khc nhau cho cng mt lut nhng chng
vn tng ng v mt chn tr. Nhng cch vit ny c th khng dn n cng mt
kt qu khi c din dch di dng cc lut sinh v vic ci t ca h sinh phi theo
mt th t trong vic i snh v kch hot cc lut. H sinh th cc lut theo mt th
t xc nh nn ngi lp trnh c th iu khin qu trnh tm kim thng qua cu trc
v th t ca cc lut trong tp lut sinh. Mc d tng ng v mt logic nhng hai
cch thc hin khng nh nhau trong mt qu trnh tm kim.
Cc chuyn gia m ha cc heuristic quan trng theo nhng quy lut chuyn mn ca
h. Th t ca cc tin s m ha nhng thng tin quan trng v trnh t gii bi
ton. Chng hn khi mt k s c kh ni rng Nu ng c khng khi ng c v
n khng sng th kim tra acquy, tc l anh ta ngh mt trnh t c trng cho
cc hnh ng. Thng tin ny s khng th hiu bi pht biu logic tng ng ng
c khi ng c hoc n sng hoc kim tra acquy. Dng ny ca cc lut rt quan
trong trong vic iu khin tm kim, n lm cho h thng thc hin mt cch logic, lm
cho qu trnh theo di vic kch hot cc lut d hiu hn, ...
iu khin chn chin lc gii quyt tranh chp
Mc d cc h sinh (ging nh tt c cc cu trc dng cho nhng h thng da vo kin
thc) cho php cc heuristic c m ha vo trong ni dung kin thc ca bn thn cc
lut, nhng chng cng c nhiu c hi khc iu khin heuristic thng qua cc gii
php gii quyt tranh chp. V d cc chin lc gii quyt tranh chp c h tr bi
OPS5 (Brownston v cng s -1985) gm c:
Chin lc khc x (refraction): Chin lc ny quy nh rng khi mt lut
c kch hot, n khng th c kch hot li trc khi cc phn t trong b
nh lm vic ph hp vi phn iu kin ca n thay i. Chin lc ny gip
ngn nga vng lp.

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 Chin lc va mi xy ra (recency): Chin lc ny chn nhng lut c phn

iu kin ph hp vi cc mu va mi c b sung vo b nh lm vic.
Chin lc ny gip tp trung vic tm kim vo mt dng suy lun duy nht.
Chin lc tnh chi tit (specificity): Chin lc ny quy nh rng mt lut
gii ton chi tit hn s c a thch hn lut tng qut. Mt lut c tnh chi
tit hn lut khc nu n c nhiu iu kin hn. iu ny c ngha n s i
snh vi s mu t hn trong b nh lm vic.
Nhng u im ca h sinh dng cho tr tu nhn to
Theo cc minh ha trn, h sinh cho chng ta mt quy tc chung thc hin tm kim.
Nh tnh n gin, kh nng ci bin v s linh hot trong vic p dng cc kin thc
gii ton, h sinh t ra l mt cng c quan trng xy dng cc h chuyn gia v
cc ng dng tr tu nhn to khc. Nhng u im chnh ca cc h sinh i vi tr tu
nhn to l:
Tch ring tri thc v iu khin: Trong h sinh s iu khin c cho bi
chu trnh nhn dng hnh ng ca vng lp h sinh, cn cc kin thc gii
ton c m ha vo trong cc lut. u im ca s tch bit ny l d thay
i loi c s tri thc m khng thay i vic iu khin chng trnh v
ngc li.
a mt sp xp t nhin vo tm kim trong khng gian trng thi: Cc phn
t ca mt h sinh s c sp xp mt cch t nhin vo cu trc tm kim
khng gian trng thi. Cc trng thi k tip ca b nh lm vic s to nn cc
nt ca th. Cc lut sinh l cc bc chuyn i c th xy ra gia cc trng
thi cng vi cc chin lc gii quyt tranh chp s ci t vic chn mt
nhnh trong khng gian trng thi .
Tnh module ca lut sinh: Mt yu t quan trng ca h sinh l khng c bt
k s tng tc ln nhau no v c php gia cc lut sinh. Cc lut ch c th
tc ng n vic kch hat cc lut khc bng cch thay i mu trong b nh
lm vic, chng khng th gi trc tip cc lut khc nh l mt th tc con
(subroutine), cng khng th thit lp gi tr ca cc bin cho cc lut sinh
khc. Tnh c lp v c php ny h tr cho s pht trin ca cc h
chuyn gia bng cch lin tc b sung, loi b hoc thay i cc tri thc (lut)
ca h thng.
iu khin theo mu: Cc bi ton c chng trnh tr tu nhn to nhm vo
u yu cu phi linh hot trong qu trnh thc thi chng trnh. Mc tiu ny
c p ng bi thc t l cc lut trong h sinh c th kch hot theo mi
trnh t. Trong mt bi ton, cc m t to nn trng thi hin hnh s xc nh
tp lut tranh chp v do cng s xc nh con ng tm kim v li gii
ring.
C c hi cho iu khin heuristic ca qu trnh tm kim.

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 Theo di v gii thch: Tnh module ca cc lut v bn cht lp li trong qu

trnh thc thi lm cho n d dng theo di hn trong mt h sinh. mi giai
on ca chu trnh nhn dng hnh ng, lut c chn c th c hin ra.
V mi lut ng vi mt on ca qu trnh gii ton nn ni dung lut s gii
thch y ngha v trng thi v hnh ng hin hnh ca h thng .
Tnh c lp ngn ng: M hnh iu khin h sinh khng ph thuc vo cch
th hin c chn cho cc lut v cho b nh lm vic min l cch th
hin h tr cho vic i snh mu.
M hnh ha vic gii cc bi ton ca con ngi: y l mt trong nhng ng dng
u tin ca h sinh, chng vn cn c dng lm m hnh cho hat ng ca con
ngi trong nhiu nghin cu khoa hc v nhn thc.

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KIN TRC BNG EN (BLACKBOARD

ARCHITECTURE)
KIN TRC BNG EN (BLACKBOARD ARCHITECTURE)
Kin trc bng en l c ch iu khin cui cng c gii thiu trong chng ny.
Kin trc bng en m rng cc h sinh bng cch cho php chng ta sp xp b nh
lm vic thnh cc module ring, mi module tng ng vi mt lut sinh khc nhau.
Kin trc ny cng cho php chng ta tch hp cc tp lut sinh khc nhau vo mt cu
trc ton cc duy nht.
Mt kin trc bng en bao gm:
Bng en (Blackboard): L mt s c s d liu ton cc tp trung dng
trao i thng tin gia cc ngun tri thc khng ng b c lp, tp trung vo
cc mt c lin quan ca mt bi ton c th.
Cc ngun tri thc (Knowledge source) KSi: Ly d liu ca mnh t bng en,
x l cc d liu ri tr kt qu v cho bng en cc ngun tri thc khc
s dng. Mi KSi u c lp theo ngha l mt qu trnh ring bit, hot
ng theo cc c trng ring, v khi s dng mt h thng x l hoc c
nhiu b x l, n s c lp vi cc qu trnh x l khc ca bi ton. H
thng khng ng b ch tng KSi s bt u hot ng ca mnh khi no
tm thy cc d liu u vo thch hp c cng b trn bng en. Khi kt
thc cng vic x l ca mnh, n s gi kt qu i v ch d liu u vo mi.
B lp lch trnh (scheduler): T chc vic cp ti nguyn v truy cp bng en
ca cc ngun tri thc.
Hnh sau trnh by mt s v kiu thit k bng en:

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Hnh 5.7 Kin trc bng en

Kin trc bng en dng trong vic t chc mt chng trnh ln, ln u tin c
gii thiu trong cng trnh nghin cu HEARSAY-II (Erman v cng s, Reddy1976).
HEARSAYII l mt chng trnh hiu li ni, u tin n c thit k di dng
nn cho mt c s d liu th vin v nhng bi bo khoa hc. Nhng ngi s dng
th vin ny phi ni vi my tnh nhng cu nh: C bi bo no ca Feigenbaum v
Feldman hay khng? v my tnh s tr li cu hi bng nhng thng tin ly t c
s d liu ca th vin. Qu trnh hiu ting ni i hi chng ta phi tch hp mt s
qu trnh khc nhau, c nhng yu cu v kin thc v thut ton rt khc nhau, v
phc tp c th tng theo hm m. Nhng qu trnh x l tn hiu, nhn bit m v, m
tit, t, phn tch c php v phn tch ng ngha s ch ng rng buc ln nhau khi din
gii cu ni.
Kin trc bng en cho php HEARSAY-II ta ha mt s ngun tri thc khc
nhau dng trong cng vic phc tp ny. Kin trc bng en thng c t chc theo
hai chiu. Vi HEARSAY-II hai chiu l thi gian khi li ni c to ra v mc
phn tch li ni. Mi mc phn tch c x l bi mt lp cc ngun tri thc:
KS1 - Dng sng ca tn hiu m thanh
KS2 - Cc m v hay cc on m ca tn hiu m thanh
KS3 - Cc m tit m cc m v c th to ra
KS4 - Cc t khi c phn tch bi mt KS
KS5 - Cc t khi c phn tch bi mt KS khc
KS6 - Loi KS dng pht ra cc chui t
KS7 - Loi KS dng t cc chui t vo trong cu
Trong vic x l li ni, dng sng ca tn hiu m thanh c a vo mc thp
nht. Cc ngun tri thc dng cho vic x l mc ny u c hiu lc ha v gi
cc kt qu din dch ca chng cho bng en, sau s c chn ly ra bi mt
qu trnh thch hp. V ngn ng ni thng c nhiu ch ti ngha nn c th c nhiu
gi thit tranh chp nhau tng mc trong kin trc. Cc ngun kin thc mc cao
hn s lm r ngha cho cc gi thit tranh chp ny.
S phn tch ca HEARSAY-II khng th xem n gin nh mt mc thp to ra d
liu v sau cc mc cao hn l phn tch. Qu trnh phc tp hn nhiu. Nu KS
mt mc khng th x l d liu c a n, th KS c th yu cu KS gi d

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liu cho n quay li vi cch x l khc hay to ra gi thit khc v d liu . Ngoi ra,
nhiu KS khc nhau c th ng thi hot ng trn nhiu phn khc nhau ca li ni.
Tt c cc qu trnh ny u ng b v hng d liu, chng hot ng khi c d liu
vo, tip tc hot ng cho n khi hon thnh xong nhim v v sau gi kt qu i
ri ch nhim v tip theo.
B lp lch trnh l mt trong cc KS, s qun l vic truy cp gia cc KS nu khng
c KS no hot ng, b lp lch trnh s quyt nh nhim v kt thc v ng li.
Khi chng trnh HEARSAY-II c mt c s d liu khong 1000 t, n lm vic hon
ton tt mc d hi chm. Khi c s d liu m rng hn, d liu dng cho cc ngun
tri thc ny s tr nn rt phc tp n mc kh qun l. HEARSAY-III (Balzer v cng
s - 1980, Erman v cng s - 1981) l s tng qut ha phng php m HEARSAY-II
dng. Chiu thi gian ca HEARSAY-II khng cn cn thit na, nhng nhiu KS
ng vi cc mc phn tch th vn gi nguyn. Bng en dng cho HEARSAY-III c
hoch nh tng tc vi mt c s d liu quan h a nng. Thc vy, HEARSAYIII l mt khung chung dng thit k cc h chuyn gia. Mt thay i quan trng
trong HEARSAY-III l chia b lp lch trnh thnh mt cng c iu khin ring cho
bng en.
TNG KT CHNG V:
Chng V trnh by mt s cc thut ton cng nh cc m hnh, kin trc ph bin
dng iu khin v ci t qu trnh tm kim trong khng gian trng thi nh: tm kim
quy, m hnh h sinh, kin trc bng en, cng vi cc bi ton minh ha cho tng
gii thut rt c th. Trong chng VI tip theo, chng ta s tho lun vic gii quyt
vn tri thc chuyn su m in hnh l thit k cc h chuyn gia.
Bi tp chng V
Trc tnh hnh dch cm g gn y, B y t c a ra mt s hng dn v thc phm
an ton (safe) di dng mt tp hp biu thc v t nh sau:
R1. vegetable(X) fruit(X) safe(X)
R2. beef(X) porc(X) lamb(X) meat(X)
R3. meat(X) low_fat(X) low_risk(X)
R4. contains_fat(X,Y) (Y<20%) low_fat(X)
R5. certified(X) low_risk(X) safe(X)
V th AND/OR cho bit thc phm an ton.
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 Nu bit lng cht bo c trong tht b (contains_fat) l nh hn 20%, biu

din cc bc suy din theo h sinh tm kim hng d liu chng t tht
b l thc phm an ton.
V th AND/OR cho cc qu trnh suy din tin v suy din li dng trong h t vn
di y: H t vn cho vic chn hnh thc gii tr trong k ngh ca bn. Cc ngh
khc nhau m h c th cung cp l: ngm cnh, trt tuyt, tm nng, bi li, lt vn.
Tp lut suy din bao gm:
R1. IF thch_nng THEN ngh_vng_bin
R2. IF khng_thch_nng AND chi_th thao THEN ngh_vng_ni
R3. IF khng_thch_nng AND khng_chi_th thao THEN ngm_cnh
R4. IF ngh_vng_ni AND ngn_sch_nh THEN ngm_cnh
R5. IF ngh_vng_ni AND ngn_sch_khng_nh THEN trt_tuyt
R6. IF ngh_vng_bin AND khng_chi_th thao THEN tm_nng
R7. IF ngh_vng_bin AND chi_th thao AND ngn_sch nh THEN bi_li
R8. IF ngh_vng_bin AND chi_th thao AND ngn_sch_khng_nh THEN
lt_vn
Suy din tin dng d liu: Nam, rt thch chi th thao, khng thch nh nng
v c ngn sch khng nh.
Suy din li v tr li cc cu hi pht sinh t h thng trn d liu sau: Hoa,
rt thch chi th thao, thch nh nng mt tri v ch c ngn sch nh.

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GII QUYT VN DA TRN TRI

THC (KNOWLEDGE BASED
PROBLEM SOLVING)
Gii thiu:
Gii thiu:
Trong cuc sng, s d cc chuyn gia c th gii quyt vn mt mc cao v
h c rt nhiu tri thc v lnh vc h hot ng. Thc t hin nhin v n gin ny
chnh l c s nn tng cho vic thit k cc my gii quyt vn da trn tri thc m
ta thng gi l h chuyn gia. Mt h chuyn gia s dng tri thc ca mt lnh vc c
th cung cp vic gii quyt vn vi cht lng chuyn gia trong lnh vc .
Thng thng, cc nh thit k HCG thu thp tri thc ny, bao gm l thuyt n c cc
kinh nghim, k xo, phng php lm tt, chin lc heuristic tch ly c ca cc
chuyn gia con ngi qua qu trnh lm vic ca h trong mt lnh vc chuyn mn.
T tri thc ny, ngi ta c gng ci t chng vo h thng h thng c th m
phng theo cch thc cc chuyn gia lm vic. Tuy nhin, khng ging vi con ngi,
cc chng trnh hin ti khng t hc ly kinh nghim: m tri thc phi c ly t
con ngi v m ha thnh ngn ng hnh thc. y l nhim v chnh m cc nh thit
k HCG phi ng u.
Do bn cht heuristic v tri thc chuyn su ca vic gii quyt vn cp chuyn
gia, cc h chuyn gia ni chung:
Cung cp s kim tra i vi cc qu trnh suy lun ca chng, bng cch hin
th cc bc trung gian v bng cch tr li cu hi v qu trnh gii.
Cho php sa i d dng, c khi thm v xa cc k nng gii quyt vn
vo c s tri thc (knowledge based).
Suy lun mt cch heuristic, s dng tri thc (thng l khng hon ho)
tm li gii hu ch cho vn .
Ngi ta xy dng cc h chuyn gia gii quyt hng lot nhng vn trong cc
lnh vc nh y hc, ton hc, cng ngh, ha hc, a cht, khoa hc my tnh, kinh
doanh, lut php, quc phng v gio dc. Cc chng trnh ny gii quyt mt lp
rng cc loi vn nh:

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 Din gii (interpretation) hnh thnh nhng kt lun hay m t cp cao t

nhng tp hp d liu th.
D on (prediction) tin on nhng hu qu c th xy ra khi cho trc
mt tnh hung.
Chn on (diagnosis) xc nh nguyn nhn ca nhng s c trong cc tnh
hung phc tp da trn cc triu chng c th quan st c.
Thit k (design) tm ra cu hnh cho cc thnh phn h thng, p ng c
cc mc tiu trong khi vn tha mn mt tp hp cc rng buc v thit k.
Lp k hoch (planning) tm ra mt chui cc hnh ng t c mt tp
hp cc mc tiu, khi c cho trc cc iu kin khi u v nhng rng
buc trong thi gian chy (run-time).
Theo di (monitoring) so snh hnh vi quan st c ca h thng vi hnh
vi mong i.
Bt li v sa cha (debuging and repair) ch nh v ci t nhng phng
php cha tr cho cc trc trc.
Hng dn (instruction) pht hin v sa cha nhng thiu st trong quan
nim ca hc vin v mt ch lnh vc no .
iu khin (control) ch o hnh vi ca mt mi trng phc tp.
Phn II ca chng ny chng ta s kho st cng ngh gip cho vic gii quyt vn
tri thc chuyn su tr nn hin thc. Phn III s trnh by h sn xut nh mt kin
trc phn mm c s cho vic gii quyt vn da trn cc lut. Phn IV v V kho
st cc k thut dng cho suy lun da trn m hnh, v suy lun da trn tnh hung.
Download slide bi ging ti y

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TNG QUAN V CNG NGH H CHUYN GIA

TNG QUAN V CNG NGH H CHUYN GIA
Thit k ca mt HCG da trn lut: (RuleBased ES)
Hnh 6_1 cho thy cc module quan trng nht to nn mt h chuyn gia da trn lut.
Ngi dng tng tc vi h chuyn gia thng qua mt giao din ngi dng (user
interface), giao din ny n gin ha vic giao tip v che giu phn ln s phc tp
ca h thng (v d nh cu trc bn trong ca c s cc lut). Cc h chuyn gia s
dng mt s lng phong ph cc kiu giao din, bao gm hi v tr li, iu khin bi
trnh n, ngn ng t nhin, hay ha, Vic quyt nh s dng giao din nh th
no l s tha hip gia nhu cu ca ngi dng vi nhng i hi ca c s tri thc v
h suy din.
Tri tim ca h chuyn gia l c s tri thc tng qut (general knowledge base), cha
tri thc gii quyt vn ca mt ng dng c th. Trong mt h chuyn gia da trn
lut tri thc ny c biu din di dng cc lut if then. C s tri thc bao gm
tri thc tng qut (general knowledge) cng nh thng tin ca mt tnh hung c th
(case-specific).

Hnh 6_1. Kin trc ca mt h chuyn gia tiu biu.

ng c suy din (inference engine) p dng tri thc cho vic gii quyt cc bi ton
thc t. V cn bn n l mt trnh thng dch cho c s tri thc. Trong h sinh
99/197

(production system), ng c suy din thc hin chu trnh iu khin nhn dng hnh
ng (recognize-act control cycle). Vic tch bit c s tri thc ra khi ng c suy din
l rt quan trng v nhiu l do:
S tch bit ca tri thc dng gii quyt vn v ng c suy din s to
iu kin cho vic biu din tri thc theo mt cch t nhin hn. V d, cc lut
ifthen gn gi vi cch con ngi m t nhng k thut gii quyt vn
ca h hn so vi mt chng trnh a lun tri thc ny vo phn m my
tnh cp thp.
Bi v c s tri thc c cch ly khi cc cu trc iu khin cp thp ca
chng trnh, cc nh xy dng HCG c th tp trung mt cch trc tip vo
vic nm bt v t chc GQV hn l phi thc hin trn cc chi tit ca vic
ci t vo my tnh.
S phn chia tri thc v iu khin cho php thay i mt phn c s tri thc
m khng to ra cc hiu ng l trn cc phn khc ca chng trnh.
S tch bit ny cng cho php mt phn mm iu khin v giao tip c th
c s dng cho nhiu h thng khc nhau. Mt trnh ct li ca HCG (expert
system shell) c tt c cc thnh phn ca hnh 61, tr phn c s tri thc v d
liu ca tnh hung c th. Cc nh lp trnh c th s dng trnh ct li rng
ca HCG v to ra mt c s tri thc mi thch hp vi ng dng ca h. Cc
ng chm chm trong hnh 6_1 biu th cc module ca trnh ct li.
Nh tho lun trong chng 5 v h sinh, s module ha ny cho php
chng ta th nghim nhiu ch iu khin khc nhau trn cng mt c s
lut.
Mt h con gii thch (explanation subsystem) ch php chng trnh gii thch qu trnh
suy lun ca n cho ngi dng. Cc gii thch ny bao gm cc lp lun bin minh cho
cc kt lun ca h thng (tr li cho cu hi how), gii thch v sao h thng cn d liu
(tr li cho cu hi why),
Nhiu HCG cn bao gm mt trnh son tho c s tri thc (knowledge-base editor).
Trnh son tho ny gip cc nh lp trnh xc nh v hiu chnh li trong qu trnh lm
vic ca chng trnh, thng l bng cch truy xut nhng thng tin cung cp bi h
con gii thch. Chng cng c th h tr cho vic b sung tri thc mi, gip duy tr c
php lut chnh xc, v thc hin cc kim tra tnh nht qun trn c s tri thc cp
nht.
Vic s dng trnh ct li HCG c th gip ta gim ng k thi gian thit k v ci
t chng trnh. V d, HCG MYCIN dng chn on bnh vim mng no xng
sng v nhim trng mu c pht trin trong khong 20 nm-ngi (person-year).
EMYCIN (Empty MYCIN) l mt trnh ct li ca MYCIN c to ra bng cch loi
b tri thc chuyn ngnh khi chng trnh MYCIN. S dng EMYCIN, cc k s tri
thc ci t PUFF, mt chng trnh phn tch cc vn v phi cho cc bnh nhn,

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trong khong 5 nm-ngi. y l mt s tit kim ng k v l mt kha cnh quan

trng chng t sc sng trn phng din thng mi ca cng ngh h chuyn gia.
i vi ngi lp trnh, iu quan trng l phi la chn ng trnh ct li HCG pht
trin mt HCG mi. Cc bi ton khc nhau i hi cc qu trnh lp lun khc nhau:
tm kim hng ch so vi tm kim hng d liu chng hn. Chin lc iu khin
cung cp bi trnh ct li cn phi thch hp vi ng dng; phng php suy lun y hc
dng cho ng dng PUFF rt ging vi phng php m HCG MYCIN s dng; iu
lm cho vic s dng trnh ct li EMYCIN tr nn thch hp. Nu trnh ct li c
qu trnh suy lun khng thch hp, th vic s dng n c th l mt sai lm v t hn
l bt u t xy dng t u.
Cc vn ph hp xy dng HCG
Cc HCG thng i hi s u t ng k v tin bc v sc lc con ngi. Nhng
c gng gii quyt mt bi ton qu phc tp, qu t hiu bit, hoc c nhng yu t
khng ph hp khc i vi cng ngh hin ti c th dn n nhng tht bi hao tin
tn ca. Cc nh nghin cu xy dng mt tp hp cc ch dn c tnh khng hnh
thc cho vic xc nh xem khi no th mt bi ton thch hp gii quyt bng HCG:
S cn thit phi c mt gii php phi bin minh cho chi ph v sc lc
ca vic xy dng HCG, v nu khng s l mt s lng ph. Cng ty
my tnh DEC b ra tin v cng sc xy dng HCG XCON t ng
ha cng tc to cu hnh cho my tnh. Kt qu, XCON gip cng ty tit
kim c ti chnh v duy tr lng tin ca khch hng. Tng t, ngi ta
cy dng nhiu HCG trong cc lnh vc nh khai thc khong sn, kinh doanh
quc phng, v y hc, l nhng ni tn ti tim nng to ln cho vic tit kim
tin bc, thi gian v sinh mng con ngi.
Hiu bit chuyn mn ca con ngi khng sn c mi ni cn n n.
C rt nhiu HCG c xy dng trong ngnh y, v s chuyn mn v tnh
phc tp trongk thut ca y hc hin i khin cho cc bc s gp nhiu kh
khn trong vic theo kp nhng tin b ca cc phng php chn on v iu
tr. S lng cc chuyn gia p ng c cc yu cu ny rt him v phi tr
th lao cao cho cng vic ca h, do m cc h chuyn gia c nhn nhn
nh l mt cu cnh. Nh c HCG, cc bc s a phng c th chn on
v iu tr bnh mc chuyn gia. Trong ngnh a cht, bng cch b tr
HCG ti nhng ni khai thc, nhiu vn c th c gii quyt m khng
cn cc chuyn gia con ngi phi c mt. Tng t, s lng ph nhng kin
thc chuyn mn c gi tr do vic chuyn i nhn vin hay nhng ngi sp
v hu c th bin minh cho vic xy dng cc h chuyn gia.
Vn c th c gii quyt bng cch s dng cc k thut suy lun k
hiu. Nhng gii php vn khng nn i hi s kho lo tay chn hay kh
nng cm th. Tuy rng chng ta c nhng robot v cc h nhn, hin ti

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chng vn thiu kh nng tinh t v linh hot ca con ngi. Cc h chuyn gia
ch thch hp vi cc vn m con ngi c th gii quyt thng qua s suy
lun trn cc k hiu.
Phm vi xc nh vn c cu trc tt v khng i hi s suy lun
theo l thng tnh (commonsense reasoning). Mc d cc h chuyn gia
c xy dng trong nhiu lnh vc i hi tri thc k thut chuyn mn ha,
nhiu s suy lun theo l thng ca con ngi vn nm ngoi kh nng hin
ti ca chng. Cc lnh vc mang tnh k thut cao c u im l c hiu
bit v hnh thc ha k lng: cc thut ng c nh ngha y v cc
ch c sn nhng m hnh khi nim r rng v c th.
Vn c th khng gii quyt c bng cch s dng cc phng php
tnh ton truyn thng. Khng nn s dng cng ngh HCG pht minh li
chic bnh xe (reinvent the wheel). Nu mt bi ton c th gii quyt mt
cch tha ng bng nhng k thut truyn thng hn nh cc phng php s,
thng k, th chng khng phi l mt c ng vin cho vic thit k HCG.
C s hp tc v hiu nhau gia cc chuyn gia. Tri thc s dng bi cc
chuyn gia him khi tm thy trong cc sch gio khoa m ch c c nh
kinh nghim v s nh gi ca con ngi khi lm vic trong lnh vc . iu
quan trng l cc chuyn gia sn sng v c kh nng chia s tri thc. Cc
chuyn gia c th s khng hp tc khi h cm thy b e da bi h thng, s
rng h thng c th thay th h, hoc ngha rng n khng th thnh cng,
ch lng ph thi gian ca h, khi h s khng b ra thi gian v n lc cn
thit.Mt iu quan trng khc l ban qun l phi h tr d n v chi php cc
chuyn gia s dng thi gian lm vic chnh thc ca h cng tc vi cc k
s tri thc.
Vn cn gii quyt phi c kch thc v quy m ng mc. Vn
khng c vt qu kh nng ca cng ngh hin ti. V d, mt chng trnh
c gng nm bt mi hiu bit chuyn mn ca mt bc s y khoa s khng kh
thi trong khi mt chng trnh c vn cho cc bc s trong vic s dng mt
phn no ca thit b chn on s thch hp hn.

Mc d mt vn ln c th khng ph hp vi gii php ca h chuyn gia, ta c

th phn chia n thnh cc vn nh hn, c lp nhau v ph hp vi HCG. iu
ny tng ng vi chin lc phn r top-down s dng trong cng ngh phn mm
truyn thng. Mt cch gii quyt khc l ta bt u bng mt chng trnh n gin c
kh nng gii quyt mt phn ca vn ri tng bc tng dn chc nng ca n
x l phm vi ln hn ca vn . Chin lc ny gi l ng k mng (thin line),
m ch mc tiu ca n l to ra mt khun mu hy sinh b rng ca kh nng ng dng
nhm u tin vic to ra mt li gii y cho tp hp nh cc bi ton th nghim. K
thut ny t ra hiu qu khm ph cc vn phc tp v cha c hiu r. Ngi
ta s dng thnh cng k thut ny trong vic to ra XCON: ban u chng trnh c
thit k ch nh cu hnh cho cc my tnh VAX 780; sau n c m rng x
l lun tt c cc h my VAX v h my PDP-11.
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Qui trnh cng ngh tri thc

Nhng ngi lin quan ch yu trong vic xy dng mt HCG l k s tri thc
(knowledge engineer), chuyn gia (domain expert) v ngi dng cui (end-user).
K s tri thc l chuyn gia v ngn ng v biu din trong TTNT, vi nhim v chnh
l chn cc cng c phn mm v phn cng cho n, gip chuyn gia pht biu
cc tri thc cn thit, v ci t cc tri thc vo mt c s tri thc ng n v hiu
qu. Thng thng, k s tri thc ny ban u khng hiu bit g v lnh vc ng dng.
Chuyn gia cung cp tri thc v lnh vc ng dng. Thng thng, y l mt ngi
tng cng tc trong lnh vc ng dng v hiu bit nhng k thut gii quyt vn ca
n, chng hn nh cc cch lm tt, x l d liu khng chnh xc, nh gi nhng gii
php cc b, v tt c nhng k nng khc chng t anh ta c ng cp ca mt chuyn
gia. Chuyn gia chu trch nhim chnh trong vic gii thch r nhng k nng ny vi
k s tri thc.
Trong phn ln cc ng dng, ngi dng cui quyt nh nhng rng buc thit k
chnh. Chng no ngi dng cn cha hi lng, th cn phi u t sc lc cho vic
pht trin chng trnh. Nhng k nng v nhu cu ca ngi dng cn phi xem xt
trong sut qu trnh thit k: chng trnh c lm cho cng vic ca ngi dng d dng
hn, nhanh hn, thun tin hn khng? Ngi dng cn s gii thch mc no?
Mi trng lm vic ca ngi dng c t ra nhng hn ch no cho vic s dng
chng trnh? V d nh, mt giao din i hi vic g bn phm s khng ph hp vi
thao tc trong khoang li ca mt my bay chin u phn lc.
Ging nh hu ht cc cng vic lp trnh trong TTNT, vic xy dng HCG i hi mt
chu trnh pht trin theo kiu khng truyn thng da trn mt bn mu c to ra ban
u v vic xem xt li m lnh mt cch tng dn. Phng php lp trnh ny cn gi
l lp trnh thm d (exploratory programming).

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104/197

Hnh 6_2. Chu trnh pht trin theo kim thm d.

Hnh 6_2 trnh by mt lu m t chu trnh pht trin theo kiu lp trnh thm d.
Ni chung qu trnh xy dng h thng bt u vi vic k s tri thc c gng lm quen
vi phm vi xc nh vn (problem domain). iu ny gip ch cho vic giao tip
vi chuyn gia. N c thc hin bng nhng bi phng vn m u vi chuyn gia
, bng s quan st cc chuyn gia trong qu trnh h lm vic, hoc thng qua vic
c nhng ti liu gii thiu v lnh vc chuyn ngnh . Tip theo k s tri thc v
chuyn gia bt u qu trnh khai thc nhng tri thc gii quyt vn ca chuyn gia
ny. Cng vic ny c thc hin bng cch a cho chuyn gia mt lot cc bi ton
v d v yu cu anh ta gii thch nhng k thut c s dng t c li gii.
Trong giai on ny, vic s dng cc bng video hoc audio l rt quan trng.
Thng thng, s tt hn nu k s tri thc l mt ngi mi lm quen vi lnh vc
ng dng, v nhng chuyn gia c th qun cp n nhng bc thao tc tr thnh
hin nhin hay thm ch l t ng i vi h sau nhiu nm cng tc trong lnh vc .
V vy, cc k s tri thc khng bit g v lnh vc ny c th s pht hin nhng bc
nhy cc ny, v do s yu cu chuyn gia lm sng t vn .
Ngay sau khi k s c c ci nhn tng qut v lnh vc ca vn v cng
chuyn gia gii quyt mt s bi ton, anh ta s bt tay vo thit k h thng: chn
phng php biu din tri thc, nh lut hay frame chng hn, xc nh chin lc tm
kim, tin (forward), li (backward), theo chiu su (depth-first), tt nht (best-first),
v thit k giao din ngi dng. Sau khi trin khai thit k ny n mc c th hi lng,
k s tri thc bt u xy dng mt bn mu (prototype).
Bn mu ny cn phi c kh nng gii quyt nhng bi ton trong mt phm vi nh ca
lnh vc v cung cp mt nn th nghim cho nhng xc nhn thit k s b. Ngay sau
khi bn mu c ci t xong, k s tri thc v chuyn gia s th nghim v ci tin
tri thc ca n bng cch cho n gii quyt mt s bi ton v hiu chnh nhng khuyt
im ca n. Sau mi ln nh vy, h thng c mt phin bn chng trnh sng sa
hn. Nu nhng gi thit trong qu trnh thit k bn mu t ra l ng n, th bn mu
c th c dng xy dng h thng cui cng. Tuy nhin, bn mu cng c th b
loi b nu n tr nn cng knh hoc cc nh thit k quyt nh thay i phng php
tip cn c s i vi vn .
c trng ln th hai ca lp trnh HCG l cn xem chng trnh nh khng bao gi
kt thc. Mt c s tri thc kiu heuristic ln s lun lun c nhng hn ch ca n,
v tri thc th lun i mi v v vy cn phi c cp nht.

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M hnh khi nim v vai tr ca chng trong vic thu thp tri thc
Trong HCG, tri thc ng vai tr quyt nh cho s thnh cng cng nh hiu qu gii
quyt vn ca HCG. Tri thc ny c c t qu trnh thu thp tri thc ca cc
chuyn gia, tri thc ny thng m h, khng chnh xc, v ch c pht biu di dng
theo tng b phn. Ngi k s tri thc c nhim v dch nhng hiu bit khng hnh
thc ny sang mt ngn ng hnh thc thch hp cho my tnh (xem hnh 6_3). y l
mt nhim v kh khn, tuy nhin, kh khn trc tin vn l vic tch ly tri thc do
nhiu nguyn nhn:
Cc k nng ca con ngi c c thng thng qua thc nghim. Sau nhiu
nm thc hnh, nhng k nng ny tch hp cht ch vi nhau v hot ng
mt cp v thc cao. V vy, s rt kh khn cho cc chuyn gia khi phi
m t chnh xc nhng g h lm trong qu trnh gii quyt vn .
Tri thc ca con ngi thng nm dng l bit lm th no (how) i
ph vi tnh hung hn l bit cn phi khc ha trong c mt cch l tr xem
tnh hung y l ci g (what). Mt v d d thy v c im ny ngi biu
din xe p mt bnh: trong thc t, mt ngi biu din thnh cng khng th
cng lc gii nhiu phng trnh sai phn nhm gi th cn bng; m thc ra
anh ta ch phi hp c tnh trc gic nhng cm gic v trng lc, xung lc
v qun tnh to thnh mt th tc iu khin thch hp.
Tri thc ca con ngi khng cn c theo s tht, khng khch quan, v hiu
bit ca con ngi th hin mt m hnh ca c nhn hay cng ng v th
gii. Nhng m hnh b nh hng bi nhng tp qun, nhng qu trnh x
hi, v nhng qu trnh tim n khc
Tri thc lun lun thay i. iu khng ch do cc chuyn gia tip nhn
thm nhng tri thc mi, m cn do tri thc ang tn ti c th tr thnh mc
tiu ca nhng ci cch trit .
H qu l, cng ngh tri thc l mt qu trnh kh khn v cn c xem xt khi ko
di chu trnh sng ca bt k HCG no. n gin ha nhim v ny, ngi ta ci
t mt m hnh khi nim (conceptual model) nm gia hiu bit chuyn mn ca con
ngi vi chng trnh nh trong hnh 6_3. M hnh khi nim ny th hin nhn thc
ca ngi k s tri thc v lnh vc , n c th bao gm cc t in d liu, cc biu
din ha ca khng gian trng thi v nhng li bnh i km u c th l mt phn
ca m hnh ny.
M hnh khi nim khng c tnh hnh thc hoc c th thi hnh trc tip trn my tnh.
N ch l mt cu trc thit k trung gian, mt m hnh mu c th bt u a ra
cc rng buc v m ha cc k nng ca con ngi. Nu nh k s tri thc s dng
m hnh php tnh mnh , th n c th bt u nh mt tp hp cc mng aon gin
biu din nhng trng thi suy lun ca ngi chuyn gia thng qua cc tnh hung gii

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quyt vn in hnh. Ch sau khi c ci tin thm, mng ny mi tr thnh cc lut

if then tng minh.

Hnh 6_3. Vai tr ca m hnh khi nim trong gii quyt vn .

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H chuyn gia DA trn LUT (RULEBASED ES)

H chuyn gia DA trn LUT (RULEBASED ES)
Cc HCG da trn lut biu din tri thc di dng cc lut if then. Cch tip cn ny
thch hp vi kin trc hnh 6_1, v l mt trong nhng k thut c in v c s
dng rng ri nht dng cho biu din tri thc v mt lnh vc trong HCG. Kin trc
ca HCG ny tng t vi m hnh h sinh (production system) trnh by chng
5.
Nu chng ta xem kin trc HCG hnh 6_1 nh mt h sinh th c s tri thc l tp
hp cc lut sinh (if then). D liu cho trng hp c th c gi trong b nh lm
vic. ng c suy din thc hin chu trnh nhn dng hnh ng (recognize-act) ca
h sinh; c ch iu khin ny c th l hng t d liu hay hng t mc tiu.
Vic chn la tip cn hng t d liu hay hng t mc tiu cng ging nh nhng
tho lun trnh by trong chng 3. Tuy nhin, i vi mt HCG, th tip cn hng
t mc tiu s to iu kin cho qu trnh gii thch hn. V trong mt h hng t mc
tiu, vic suy lun theo ui mt mc tiu c th no , mc tiu b chia thnh nhiu
mc tiu con v c nh th; kt qu l vic tm kim lun lun c hng dn thng
qua s phn cp mc tiu v mc tiu con ny. Trong khi tm kim hng t d liu
khng tn ti iu ny, kt qu l qu trnh tm kim thng c v di dng v khng
tp trung.
c mt v d c th hn v gii quyt vn theo hng t mc tiu, ta xt mt HCG
nh dng chn on nhng trc trc trong xe hi, gi tt l HCG Chn on xe hi:
Lut 1 IF ng c nhn c xng AND ng c khi ng c
THEN trc trc l do bugi.
Lut 2 IF ng c khng khi ng c AND n khng sng
THEN trc trc l do cquy hoc dy cp
Lut 3 IF ng c khng khi ng c AND n sng
THEN trc trc l do mt khi ng
Lut 4 IF cn xng trong bnh cha nhin liu AND cn xng trong b ch ha kh
THEN ng c nhn c xng

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Trong ch iu khin hng t mc tiu, u tin mc tiu cao nht l trc trc l
do X s c a vo b nh lm vic nh hnh 6_4:

Hnh 6_4. H sinh ti thi im ban u ca mt ln chn on.

C 3 lut i snh (match) vi biu thc ny trong b nh lm vic: lut 1, 2 v 3. Nu
ta chn lut u tin theo s th t ca n, th lut 1 s c t chy, khi X s c
gn kt (bound) vi gi tr bugi v nhng tin (v tri) ca lut 1 c t vo b nh
lm vic nh hnh 6_5.

Hnh 6_5. H sinh sau khi lut 1 c t chy.

chng minh mc tiu con l ng c nhn c xng th lut 4 c t chy, v
nhng tin ca lut ny c t vo b nh lm vic nh hnh 6_6.

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Hnh 6_6. H sinh sau khi t chy lut 4.

Ti thi im ny, c ba mc trong b nh lm vic (cc mc in nghing trong hnh
6_6) l khng i sch vi bt k kt lun ca lut no. Trong tnh hung ny, HCG s
truy vn trc tip ngi dng v nhng mc tiu mi ny. Nu ngi dng xc nhn c
ba mc tiu ny u ng, th HCG s xc nh mt cch thnh cng rng trc trc xe l
do bugi. Trong qu trnh tm ra li gii ny, h thng kim tra nhnh tri nht ca
th V/Hoc trong hnh 6_7.

Hnh 6_7. th V/Hoc c tm kim trong v d chn on xe t.

110/197

Kh nng gii thch v tnh trong sut ca suy lun hng t mc tiu
thy c kh nng gii thch v tnh trong sut ca suy lun hng t mc tiu, ta
gi nh phin chn on ang giai on ca hnh 6_6. on hi thoi sau y c
bt u bng vic my tnh yu cu ngi dng cho bit v cc mc tiu con hin c
trong b nh lm vic (tr li ca ngi dng c gch di):
- cn xng trong bnh cha nhin liu? yes
- cn xng trong b ch ha kh? yes
- ng c khi ng c khng? why
n y, ngi dng nh vo cu hi why, ngha l mun hi, ti sao anh cn bit ng
c c khi ng c hay khng? Khi h thng tr li
xc nh c rng:
1. ng c nhn c xng,
V vy nu
2. ng c khi ng c ,
Th c th kt lun: trc trc l do bugi
Gi s ngi dng tip tc hi:
ng c nhn c xng nh th no?
Khi , h thng s tr li:
iu ny c t lut 4
IF cn xng trong bnh cha nhin liu AND cn xng trong b ch ha kh
THEN ng c nhn c xng
Ngi dng cho bit: cn xng trong bnh cha nhin liu
Ngi dng cho bit: cn xng trong b ch ha kh
Mt ln na, kin trc h sinh cho chng ta mt c s thit yu c nhng gii thch
ny. Mi chu trnh ca vng lp iu khin s chn v t chy mt lut khc. Chng

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trnh c th dng li sau mi chu trnh v cho php ngi dng kim tra. V mi lut
biu din mt b tri thc y , nn lut hin ti cho ta mt ng cnh gii thch.
Ngoi ra, tnh module ca mi lut cng to iu kin cho vic thm hay sa i mt
lut c thc hin mt cch d dng m khng h nh hng n cc lut khc.
H chuyn gia R1/XCON
HCG R1 hay XCON c a ra vo nm 1982 l mt trong nhng HCG thng mi
thnh cng u tin. Nh gii thiu trong cc phn trn, ban u chng trnh c
thit k ch nh cu hnh cho cc my tnh VAX 780; sau n c m rng x
l lun cho cc h my VAX v h my PDP-11. u vo ca h thng l n t hng
ca khch hng v sau p dng cc lut sinh ra mt cu hnh hon chnh, thng
nht cng vi cc s biu din mi quan h v khng gian v logic ca cc b phn
trong my (McDermott 1981).
Kin trc ca HCG XCON c m t nh hnh 6_8.

Hnh 6_8. Kin trc ca HCG XCON

XCON l mt HCG da trn lut, n cha mt c s cc lut bao gm khong 10000
lut c vit vi ngn ng OPS5 (OPS Official Production System). Cc lut ny
dng iu khin qu trnh to cu hnh cho my, n c mt c im c bit l tin
ca lut thng bt u bng mt iu kin kim tra tnh hung hin ti, chng hn
nh:
IF the most current active context is distributing Massbus devices
& there is a single port disk drive that has not been assigned to a Massbus
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& there are no unassigned dual port disk drives & the number of devices that each
Massbus should support is known
& there is a Massbus that has been assigned at least one disk drive and that should
support additional disk drives
& the type of cable needed to connect the disk drive to the previous device is known
THEN assign the disk drive to the Massbus
Trong lut trn, iu kin u tin (c in nghing) l iu kin kim tra xem tnh
hung mi nht hin ti (most current active context) c phi l ang phn phi cc thit
b Massbus hay khng? Nu ng th ng c suy din mi kim tra cc iu kin k
tip, nu sai th b qua lut ny. c th bit c tnh hung hin ti l g, h thng
s truy cp vo b nh lm vic, ni c lu tr cc k hiu v tnh hung hin ti. Chnh
nh cu trc lut c bit ny m mc d c s lut c n 10000 lut nhng h thng
thc hin qu trnh i snh a ra cc lut kh thi ti mt thi im l rt nhanh. Vi
tnh cht ny, c th ni cng vic to cu hnh ca R1/XCON c xem nh l mt
h thng phn chia thnh cc cng vic nh hn vi s ph thuc thi gian (temporal
dependency) rt mnh, cng vic ny phi thc hin trc cng vic kia.
Ngoi k hiu tnh hung, b nh lm vic ca h thng cn cha cc thng tin nh k
hiu ca cc thnh phn ang c, k hiu cc cu hnh ang thc hin d dang, cha
hon chnh. V cc thnh phn ca my thng c c trng bi nhiu thng s k
thut, nn b nh lm vic ch cha k hiu ca n, cn thng tin v cc thng s ny
s c lu trong mt c s d liu.
ng c suy din ca XCON c pht trin bng OPS5, s dng tip cn tm kim
hng t d liu, hay suy lun tin. Kt qu ca h thng c th ni l tng ng
hoc c khi tt hn gii php ca cc chuyn gia con ngi. V tc , th HCG cho ra
gii php nhanh gp mi ln chuyn gia, v tit kim c cho cng ty DEC hng
nm khong 25 triu la.
Kt lun v HCG da trn lut
u im ca HCG da trn lut:

Kh nng s dng trc tip cc tri thc thc nghim ca cc chuyn gia.
Tnh module ca lut lm cho vic xy dng v bo tr lut d dng.
C th thc hin tt trong cc lnh vc hn hp.
C tin ch gii thch tt.
Cc lut nh x mt cch t nhin vo khng gian tm kim trng thi.
D dng theo di mt chui cc lut v sa li.

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 S tch bit gia tri thc v iu khin gip n gin ha qu trnh pht trin
HCG.
Khuyt im ca HCG da trn lut:
Cc lut t c t cc chuyn gia mang tnh heuristic rt cao. Chng hn nh
trong lnh vc y hc, lut If st-cao Then b-nhim-trng l s kt hp trc
tip cc triu chng quan st c v cc chn on, m khng th hin s hiu
bit l thuyt su hn v lnh vc chuyn ngnh (nh c ch phn ng ca c
th chng li vi trng chng hn), hoc lut If st-cao Then cho-ungAspirin cng khng th hin tri thc v gii quyt vn tc l qu trnh cha
bnh nh th no.
Cc lut heuristic d v, khng th x l cc trng hp ngoi d kin. V
cc lut c to ra t kinh nghim ca cc chuyn gia trn nhng tnh hung
bit, nn khi gp phi mt tnh hung mi khng ng vi cc kinh nghim
, th cc lut ny khng gii quyt c.
C kh nng gii thch ch khng chng minh. HCG da trn lut ch c th
gii thch rng kt lun ny l do suy lun t cc lut nh th no, ch khng
chng minh c kt lun l ng.
Cc tri thc thng rt ph thuc vo cng vic. Qu trnh thu thp tri thc rt
phc tp v kh khn, tuy nhin, tri thc c c khng th s dng li cho
mt cng vic khc.
Kh bo tr cc c s lut ln.

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SUY LUN DA TRN M HNH: (MODELBASED

REASONING)
SUY LUN DA TRN M HNH: (MODELBASED REASONING)
Vi cc khuyt im ca HCG da trn lut k trn, tip cn da trn m hnh c a
ra nhm gii quyt cc vn ny. H thng suy lun da trn m hnh l mt h thng
m s phn tch cn c trc tip trn mt m t chi tit v chc nng ca mt h thng
vt l. Trong thit k v s dng, mt h suy lun da trn m hnh to ra mt s m
phng bng phn mm i vi chc nng ca ci m chng ta mun tm hiu hay sa
cha.
Nhng ng dng u tin ca tip cn ny l cho mc ch dy hc. Nhim v ca h
dy hc ny l kim tra kin thc ca sinh vin v thit b hay mch in cng nh
truyn t bt c kin thc no m cc sinh vin b st. T mc ch dy hc ban u
ny, cc h suy lun da trn m hnh chuyn sang cc h tm hng hc ca thit b
(trouble-shooting system). tm li ca mt h thng vt l, m hnh s cho ngi
dng bit l cn phi mong i g t h thng, v khi no th ci quan st c khc vi
ci mong i, v s khc bit ny dn n li nh th no.
Mt h thng chn on da trn m hnh i hi:
Mt m t cho mi b phn trong thit b. T nhng m t ny m h chn
on c th m phng hnh vi ca tng b phn.
Mt m t cu trc bn trong ca thit b. y thng l mt biu din ca cc
thnh phn v s ni kt qua li ca chng. Nhng thng tin ny gip h thng
m phng s tng tc gia cc thnh phn ca thit b.
Vic chn on mt li c th i hi s quan st vic thc hin tht s ca
thit b, thng thng l vic o cc thng s vo/ra ca n.
V vy, nhim v ca h s l xc nh b phn no c li da trn cc hnh vi quan st
c. iu ny i hi phi c thm cc lut m t cc ch c li bit cho cc b
phn khc nhau v s ni kt ca chng. H suy lun khi cn tm ra nhng li c kh
nng nht c th gii thch hnh vi quan st c ca h thng.
V d h chn on li da trn m hnh
Xt mt mch gm ba b nhn (multiplier) v hai b cng lin kt vi nhau nh trong
hnh 6.14. Trong v d ny nhng gi tr u vo c cho ti cc im t A n E v
cc gi tr u ra ti F v G. Nhng gi tr u ra mong mun c t trong cc du ()

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v gi tr thc c t trong cc du []. Nhim v t ra l xc nh xem li nm u

v n s gii thch s khng nht qun ny.

Hnh 6_9. Tn dng hng i ca lung thng tin chn on li.

Ta thy kt qu ti u ra F khng nh mong i, m u ra ny xut ra t b cng
ADD-1, b cng ny nhn gi tr u vo t MULT-1 v MULT-2. Vy phi c mt
trong ba thit b c li, v do , ta c ba gi thuyt cn xem xt.
Gi thuyt u tin l ADD-1 v MULT-1 ng, ngha l u vo X ca ADD-1 ng
(6), khi u vo Y s l 4, ngha l b nhn MULT-2 c li. Nhng, nu l nh vy th
gi tr thc ti G phi l 10, ch khng phi 12 nh ta thy. V vy, c th ni MULT-2
khng th l b phn gy li. Vy, li ch c th nm MULT-1 hoc ADD-1. Chng
ta c th lm thm mt s bc kim tra xc nh li nm u.
Trong khi suy lun v tnh hung ca hnh 6_9. Chng ta c ba nhim v:
Pht sinh gi thuyt: cho trc mt li, chng ta gi thuyt nhng b phn no
ca thit b gy ra n.
Kim nghim gi thuyt: cho trc mt tp cc b phn c kh nng c li,
chng ta xc nh xem b phn no trong s c th gii thch hnh vi m
chng ta quan st c.
Loi tr gi thuyt: khi c nhiu hn mt gi thuyt ng sau pha kim
nghim, nh xy ra trong hnh 6_9, chng ta phi xc nh nhng thng tin
b sung no cn c suy ra tip tc tm kim li.
Mt iu cn lu rng trong v d trn, ta ch gi nh mt thit b duy nht c li.
Mc d gi thit mt li duy nht l mt heuristic hu ch, thng ng n, nhng th
gii thc th khng n gin nh vy.
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Kt lun v h suy lun da trn m hnh

V da trn s hiu bit l thuyt v cc thit b ang cp, cc k thut da trn m
hnh b p c nhiu hn ch ca nhng phng php c tnh heuristic hn nh h
chuyn gia da trn lut. Mt s u im ca h thng ny c th lit k ra nh sau:
To kh nng s dng tri thc v cu trc v chc nng ca lnh vc trong gii
quyt vn .
Vt qua hn ch ca HCG da trn lut, HCG ny c khuynh hng mnh,
kh v.
Mt s tri thc c th chuyn ti cho cc cng vic khc.
C kh nng cung cp cc li gii thch ch r nguyn nhn. Nhng gii thch
ny c th truyn t mt s hiu bit su hn v li cho ngi dng, v cng
m nhim mt vai tr ging dy quan trng.
Tuy nhin, h suy lun ny cng c nhng hn ch ca n:
M hnh ch l mt m hnh ngha l mt s tru tng ca h thng, v vy
mt mc chi tit no c th khng ng. Nh trong v d trn, chng ta
xem gi tr ti nhng dy dn u vo cng nh cc dy dn ni kt bn
trong l ng n, ta khng th kim tra tnh trng ca dy dn. iu g s xy
ra nu dy dn b t, hoc c s kt ni lng lo vi cc b phn?
C mt gi thit ngm hiu v th gii ng, nhng g khng nm trong m
hnh c ngha l khng tn ti. V trong m hnh ta khng m t dy dn, nn ta
xem nh chng khng tn ti, v vy khng th kim tra chng.
H suy lun ny i hi phi c mt m hnh l thuyt r rng. Nn vic tch
ly tri thc c th gp nhiu kh khn, kh t c m hnh tt, c khi l
khng tn ti m hnh r rng nh trong mt s chuyn ngnh y khoa, ti
chnh
H thng to ra c th ln v chm, phc tp cao, c nhiu tnh hung ngoi
l.
Mc d vy, HCG da trn m hnh l mt b sung quan trng cho cc cng c ca k
s tri thc.

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SUY LUN DA TRN TRNG HP: (caSeBASED

REASONING)
SUY LUN DA TRN TRNG HP: (caSeBASED REASONING)
Cc lut heuristic v m hnh l thuyt l hai kiu thng tin m cc chuyn gia ngi s
dng gii quyt vn . Mt chin lc mnh khc m cc chuyn gia s dng l suy
lun t nhng tnh hung, l nhng v d v cc bi ton trong qu kh v li gii ca
chng. V d, mt lut s s chn nhng tnh hung lut xy ra trong qu kh tng
t vi tnh hung ca thn ch ca anh ta v gi cho anh ta mt phng php thuyt
phc ta hp l bnh vc cho thn ch. Cc nh lp trnh my tnh s dng li m
ca h, khi sa cha mt chng trnh c thch nghi vi tnh hung mi c cu trc
tng t. Cc kin trc s s dng kin thc ca h v nhng ta nh tt v c a
thch trong qu kh thit k nhng ta nh mi m ngi ta cm thy va v thun
tin, Tm li, suy lun t nhng tnh hung c l kh nng c tnh cht nn tng
ca tr thng minh con ngi. V suy lun da trn tnh hung cng pht trin theo tip
cn .
HCG da trn tnh hung (Case-based Reasoning CBR) s dng mt CSDL ring bit
cha gii php ca cc tnh hung gii quyt da vo tm kim gii php cho
mt tnh hung mi. Cc tnh hung thng c lu li nh l mt tp hp cc lut
tnh hung hnh ng (situation action). Cc s kin m t tnh hung ca lut l
nhng c im ni bt ca tnh hung c ghi nhn.
Khi gii quyt mt vn , mt CBR phi:
Truy vn cc tnh hung thch hp t b nh (hay CSDL) ca n, da vo s
tng t ca mt s c im ni bt.
Sa i tnh hung c th p dng trong tnh hung hin ti.
p dng tnh hung chuyn i vo bi ton mi.
Lu li li gii v kt qu ca n (thnh cng hay tht bi).
CBR a ra hng lot u im cho vic xy dng cc chuyn gia:
n gin ha vic tch ly tri thc t cc chuyn gia vi vic lu tr mt cch
trc tip cc tri thc c c, l nhng li gii ca chuyn gia cho hng lot
cc bi ton.
Bng cch tm gii php ca mt tnh hung tng t c a ra li gii
cho php rt ngn thi gian suy lun ca h thng. Tuy nhin, iu ny cn
phi xem xt li nu h thng c mt CSDL tnh hung rt ln.

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 Thao tc lu li li gii v kt qu ca n to kh nng t hc cho h thng:

gip h thng trnh li c v tn dng nhng thnh cng trong qu kh
Vic phn tch tri thc ca lnh vc ch din ra mt ln, l khi tm kim mt
s biu din hp l cho cc tnh hung, hay qu trnh chn cc c im ni bt
(salient features) ca cc tnh hung c th so snh v a ra kt lun v tnh
tng ng ca hai tnh hung no . y cng l kh khn ln nht ca tip
cn ny. V nu ta chn cc c im ni bt dng so snh hai tnh hung
khng ph hp, th kt lun ca ta v tnh tng ng ca hai tnh hung c
th s khng chnh xc, v khi tnh hung chn ra khng ng s khng cho ra
mt li gii thch hp.
y, ta s khng nghin cu su v vn ny, tuy nhin c gi c th tham
kho thm v cc ti liu ca Kolodner (1993) v cc ng nghip khc.
Vic tch ly tri thc v lp trnh l tng i n gin.
Cc chin lc sp xp (index) thch hp lm tng sc mnh ca phng php
ny.
Tip cn ny cng c cc khuyt im ca n:
Cc tnh hung khng th hin tri thc su v lnh vc bi ton, do kh gii
thch ti sao a ra li gii nh vy, hoc c th a ra li gii sai hoc khng
tt.
Mt c s cha cc tnh hung ln phi xem xt s tng xng gia tnh ton
v lu tr. V khi CSDL ln ln, thi gian cn ly ra mt tnh hung thch
hp cng ln ln. Cui cng th chi ph cho vic tm kim mt tnh hung s
ln hn thi gian cn thit rt ra mt li gii bng cch suy lun t cc lut
hoc t m hnh (hai tip cn trc).
Kh a ra tiu chun nh gi s tng t ca cc tnh hung, v sp xp
chng.

Tm tt
Ni dung chnh ca chng ny bao gm:
H chuyn gia l mt h thng s dng cc tri thc thu thp c t kinh
nghim ca cc chuyn gia gii quyt cc vn mc chuyn gia.
Khng phi vn no cn gii quyt cng ph hp vi gii php h chuyn
gia.
Mt HCG c pht trin theo phng php lp trnh thm d.
Vic thu thp tri thc t chuyn gia l mt vic lm kh khn v cn c s hp
tc cht ch gia k s tri thc v cc chuyn gia.
M hnh khi nim l mt cng c h tr cho qu trnh thu thp tri thc.

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 H chuyn gia da trn lut c kin trc v c ch hot ng tng t nh mt

h sinh, y l mt trong nhng k thut u tin v c s dng rng ri nht
dng cho biu din tri thc trong lnh vc HCG.
H chuyn gia da trn m hnh l mt h thng m s phn tch cn c trc
tip trn mt m t chi tit v chc nng ca mt h thng vt l.
H chuyn gia da trn tnh hung s dng mt CSDL cha cc tnh hung
gii quyt da vo tm kim gii php cho mt tnh hung mi.
Bi tp chng VI
Trong th d 6.1 gii thiu mt tp hp lut dng cho chn on cc trc trc trong
t. Hy ch ra ai c th l nhng k s tri thc, nhng chuyn gia chuyn ngnh v
ngi dng cui cho mt ng dng nh vy ? Tho lun cc kin ny ?
B sung thm mt s lut di dng IF ... THEN ... vo tp lut trong th d 6.1 m
t cc quan h trong lnh vc ny. V th AND/OR biu din nhng quan h gia cc
lut trong tp lut va mi xy dng.
Xt th AND/OR va thit k trong bi tp 6.2, cho bit bn ngh c ch tm kim
hng d liu hay hng mc tiu ? Tm kim theo chiu rng hay theo chiu su ? C
th p dng heuristic cho qu trnh tm kim khng ?
Chn mt lnh vc khc thch hp i vi vic thit k mt h chuyn gia. Xy dng
mt tp hp lut minh ha cho ng dng ny.

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SUY LUN KHNG CHC CHN

Gii thiu
GII THIU:
Trong cc chng trc, cc th tc suy din ca chng ta tun theo m hnh suy
lun s dng trong php tnh v t: t cc tin ng n, cc lut suy din vng chc
sinh ra nhng kt lun mi, m bo l ng n. Tuy nhin, trong thc t, c rt nhiu
tnh hung chng ta phi rt ra nhng kt lun tt t nhng bng chng c xc nh
ngho nn v khng chc chn thng qua vic s dng nhng suy din khng vng chc.
y khng phi l mt nhim v khng th thc hin c, tri li chng ta thc hin
chng rt thnh cng trong hu ht mi kha cnh ca cuc sng; chng hn nh chng
ta pht biu nhng chn on y hc ng n v xut cch iu tr t nhng triu
chng khng r rng; phn tch nhng trc trc ca xe t t nhng biu hin ca n;
nhn ra bn b ch qua ging ni hoc iu b ca h,
Nh vy, y ta c hai loi thng tin khng chc chn: mt l d liu ban u c
cho l khng chc chn, khng , khng ng tin cy, hai l cc lut m ta s dng
suy lun khng hp logic, suy lun ngc t kt lun v iu kin, hay c th gi l
suy lun theo kiu phng on (abduction). Suy lun phng on khc vi kiu suy lun
vng chc cp chng II. Lut modus ponens pht biu rng nu ta c lut P Q
v c P th ta c th kt lun Q, nh trong lut sau y:
If c quy hoc dy cp b trc trc
Then ng c khng khi ng c v n khng sng.
y l mt lut lun lun ng hay mt suy din vng chc (sound inference rule),
nhng n khng gip ch cho qu trnh chn on cc trc trc xe hi. Tuy nhin, o
ngc ca n:
If ng c khng khi ng c v n khng sng.
Then c quy hoc dy cp b trc trc
li rt hu dng cho vic chn on trc trc xe. y l mt phng on (abduction) t
triu chng quan st c suy ngc tr li nguyn nhn ca chng, nn gi l lut suy
din khng vng chc (unsound inference rule) v cng c th l c quy v dy cp bnh
thng, nhng chic xe ch n gin l c mt khi ng hng v n pha b t.

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Mc d phng on l khng vng chc, nhng n thng ng vai tr thit yu trong

gii quyt vn . Trong chng ny, chng ti cp n hai tip cn x l suy din
phng on v s khng chc chn. Tip cn th nht l tip cn thng k, trong hng
tip cn ny s trnh by hai phng php: l thuyt xc sut Bayesian v i s h s
chc chn Stanford. Tip cn th hai l suy lun theo logic m.
Download slide bi ging ti y

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TIP CN THNG K I VI TNH KHNG CHC

CHN
TIP CN THNG K I VI TNH KHNG CHC CHN
Suy lun Bayes
Suy lun Bayes da trn l thuyt xc sut hnh thc v c s dng rng ri trong mt
s lnh vc nghin cu hin nay, bao gm c nhn dng v phn loi. Trc khi i vo
l thuyt v Bayes, ta hy cng nhau xem li mt s khi nim c bn ca l thuyt xc
sut.
nh ngha
Xc sut tin nghim (prior probability) hay xc sut v iu kin
(unconditional probability): l xc sut ca mt s kin trong iu kin khng
c tri thc b sung cho s c mt hay vng mt ca n.
Xc sut hu nghim (posterior probability) hay xc sut c iu kin
(conditional probability): l xc sut ca mt s kin khi bit trc mt hay
nhiu s kin khc.

V d, cho trc mt cn bnh d v mt triu chng s, th xc sut mt ngi c triu

chng s b bnh d c tnh theo:

tnh P(d | s) theo cng thc trn th ta phi thc hin cc cuc iu tra thng k trn
mt phm vi cng ng dn c rng ln mi cho ta c mt xc sut chnh xc. Bayes
a ra mt cng thc tnh khc cho php ta tnh c P(d | s) t nhng kt qu thng k
c trc hoc nhng kt qu thng k d t c hn.
Cng thc Bayes
Ta k hiu P(h | e) l xc sut khng nh gi thuyt h ng cho trc bng chng e.
Cng thc Bayes c pht biu nh sau:
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Cng thc ny ni rng xc sut ng ca gi thuyt h khi quan st c bng chng e,

bng vi xc xut cho rng chng ta s quan st c bng chng e nu gi thuyt h l
ng, nhn vi xc sut tin nghim ca h, tt c chia cho xc sut tin nghim ca vic
quan st c bng chng e.
Th d 7.1: Bng chng (hay triu chng): bnh nhn b st
Gi thuyt (hay bnh): bnh nhn b cm cm

Cu hi :
Gi s ta c cc thng tin sau:
75% trng hp bnh nhn mc bnh quai b u b cm
C hi mt ngi b bnh quai b l 1/15000
C hi mt ngi b cm l 1/1000
Hy xc nh xc sut iu kin ca mt bnh nhn mc bnh quai b bit rng ngi
ny khng b cm.
*Cng thc Bayes tng qut:
Trong thc t c nhiu gi thuyt cnh tranh nhau, v vy cng thc Bayes tng qut
nht l:

P(hi | e) l xc sut m hi ng khi bit bng chng e.

P(hi) l xc sut m hi ng tnh trn tt c cc gi thuyt

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P(e | hi) l xc sut quan st c e khi hi ng. Thng thng, tt c cc P(e | hk) phi
c lp nhau.
n l s gi thuyt c kh nng
Ly mt v d, gi s chng ta mun kho st bng chng a cht ti mt a im no
xem n c thch hp cho vic tm kim loi ng hay khng. Chng ta cn phi
bit trc xc sut tm thy tng loi trong tp hp cc khong sn (chnh l cc P(hk))
v xc sut ca cho s hin din ca mt bng chng no khi tng khong sn c th
c tm thy (chnh l cc P(e | hk)). Khi , chng ta c th s dng nh l Bayes
xc nh kh nng thc s ng c , sau khi thu thp c cc bng chng ti a
im . Phng php ny c s dng bi PROSPECTOR, mt h chuyn gia c
xy dng ti i hc Standford v t chc SRI. H chuyn gia ny c dng trong thm
d khong sn v tm ra nhiu m khong sn c gi tr ln mt s ni.
Ti sao s dng lut Bayes
im quan trng ca l thuyt Bayes l cc con s v phi ca cng thc d dng xc
nh, t nht l khi so snh vi v tri. Nh trong v d trn, do s lng nh hn, nn
vic xc nh s bnh nhn b cm km theo triu chng st d hn l xc nh s ngi
c triu chng st b cm.
P (st | cm) chnh l tri thc v nguyn nhn (knowledge of causes), tc l xc sut
hu nghim v phi, th d dng c c hn l tri thc v chn on (diagnostic
knowledge), P(cm | st), tc l xc sut hu nghim v phi. V vy, ta ni lut Bayes
cho php chng ta s dng tri thc v nguyn nhn suy ra tri thc v chn on.
i s h s chc chn Stanford
Mt s n h chuyn gia c gng ci bin nhng k thut Bayes chng thch
nghi vi nhng nhu cu gii quyt vn ca h. Mt tip cn quan trng trong s
nhng ci tin l i s h s chc chn c s dng ti i hc Stanford trong
qu trnh pht trin chng trnh MYCIN.
Khi suy lun vi tri thc heuristic, cc chuyn gia c th a ra cc c lng nim tin
hu ch v cc kt lun. H c lng cc kt lun bng cc thut ng nh c nhiu
kh nng, khng chc, hu nh chc chn hay c th. Nhng c lng ny r
rng l khng da trn s phn tch cc xc sut mt cch cn thn. Thay vo , t
chng l nhng heuristic c ly ra t kinh nghim trong qu trnh suy lun v lnh
vc ca vn . V vy, s rt hu ch nu ta c th lng ha cc c lng nim tin
ny a chng vo qu trnh suy lun.

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L thuyt v i s h s chc chn Stanford

L thuyt v chc chn Stanford (Stanford certainty theory) a ra mt s gi thit
n gin cho vic to ra cc o nim tin v c mt s quy tc n gin tng ng
cho vic kt hp nhng nim tin ny khi chng trnh tin n kt lun ca n. Gi thit
th nht l tch nim tin ng h ra khi nim tin chng li mt quan h:
Gi MB(H | E) l o ca nim tin vo kh nng ng ca gi thuyt H, khi c bng
chng E
Gi MD(H | E) l o ca s hoi nghi vo kh nng ng ca gi thuyt H, khi c
bng chng E
Gi tr ca cc o ny ch ri vo mt trong hai trng hp:
0 < MB(H | E) < 1 trong khi MD(H | E) = 0,
hoc: 0 < MD(H | E) < 1 trong khi MB(H | E) = 0
Hai o ny rng buc ln nhau ch mt bng chng ch c th hoc l ng h hoc
l chng li mt gi thuyt no . y l s khc bit quan trng gia l thuyt chc
chn v l thuyt xc sut. Ngay khi lin kt gia cc o nim tin v hoi nghi c
thit lp xong, chng c rng buc vi nhau thm mt ln na bi h s chc chn
CF:
CF (H | E) = MB(H | E) MD(H | E)
Nh tho lun ban u, ta c hai vn khng chc chn l d liu v lut. V vy,
y ta cng c 2 loi h s CF l h s chc chn cho d kin (fact), v h s chc chn
cho lut (rule). d phn bit ta s dng k hiu CFf cho d kin v CFr cho lut
Cc h s chc chn Stanford
H s chc chn dnh cho d kin: d kin y bao gm d liu ban u, d liu suy
lun c v kt lun (gi thuyt):
CFf(fact) [-1,1]:
CFf cng tin v 1 th hin s tin tng d kin l ng cng mnh
CFf tin v -1 th hin s tin tng d kin l khng ng cng mnh
CFf c gi tr xung quanh 0 cho thy tn ti rt t bng c cho vic ng h hay
chng li d kin. V vy, nu ly d liu ny i suy lun th chnh xc s rt
thp. Do , ngi ta thng a ra mt gii hn (threshold) nhm trnh vic

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suy lun vi thng tin khng chc chn nh vy (vd: 0.2). Ngha l nu d kin
no c CF nh hn gii hn, ta s khng s dng trong qu trnh suy lun.
H s chc chn dnh cho lut:
CFr(rule) [-1,1] : th hin s tin tng ca cc chuyn gia vo tin cy ca lut.
Cc quy tc tnh ton trn CF
Quy tc kt hp cc CFf ca cc iu kin:
Thng thng, mt lut thng c tin (v tri) to thnh t nhng kt ni and/or ca
nhiu iu kin. Khi mt lut sinh c s dng, cc CF lin kt vi mi iu kin ca
tin s c kt hp vi nhau to ra mt o chc chn cho ton b tin (ton
b v tri ca lut) theo cng thc sau:
CF ( K 1 And K 2 ) = Min[CF(K 1 ), CF(K 2 )]
CF (K1 Or K2) = Max[CF(K1), CF(K2)]
Th d 7.2: CF(bnh nhn b st) = 0.9
CF(bnh nhn b hc hi) = 0.6
=> CF(bnh nhn b st And bnh nhn b hc hi) = 0.6
=> CF(bnh nhn b st Or bnh nhn b hc hi) = 0.9
Quy tc tnh CF cho d kin suy ra t lut:
Khi h thng s dng cc lut khng chc chn (ngha l i km theo mt h s CF)
suy ra kt lun, th cc h s CF ca tin cng s c truyn t tin sang kt lun
thng qua lut theo quy tc sau:
CF f (KL) = CF r (lut) * CF f (K)
Th d 7.3: CF(bnh nhn b st) = 0.8
CF(If bnh nhn b st Then bnh nhn b cm) = 0.5
=> CF(bnh nhn b cm) = 0.4
Quy tc kt hp nhiu CF ca cc kt lun t nhiu lut

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Khi c nhiu lut cng a ra mt kt lun (v phi) ging nhau, th cc gi tr CF t

c t cc lut ny s c kt hp theo quy tc sau:
Nu KL t lut 1 c gi tr CFf1(KL)
Nu KL t lut 2 c gi tr CFf2(KL)
Th,

nu CFf1(KL) & CFf2(KL) tri du

Trong , |X| l tr tuyt i ca X
Th d 7.4: CF(bnh nhn b st) = 1
CF(bnh nhn b hc hi) = 0.8
CF(If bnh nhn b hc hi Then bnh nhn b cm) = 0.5
CF(If bnh nhn b st Then bnh nhn b cm) = 0.6
=> CF1(bnh nhn b cm) = 0.4
=> CF2(bnh nhn b cm) = 0.6
=> CF(bnh nhn b cm) = 0.4 + 0.6 0.24 = 0.76
S sau y minh ha cho cc tnh ton trn :

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Hnh 7.1 Minh ha tnh kt hp CF

Vi cch tnh ton ny, ta c th nhn thy rng kt qu CF phi lun nm trong khong
[-1,+1]. Kt hp cc CF cng du s lm tng CF hay php o CF kt hp mang tnh
tuyn tnh, v ngc li, cc CF nghch nhau s xa bt ln nhau.
Cu hi :
Ta c cc tri thc sau:
Nu mt ngi quan st c UFO th kt lun c s xut hin ca UFO (0.4)
Nu mt my rada pht hin c mt UFO th kt lun c s xut hin ca
UFO (0.7)
Hy cho bit gi tr CF ca kt lun C s xut hin ca UFO l bao nhiu bit rng
c hai ngi quan st c UFO (0.8) v mt my rada pht hin c mt UFO (0.6).
V d: H chuyn gia MYCIN
Nh gii thiu s qua chng VI, h chuyn gia MYCIN c pht trin ti i
hc Stanford vo thp nin 1970 bi Feigenbaum, Buchanan and Ted Shortliffe (mt
bc s).
Mc ch ca h chuyn gia MYCIN l gip cc bc s trong vic chn on v iu
tr cc bnh vim mng no v nhim trng mu. Chc nng ch yu ca MYCIN l
nhn dng cc c quan b nhim trng v chn cc loi thuc khng ch bnh trn cc c
quan ny. Giao din ngi dng ca MYCIN l s dng i thoi dng vn bn vi bc
s thu thp d liu bao gm d liu tng qut v bnh nhn, cc kt qu xt nghim
v cc triu chng ca bnh nhn.
Cc vn trong lnh vc y khoa thng phi suy lun vi cc thng tin khng y ,
m h, khng chc chn. i ph vi kh khn ny, MYCIN s dng l thuyt chc
chn Stanford lm nn tng cho suy lun ca h. V vy, mi d liu, mi lut trong
MYCIN u c mt h s chc chn CF i km
D liu c m t theo cu trc sau:

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V d lut 50 ca MYCIN c dng:

IF (a) the infection is primary-bacteria, and
(b) the site of the culture is one of the serile sites, and
(c) the suspected portal of entry is gastrointestinal tract
THEN there is suggestive evidence (0.7) that infection is bacteroid
Trong lut trn s 0.7 c t trong ngoc chnh l h s CF ca lut.
C s lut ca MYCIN c khong 450 lut c vit bng ngn ng LISP. ng c suy
din ca MYCIN c ci t vi k thut suy lun hng t mc tiu (goal-driven), n
tm kim gn nh l vt cn chn ra mc tiu c ch s CF cao nht lm kt lun cui
cng ca h thng.
hiu r hn c ch suy lun ca MYCIN, chng ta hy xt mt v d minh ha sau.
Th d 7.5: MINI-MYCIN l mt h chuyn gia nh chuyn phn bit gia chn b
gy,chn b qu mi hay chn b nhim trng.
N gm cc lut sau:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

IF au v st THEN b nhim trng 0.6

IF au v sng THEN b chn thng 0.8
IF qu ti THEN b nhim trng 0.5
IF b chn thng AND THEN b gy 0.8
IF b chn thng AND di chuyn c THEN qu mi 1.0

S dng MINI-MYCIN chn on tnh trng chn ca Minh, bit rng: chn ca
Minh ang b au (1.0). Khi ti kim tra n, thy n sng ty (0.6) and hi (0.1). Ti
khng c nhit k nhng ti ngh anh ta c b st (0.4). Ti bit Minh l mt vn ng
vin marathon, cc khp ca anh ta thng xuyn lm vic qu ti (1.0). Minh c th di
chuyn chn ca anh y.

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Hy v th And/Or minh ha cho qu trnh suy lun i n kt lun ca MINIMYCIN.

Gii:
V MYCIN l h thng hot ng theo c ch suy din li (hay hng t mc tiu), nn
h thng s ln lt tnh ton gi tr CF ca tng mc tiu. Cc th And/Or sau y
s c trnh by ln lt theo th t thc hin ca h thng:

Hnh 7.2 th AND/OR cho qu trnh suy din li trong Th d 7.5

Vy: B nhim trng l mc tiu c gi tr CF cao nht nn ta kt lun chn ca Minh b
nhim trng.
T v d minh ha ta thy MYCIN hu nh kch hot tt c cc lut tm gi tr CF
cho tng mc tiu.
Cu hi :
Ti sao h MYCIN phi kch hot hu nh tt c cc lut c th a ra kt lun ?

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* Mt s nhn xt v cc lut ca MYCIN:

Mi lut ca MYCIN l mt s kt hp tri thc ca nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
V d nh lut IF tui bnh nhn < 7 THEN khng nn cp thuc tetracyline
l s kt hp ca cc loi tri thc:
Tri thc v min, m c th y l tri thc v y hc: Tetracyline lm i mu
xng ang pht trin v tr em di 7 tui th ang mc rng.
Tri thc gii quyt vn , c th y l tri thc v tr bnh: Trc khi k mt
loi thuc phi kim tra cc chng ch nh, c hai loi chng ch nh: ch nh
lin quan n bnh v ch nh lin quan n bnh nhn.
Tri thc v th gii: Hu ht mi ngi u cho rng hm rng mu nu th
khng p.
Tng hp cc tri thc trn, cc chuyn gia a ra mt lut ht sc n
gin. Chnh tnh heuristic ny h tr mt phng php gii quyt vn
hiu qu.
Ngoi ra, iu khin ca qu trnh suy lun cng c th hin trong cc lut
ca MYCIN. Cc iu kin ca v tri lut c sp xp vi th t trc sau
ph hp vi tri thc ca min. V d lut sau:
IF s nhim trng l bnh vim mng no
And s nhim trng l do vi khun
And ch c chng c gin tip
And tui ca bnh nhn > 16
And bnh nhn l mt ngi nghin ru
THEN chng c cho vim phi song cu khun 0.7
l kt qu ca s tng hp nhiu tri thc :
Tri thc v min: cc bnh nhn b nghin ru th ng nghi ng vi vi khun
vim phi song cu khun
Tri thc gii quyt vn : lc s chn on theo tng bc; tc l h thng s
kim tra tng iu kin ca v tri theo th t ca n. Ch khi iu kin cn
ng th mi tip tc kim tra iu kin k tip.
Tri thc v th gii: ngi nghin ru th him khi di 17 tui. V vy, cn
phi kim tra tui ca bnh nhn trc khi hi bnh nhn c phi l ngi
nghin ru hay khng. V nu khng, th cu hi c th gy sc cho cha m
ca cc tr nh.

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L thuyt chc chn c th b nh gi nh l mt gii php qu tnh th (ad hoc). Mc

d n c nh ngha dng i s hnh thc, nhng ngha ca cc o chc chn
khng c nn tng cht ch nh l thuyt xc sut hnh thc. Tuy nhin, l thuyt chc
chn khng c gng to ra mt kiu i s dnh cho suy lun chnh xc. ng hn n
l s bi trn cho php h chuyn gia kt hp nhng nim tin khi n suy lun vn .
Mc d CF c s dng duy tr chng trnh chy v thu thp thng tin, sc mnh
ca chng trnh ch yu vn ph thuc vo cht lng ca cc lut.

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SUY LUN VI CC TP M (fUZZY LOGIC)

SUY LUN VI CC TP M (fUZZY LOGIC)
Logic truyn thng hay logic gin:
Logic truyn thng ch quan tm n 2 gi tr tuyt i (ng hoc sai). Logic truyn
thng lun tun theo 2 gi thuyt. Mt l tnh thnh vin ca tp hp: Vi mt phn t
v mt tp hp bt k, th phn t hoc l thuc tp hp , hoc thuc phn b ca tp
. Gi thit th hai l nh lut loi tr trung gian, khng nh mt phn t khng th
va thuc mt tp hp va thuc phn b ca n.
Th d 7.6: Nu nhit trn 35 C th nng, ngc li l khng nng. Hnh bn di
minh ha tp hp NNG gm tt c cc nhit t 35 C tr ln

Hnh 7.3 - Biu din tp nhit NNG.

T hnh v ta thy logic gin khng th hin c s khc bit gia cc thnh vin trong
cng mt tp hp. Gia hai nhit 45 v 55 C, logic ny khng th hin c nhit
no nng hn nhit no.
Ngoi ra, logic ny cn c mt nhc im khc quan trng hn l chng khng th
biu din c cc d kin mang tnh m h, khng chnh xc m trong thc t li c
rt nhiu pht biu bng ngn ng t nhin dng ny; chng hn nh:
John th kh cao => nh vy John c thuc tp hp nhng ngi cao hay khng?
Hoc: John th rt cao => nh th no l rt cao?
V vy, logic truyn thng khng th h tr cho nhng suy lun trn nhng thng tin
mang tnh m h, thiu chnh xc nh vy.

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Khi nim Logic m:

khc phc khuyt im ca logic truyn thng, Lotfi Zadeh a ra l thuyt mi
v logic gi l logic m (fuzzy logic).
L thuyt ca Zadeh biu din tnh m hay tnh thiu chnh xc trong cc pht biu (nh
mc trn) theo cch nh lng bng cch a ra mt hm t cch thnh vin tp hp
(set membership function) nhn gi tr thc gia 0 v 1.
Khi nim v tp m:
Cho S l mt tp hp v x l mt phn t ca tp hp . Mt tp con m F ca S c
nh ngha bi mt hm t cch thnh vin F(x) o mc m theo x thuc v
tp F. Trong , 0 F(x) 1.
Khi F(x) = 0 ngha l x hon ton khng thuc tp F.
Khi F(x) = 1 ngha l x thuc F hon ton.
Nu F(x) = 0 hoc 1 th tp F c xem l gin
Th d 7.7: S l tp hp tt c cc s nguyn dng v F l tp con m ca S c gi l
s nguyn nh. Trong : F(1) = 1.0, F(2) = 1.0, F(3) = 0.9, F(4) = 0.8,.. F(50)
= 0.001, v.v c biu din nh trong hnh 7.3:

Hnh 7.4 - Biu din tp m ca cc s nguyn nh

Th d 7.8: Hnh bn di minh ha hm thnh vin cho cc tp m th hin ngi n
ng Thp, Cao v Trung bnh.
Hnh 7.5 - Biu din ca cc tp m Thp, Trung bnh, v Cao
T hnh 7.5, ta thy nhng ngi n ng cao 4 th hon ton thuc v tp m Thp.
Cn nhng ngi n ng c chiu cao 48 th va thuc tp m Thp, va thuc
tp m Trung bnh. Cn nhng ngi n ng c chiu cao 61 th ch thuc tp m
Cao vi m <1.

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Tnh cht:
Hai tp m bng nhau: A = B nu x X, mA (x) = mB (x)
Tp con: A B nu x X, mA (x) mB (x)
Mt phn t c th thuc v nhiu hn mt tp m. Nh trong v d 2 (hnh
7.4), mt ngi n ng cao 510 thuc v c hai tp trung bnh v cao.
Tng cc gi tr m ca mt phn t khc 1:
Thp(x) + Trungbnh(x) + Cao(x) 1
T hm thnh vin cho trc, ta c th suy ra c mc mt thnh vin
thuc v mt tp hp, hay c th xc nh c gi tr m ca n i vi mt
tp m.
Th d 7.9: Mt hm thnh vin cho tp m th hin mt ngi l Tr, Trung nin
v Gi.

Hnh 7.6 - Biu din ca cc tp m Tr, Trung nin, v Gi

T hnh trn, nu cho bit tui ca mt ngi, ta c th xc nh mc ngi thuc
v lp ngi tr, trung nin v gi. Chng hn nh:
- An 28 tui => Tre(An) = 0.8 v Trung nin(An) = 0.3
Bo 35 tui => Tre(Bo) = 0.3 v Trung nin(Bo) = 0.8
Chu 23 tui => Tre(Chu) = 1.0
Cu hi :
Hy cho bit gi tr m Tr, Trung nin, Gi ca cc d liu sau bit rng:

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1. Tm 23 tui
2. Cm 35 tui
Ta gi cc con s 0.8, 0.2, 1.0 l cc gi tr m (fuzzy values). Vy t cc gi tr chnh
xc hay gi tr gin (s tui: 28, 35, 23), ta suy ra cc gi tr m tng ng. Thao
tc ny gi l m ha (fuzzification) cc gi tr gin.
Cc ton t logic trn tp m:
Logic m khng quan tm n cch thc cc tp m c to ra nh th no, m quan
tm n cc lut h tr cho vic suy lun trn cc tp m ny. Phn ny s trnh by cc
php ton thao tc trn cc tp m, l php b (complement) php hp (union), php
giao (intersection).
Php hp hay ton t OR:
A?B

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Khi nim: Hp ca hai tp m (A?B) th hin mc mt phn t thuc v mt trong

hai tp l bao nhiu.
Cng thc: MA B(x) = max (A(x) , B(x) )
Th d 7.10 :
Tre(An) = 0.8 v Trung nin(An) = 0.3
=> Tre Trung Nin(An) = max( 0.8, 0.3) = 0.8
Php giao hay ton t AND:
Khi nim: Giao ca hai tp m (A?B) th hin mc mt phn t thuc v c hai tp
l bao nhiu.
A?B

Cng thc: MA B(x) = min (A(x) , B(x) )

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Th d 7.11 :
Tre(An) = 0.8 v Trung nin(An) = 0.3
=> Tre Trung Nin(An) = min( 0.8, 0.3) = 0.3
Php b hay ton t NOT:
A

Khi nim: B ca mt tp m th hin mc mt phn t khng thuc v tp l

bao nhiu.
Cng thc: M?A(x) = 1 - A(x)
Th d 7.12: Tr(An) = 0.8
M?Tr(An) = 1 0.8 = 0.2

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Nhn xt: Logic m khng tun theo cc lut v tnh b ca logic truyn thng: M?A
A(x) ? 1 v M?A A(x) ? 0
Th d 7.13: M?A A(x) = max (0.8, 0.2) = 0.8
M?A A(x) = min( 0.8, 0.2) = 0.2
Lut m
Mt lut m l mt biu thc if- then c pht biu dng ngn ng t nhin th hin
s ph thuc nhn qu gia cc bin.
Th d 7.14:ifnhit l lnh v gi du l rthensi mnhiu.
Trong : - nhit , gi du v si m l cc bin
- lnh, r, nhiu l cc gi tr hay chnh l cc tp m.
Hoc: if mt ngi c chiu cao l cao v c bp l lc lngthenchi bng r hay.
Cc bin y s l: chiu cao, c bp, chi bng r
Cc gi tr hay tp m l: cao, lc lng, hay.
Th tc ra quyt nh m: (fuzzy decision making procedure)
h thng m c th suy lun bng cc lut m v a ra kt lun t cc s liu chnh
xc u vo, h thng thc hin 3 bc:

M ha: Tnh ton cc gi tr m t cc gi tr chnh xc u vo.

Suy lun m: p dng tt c cc lut m c th p dng tnh ra gi tr m
cho kt lun, sau kt hp cc kt qu u ra.
Phi m ha: Xc nh gi tr chnh xc t kt qu m c c bc 2. C
nhiu k thut phi m ha c th p dng c, phng php thng dng nht
l phng php trng tm (centriod method).
Th d 7.15: Cho h thng m dng trong iu tr bnh gm cc lut sau y:
IF st nh THEN liu lng asperine thp
IF st THEN liu lng asperine bnh thng

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 IF st cao THEN liu lng asperine cao

IF st rt cao THEN liu lng asperine cao nht
V cc tp m c biu din nh sau:

Hnh 7.7 - Biu din ca cc tp m trong Th d 7.15

Mt bnh nhn st 38.7 , hy xc nh liu lng asperince cn thit cp cho
bnh nhn.
Gii:
Bc 1: M ha gi tr x = 38.7 cho: ta thy 38.7 thuc v cc tp m nh sau:

St nh (x) = 0.3 St (x) = 0.7 St cao (x) = 0 St rt cao (x) = 0

Bc 2: Ta thy c 2 lut 1 v 2 c th p dng cho ra hai liu lng aspirine:
Thp (x) = 0.3 Bnh thng (x) = 0.7
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Kt hp cc gi tr m ny li ta c vng c t mu sau y:

Bc 3: Phi m ha kt qu bng cch tnh trng tm ca din tch c t trong hnh

trn, chiu xung trc honh ta c gi tr 480mg, y chnh l liu lng aspirine
cn cp cho bnh nhn.
TNG KT CHNG VII :
Ni dung chnh ca chng ny bao gm:
Mc d phng on l khng vng chc, nhng n thng ng vai tr thit
yu trong gii quyt vn . C nhiu tip cn c a ra nhm to ra cc
h thng c th suy lun trn nhng thng tin khng chc chn hoc khng y
a ra cc kt lun hu ch.
Lut Bayes da trn l thuyt xc sut hnh thc cho php chng ta s dng tri
thc v nguyn nhn suy ra tri thc v chn on.
L thuyt v yu t chc chn Standford a ra khi nim h s chc chn CF
cho php cc chuyn gia kt hp nhng nim tin ca mnh vo d liu v cc
lut khi pht biu. ng thi i s chc chn Standford cng cung cp cc quy
tc v cng thc s dng tnh cc gi tr CF cho cc kt lun trong qu trnh
suy lun.
L thuyt m a ra khi nim tp m v hm thnh vin th hin mc mt
thnh vin thuc vo tp m, ng thi a ra cc quy tc tnh ton gi tr m
khi suy lun trn cc lut m.
Bi tp chng VII
Gi s c mt phng php xt nghim HIV.

Gi TP l s kin xt nghim cho kt qu dng tnh.

Gi TN l s kin xt nghim cho kt qu m tnh.
Gi HP l s kin ngi ang c xt nghim c HIV dng tnh.
Gi HN l s kin ngi ang c xt nghim c HIV m tnh.

Kt qu c gi l sai dng tnh khi xt nghim cho kt qu dng tnh trong khi
ngi thc s khng b nhim HIV

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Kt qu c gi l sai m tnh khi xt nghim cho kt qu m tnh trong khi ngi

thc s c nhim HIV
Cho mt s d liu sau:
T l sai dng tnh l: P(TP|HN) = 0.02
T l sai m tnh l: P(TN|HP) = 0.01
T l ngi b nhim HIV trong cng ng l 0.10
Nu mt ngi nhn c kt qu xt nghim dng tnh, th xc sut ngi tht s
b HIV l bao nhiu?
S dng v d nh di y minh ha c ch suy lun ca EMYCIN bng th
AND/OR cho thy th t s dng cc lut, th t cc cu hi c t ra v th t
cc kt lun c a ra nh th no,...
MINI-MINI-MYCIN l mt h chuyn gia chuyn phn bit bnh d ng, si, hoc st
vng da. N bao gm cc lut sau:

IF cm-thy-kh-chu AND chm- THEN d-ng (0.6)

IF cm-thy-kh-chu AND st THEN nhim-trng (0.8)
IF du-lch-nc-ngoi THEN st-vng-da (0.5)
IF nhim-trng AND chm- THEN si (0.6)
IF nhim-trng AND vng-mt THEN st-vng-da (0.5)

S dng cc d liu sau: John cm thy kh chu (0.1). C nhng chm trn khp
ngi (0.8). Ti khng c nhit k nhng ti ngh anh ta b st (0.5). Ti bit John va
i du lch nc ngoi v (1.0). Mt anh ta c v vng (0.4).
Hy cho bit cc pht biu sau y thuc loi khng chc chn, m, c hai hay khng
c loi no:

Cnh st pht mt chic xe ang tng tc

An th cao hn Bo nhiu.
Ch c 20% khch n tham d thch biu trin lm.
Mt nhm rt ng sinh vin tham gia cuc diu hnh.
n qu nhiu mui c th gy bnh huyt p cao.

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CC CH NNG CAO
Gii thiu
GII THIU:
Nh gii thiu trong chng I, suy lun t ng c th xem l nhnh nghin cu lu
i nht ca AI, bt ngun t Logic Theorist v General Problem Solver ca Newell v
Simon.
Sc hp dn ca suy lun t ng nm trong tnh cht ch v tng qut ca logic. Bi
v logic l mt h thng hnh thc, nn ta c th t ng ha n. Rt nhiu vn khc
nhau c th gii quyt c bng cch biu din cc m t vn v cc thng tin lin
quan dng cc tin lun l v xem bi ton nh l cc nh l cn chng minh.
N lc ca cc nh khoa hc trong lnh vc ny l t ng ha qu trnh chng minh cc
nh l da vo cc tin c s. Mc d cho n nay vn cha t c mc tiu ban
u, nhng nhnh nghin cu ny to ra nhiu kt qu rt quan trng trong vic hnh
thc ha cc gii thut tm kim v pht trin cc ngn ng biu din hnh thc nh i
s quan h m ta hc chng II.
Trong chng ny ta s tip tc kho st mt trong nhng thnh qu ca lnh vc ny,
l phng php chng minh Hp Gii (resolution). Mt ng dng quan trng ca
hp gii l lm nn tng cho trnh thng dch ca ngn ng PROLOG ang c s
dng hin nay.
Hp gii l mt k thut chng minh nh l c biu din bng i s mnh hay
i s v t. Hp gii c pht trin vo gia thp nin 60 do Robinson xng. Hp
gii s dng phn chng chng minh mt vn . Hay ni cch khc, chng minh
mt cu (ngha l chng minh cu ny ng), hp gii s ch ra rng ph nh ca cu s
to ra mt mu thun vi cc cu bit. Tip cn ny tri ngc vi k thut m chng
ta s dng chng minh chng II, chng III, tc l s dng php dn xut
chng minh.
Trc khi i vo phng php chng minh hp gii, chng ta s xem mt v d s dng
Logic V T biu din tri thc v s dng php dn xut chng II chng minh.
Th d 8.1: Xt v d vi tp hp cc cu nh sau:
Marcus was a man.
Marcus was a Pompeian.
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All Pompeians were Romans.

Caesar was a ruler.
All Romans were either loyal to Caesar or hated him.
Everyone is loyal to someone.
People only try to assasinate rulers they are not loyal to.
Marcus tried to assasinate Caesar.

Hy chng minh Was Marcus loyal to Caesar?

Cc cu trn c th c biu din di dng cc cu hay cng thc dng chun (wff)
trong ngn ng Php tnh v t nh sau:

Chng minh ?loyalto(marcus, caesar)

chng minh mc tiu trn, chng ta s dng lut suy din bin i thnh mc tiu
mi (hay nhiu mc tiu con mi), v c tip tc cho n khi khng cn mc tiu no
cha tha mn.
Qu trnh ny c th biu din bng mt th AND/OR. y, n gin ta ch v
mt ng duy nht.
Hnh bn di minh ha mt cch chng minh cho mc tiu trn:

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n y ta gp phi mt vn l mc d chng ta bit Marcus l mt ngi n ng

(man), chng ta khng c cch no kt lun Marcus l mt ngi (person). V vy, ta
phi thm vo c s tri thc mt cu nh sau:
X man (X) woman (X) person(X)
Vi cu 9 va thm vo, ta c th chng minh thnh cng mc tiu trn.
T chng minh trn, chng ta c nhn xt nh sau:
Thm ch cc kt lun rt n gin cng i hi phi chng minh qua nhiu
bc.
Qu trnh to ra mt chng minh c lin quan n nhiu qu trnh khc nhau
nh qu trnh i snh, thay th, p dng lut Modus Ponens. Qu trnh ny s
phc tp hn nu nh cc lut c nhiu t hai mc v phi hay v tri gm
nhiu biu thc phc tp And hay Or vi nhau.
T nhng nhn xt ny cho thy vic xy dng mt chng trnh c th chng minh
c nh con ngi l khng d dng cht no. V vy, ta cn mt phng php chng
minh n gin hn. V Hp Gii (resolution) ra i nh l mt cng c chng minh
hin i v mnh m hn cho ngnh suy lun t ng. S n gin trong php chng
minh ca hp gii xut pht t nguyn nhn: Thay v suy lun trn cc cu v t, hp
gii thao tc trn cc cu c chuyn thnh mt dng chun trc khi bt u qu
trnh chng minh lm gim tnh phc tp ca vn . Phn cn li ca chng ny s
gii thiu v th tc Hp gii ny.
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NHN XT V PHNG PHP HP GII

NHN XT V PHNG PHP HP GII:
Cc kt qu ca Robinson t nn mng cho mt lot cc nghin cu c lin quan
n vic vn dng phng php hp gii v cc phng php tng t trong lnh vc
chng minh nh l t ng. Nhng u im chnh ca phng php hp gii l tnh
tng qut, tnh ph dng, kh nng p dng tt i vi cc dng cu Horn (tc l cu c
dng A1 A2 An -> B), song n cng c hai nhc im ch yu:
Trong qu trnh t duy, thng thng con ngi khng s dng chin lc suy
din ny. V vy mt ngi kh c th giao tip vi chng trnh chng minh
s dng phng php hp gii, c th cho n mt li khuyn hay nhn li
khuyn t n. Vic chng minh cc vn kh vn cn l mt iu kh khn
i vi my tnh, v vy v mt thc t, nu con ngi v my tnh c th tng
tc vi nhau cng l iu rt quan trng .
Trong khi chuyn cc cu v dng mnh , chng ta nh mt cc thng tin
kinh nghim c gi tr cha trong cc cu ban u.
V d: Vi cu Ngi am hiu v khng quanh co l ngi c gio dc tt

Chuyn v dng mnh :

Cu ny cng c th din dch thnh mt ngi khng phi l ngi am hiu nu nh

anh ta khng quanh co v khng c gio dc tt! iu ny cho thy ngha ca cu
pht biu ban u b mt hon ton.
TNG KT CHNG VIII :
Ni dung chnh ca chng ny bao gm:
Hp gii (hay cn gi l th tc Robinson) l mt k thut chng minh nh l
c biu din bng i s mnh hay i s v t. Hp gii s dng phn
chng chng minh mt vn .
Trc khi p dng th tc Robinson, cc cu phi c chuyn v dng chun
hay dng mnh . Mt mnh l mt tuyn ca cc bin mnh .

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 Th tc hp gii l mt qu trnh lp n gin. mi ln lp, ta tm hai mnh

c cha hai bin mnh b nhau hp gii v cho ra mnh mi. Qu
trnh ny c tip tc cho n khi ta c mt mnh rng.
Trong logic v t, nu bin mnh c i s l bin, th mun bit hai bin
mnh c b nhau hay khng ta phi i snh chng theo gii thut ng nht
hc chng 2. Sau khi hp gii chng, ta phi gi li tp php th tr ra bi
gii thut ng nht ny.
Hp gii c th pht hin trng hp khng tn ti s mu thun, khi mt
mnh kt qu s xut hin lp li.
h tr tt hn cho qu trnh chng minh, hp gii c th s dng hm tnh
ton, v t tnh ton hay mi quan h bng.
C th s dng hp gii cho cc bi ton dng tr li cu hi bng cch s
dng thm biu thc ph hay biu thc cm.
Bi tp chng VIII
a cu v t sau v dng mnh :

Ta c cc tri thc nh sau:

Ngn tay l b phn ca bn tay
Bn tay l b phn ca cnh tay
Cnh tay l b phn ca c th
S dng hp gii hy chng minh ngn tay l b phn ca c th
Gi s cc hiu bit ca mt chuyn gia trong mt tnh hung no c pht biu
di dng cc biu thc logic mnh sau y :

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Hy chng minh g ng bng th tc hp gii.

S dng cc tri thc cho bi tp 2.3:

John thch mi loi thc n.

To l thc n.
G l thc n.
Tt c mi th n c m vn cn sng th l thc n.
Bill n u phng v Bill vn cn sng.
Sue n mi th m Bill n.
Hy biu din tri thc trn theo logic v t.
Hy s dng hp gii chng minh John thch u phng
S dng hp gii tr li cu hi : Sue n g ?

Gii li bi tp 2.4 bng th tc hp gii.

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HC MY (MACHINE LEARNING)
Gii thiu
GII THIU:
Khi c hi v nhng k nng thng minh no l c bn nht ng thi kh t ng
ha nht ca con ngi ngoi cc hot ng sng to ngh thut, hnh ng ra quyt
nh mang tnh o c, trch nhim x hi th ngi ta thng cp n vn ngn
ng v hc. Tri qua nhiu nm, hai lnh vc ny vn l mc tiu, thch thc ca khoa
hc TTNT.
Tm quan trng ca vic hc th khng cn phi tranh ci, v kh nng hc chnh l mt
trong nhng thnh t quan trng ca hnh vi thng minh. Mc d tip cn h chuyn gia
pht trin c nhiu nm, song s lng cc h chuyn vn cn hn ch. Mt trong
nhng nguyn nhn ch yu l do qu trnh tch ly tri thc phc tp, chi ph pht trin
cc h chuyn gia rt cao, nhng chng khng c kh nng hc, kh nng t thch nghi
khi mi trng thay i. Cc chin lc gii quyt vn ca chng cng nhc v khi
c nhu cu thay i, th vic sa i mt lng ln m chng trnh l rt kh khn.
Mt gii php hin nhin l cc chng trnh t hc ly cch gii quyt vn t kinh
nghim, t s ging nhau, t cc v d hay t nhng ch dn, li khuyn,...
Mc d hc vn cn l mt vn kh, nhng s thnh cng ca mt s chng trnh
hc my thuyt phc rng c th tn ti mt tp hp cc nguyn tc hc tng qut cho
php xy dng nn cc chng trnh c kh nng hc trong nhiu lnh vc thc t.
Chng ny s gii thiu s lc v lnh vc nghin cu ny, ng thi i vo chi tit
mt s gii thut hc quan trng.
nh ngha hc
Theo Herbert Simon: Hc c nh ngha nh l bt c s thay i no trong mt h
thng cho php n tin hnh tt hn trong ln th hai khi lp li cng mt nhim v
hoc vi mt nhim v khc rt ra t cng mt qun th cc nhim v
nh ngha ny mc d ngn nhng a ra nhiu vn lin quan n vic pht trin
mt chng trnh c kh nng hc. Hc lin quan n vic khi qut ha t kinh nghim:
hiu qu thc hin ca chng trnh khng ch ci thin vi vic lp li cng mt nhim
v m cn vi cc nhim v tng t. V nhng lnh vc ng ch thng c khuynh
hng l to ln, nn cc chng trnh hc CTH (learner) ch c th kho st mt phn
nh trong ton b cc v d c th; t kinh nghim hn ch ny, CTH vn phi khi qut
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ha c mt cch ng n nhng v d cha tng gp trong lnh vc . y chnh

l bi ton quy np (induction), v n chnh l trung tm ca vic hc. Trong hu ht
cc bi ton hc, d liu luyn tp sn c thng khng m bo a ra c mt
khi qut ha ti u, cho d CTH s dng gii thut no. V vy, cc gii thut hc phi
khi qut ha theo phng php heuristic, ngha l chng s chn mt s kha cnh no
m theo kinh nghim l cho hiu qu trong tng lai khi qut. Cc tiu chun la
chn ny gi l thin lch quy np (inductive bias).
C nhiu nhim v hc (learning task) khc nhau. y ch trnh by nhim v hc
quy np (inductive learning), y l mt trong nhng nhim v hc c bn. Nhim v
ca CTH l hc mt khi qut (generalization) t mt tp hp cc v d. Hc khi nim
(concept learning) l mt bi ton hc quy np tiu biu: cho trc mt s v d ca
khi nim, chng ta phi suy ra mt nh ngha cho php ngi dng nhn bit mt cch
ng n nhng th hin ca khi nim trong tng lai.
Cc tip cn hc:
C ba tip cn hc: tip cn k hiu (symbol-based learning), tip cn mng neuron hay
kt ni (neural or connectionist networks) v tip cn ni tri (emergent) hay di truyn
v tin ha (genetic and evolutionary learning).
Cc CTH thuc tip cn da trn k hiu biu din vn di dng cc k hiu
(symbol), cc gii thut hc s tm cch suy ra cc khi qut mi, hp l, hu dng v
c biu din bng cc k hiu ny. C nhiu gii thut c a ra theo tip cn hc
ny, tuy nhin phn II ca chng ny ch trnh by mt gii thut c s dng rng
ri trong s , l gii thut quy np cy quyt nh ID3.
Ngc li vi tip cn k hiu, tip cn kt ni khng hc bng cch tch ly cc cu
trong mt ngn ng k hiu. Ging nh b no ng vt cha mt s lng ln cc t
bo thn kinh lin h vi nhau, mng neuron l nhng h thng gm cc neuron nhn
to lin h vi nhau. Tri thc ca chng trnh l ngm nh trong t chc v tng tc
ca cc neuron ny. Phn III s i vo chi tit ca tip cn ny.
Tip cn th ba l tip cn ni tri m phng cch thc cc h sinh hc tin ha trong t
nhin, nn cn c gi l tip cn di truyn v tin ha. Phn IV s i vo chi tit ca
tip cn ny.
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TIP CN K HIU: gII THUT QUY NP CY

QUYT NH ID3
TIP CN K HIU: gII THUT QUY NP CY QUYT NH ID3
Gii thiu
Gii thut quy np cy ID3 (gi tt l ID3) l mt gii thut hc n gin nhng t ra
thnh cng trong nhiu lnh vc. ID3 l mt gii thut hay v cch biu din tri thc hc
c ca n, tip cn ca n trong vic qun l tnh phc tp, heuristic ca n dng cho
vic chn la cc khi nim ng vin, v tim nng ca n i vi vic x l d liu
nhiu.
ID3 biu din cc khi nim (concept) dng cc cy quyt nh (decision tree). Biu
din ny cho php chng ta xc nh phn loi ca mt i tng bng cch kim tra
cc gi tr ca n trn mt s thuc tnh no .
Nh vy, nhim v ca gii thut ID3 l hc cy quyt nh t mt tp cc v d rn
luyn (training example) hay cn gi l d liu rn luyn (training data). Hay ni khc
hn, gii thut c:
u vo: Mt tp hp cc v d. Mi v d bao gm cc thuc tnh m t mt
tnh hung, hay mt i tng no , v mt gi tr phn loi ca n.
u ra: Cy quyt nh c kh nng phn loi ng n cc v d trong tp d
liu rn luyn, v hy vng l phn loi ng cho c cc v d cha gp trong
tng lai.
V d, chng ta hy xt bi ton phn loi xem ta c i chi tennis ng vi thi tit
no khng. Gii thut ID3 s hc cy quyt nh t tp hp cc v d sau:

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Bng 9.1 - Tp d liu rn luyn cho khi nim C i chi tennis khng?
Tp d liu ny bao gm 14 v d. Mi v d biu din cho tnh trng thi tit gm
cc thuc tnh quang cnh, nhit , m v gi; v u c mt thuc tnh phn loi
chi Tennis (c, khng). Khng ngha l khng i chi tennis ng vi thi tit ,
C ngha l ngc li. Gi tr phn loi y ch c hai loi (c, khng), hay cn ta
ni phn loi ca tp v d ca khi nim ny thnh hai lp (classes). Thuc tnh Chi
tennis cn c gi l thuc tnh ch (target attribute).
Mi thuc tnh u c mt tp cc gi tr hu hn. Thuc tnh quang cnh c ba gi tr
(m u, ma, nng), nhit c ba gi tr (nng, mt, m p), m c hai gi tr (cao,
TB) v gi c hai gi tr (mnh, nh). Cc gi tr ny chnh l k hiu (symbol) dng
biu din bi ton.
T tp d liu rn luyn ny, gii thut ID3 s hc mt cy quyt nh c kh nng phn
loi ng n cc v d trong tp ny, ng thi hy vng trong tng lai, n cng s
phn loi ng cc v d khng nm trong tp ny. Mt cy quyt nh v d m gii
thut ID3 c th quy np c l:

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Hnh 9.1 - Cy quyt nh cho khi nim C i chi tennis khng?

Cc nt trong cy quyt nh biu din cho mt s kim tra trn mt thuc tnh no ,
mi gi tr c th c ca thuc tnh tng ng vi mt nhnh ca cy. Cc nt l th
hin s phn loi ca cc v d thuc nhnh , hay chnh l gi tr ca thuc tnh phn
loi.
Sau khi gii thut quy np c cy quyt nh, th cy ny s c s dng phn
loi tt c cc v d hay th hin (instance) trong tng lai. V cy quyt nh s khng
thay i cho n khi ta cho thc hin li gii thut ID3 trn mt tp d liu rn luyn
khc.
ng vi mt tp d liu rn luyn s c nhiu cy quyt nh c th phn loi ng tt
c cc v d trong tp d liu rn luyn. Kch c ca cc cy quyt nh khc nhau ty
thuc vo th t ca cc kim tra trn thuc tnh.
Vy lm sao hc c cy quyt nh c th phn loi ng tt c cc v d trong tp
rn luyn? Mt cch tip cn n gin l hc thuc lng tt c cc v d bng cch xy
dng mt cy m c mt l cho mi v d. Vi cch tip cn ny th c th cy quyt
nh s khng phn loi ng cho cc v d cha gp trong tng lai. V phng php
ny cng ging nh hnh thc hc vt, m cy khng h hc c mt khi qut no
ca khi nim cn hc. Vy, ta nn hc mt cy quyt nh nh th no l tt?
Occams razor v mt s lp lun khc u cho rng gi thuyt c kh nng nht l
gi thuyt n gin nht thng nht vi tt c cc quan st, ta nn lun lun chp nhn
nhng cu tr li n gin nht p ng mt cch ng n d liu ca chng ta. Trong
trng hp ny l cc gii thut hc c gng to ra cy quyt nh nh nht phn loi
mt cch ng n tt c cc v d cho. Trong phn k tip, chng ta s i vo gii
thut ID3, l mt gii thut quy np cy quyt nh n gin tha mn cc vn va
nu.

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Gii thut ID3 xy dng cy quyt nh t trnxung

ID3 xy dng cy quyt nh (cy Q) theo cch t trn xung. Lu rng i vi bt
k thuc tnh no, chng ta cng c th phn vng tp hp cc v d rn luyn thnh
nhng tp con tch ri, m mi v d trong mt phn vng (partition) c mt gi tr
chung cho thuc tnh . ID3 chn mt thuc tnh kim tra ti nt hin ti ca cy v
dng trc nghim ny phn vng tp hp cc v d; thut ton khi xy dng theo
cch quy mt cy con cho tng phn vng. Vic ny tip tc cho n khi mi thnh
vin ca phn vng u nm trong cng mt lp; lp tr thnh nt l ca cy.
V th t ca cc trc nghim l rt quan trng i vi vic xy dng mt cy Q n
gin, ID3 ph thuc rt nhiu vo tiu chun chn la trc nghim lm gc ca cy.
n gin, phn ny ch m t gii thut dng xy dng cy Q, vi vic gi nh
mt hm chn trc nghim thch hp. Phn k tip s trnh by heuristic chn la ca
ID3.
V d, hy xem xt cch xy dng cy Q ca ID3 trong hnh sau t tp v d rn luyn
trong bng 9.1.

Hnh 9.2 - Mt phn cy quyt nh xy dng c

Bt u vi bng y gm 14 v d rn luyn, ID3 chn thuc tnh quang cnh lm
thuc tnh gc s dng hm chn la thuc tnh m t trong phn k tip. Trc nghim
ny phn chia tp v d nh cho thy trong hnh 9.2 vi phn t ca mi phn vng c
lit k bi s th t ca chng trong bng.
* ID3 xy dng cy quyt nh theo gii thut sau:
Function induce_tree(tp_v_d, tp_thuc_tnh)
begin

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if mi v d trong tp_v_d u nm trong cng mt lp then

return mt nt l c gn nhn bi lp
else iftp_thuc_tnh l rng then
return nt l c gn nhn bi tuyn ca tt c cc lp trong tp_v_d
else begin
chn mt thuc tnh P, ly n lm gc cho cy hin ti;
xa P ra khi tp_thuc_tnh;
vi mi gi tr V ca P
begin
to mt nhnh ca cy gn nhn V;
t vo phn_vngV cc v d trong tp_v_d c gi tr V ti thuc tnh P;
Gi induce_tree(phn_vngV, tp_thuc_tnh), gn kt qu vo nhnh V
end
end
end
ID3 p dng hm induce_tree mt cch quy cho tng phn vng. V d, phn vng
ca nhnh m u c cc v d ton dng, hay thuc lp C, nn ID3 to mt nt l
vi nhn l lp C. Cn phn vng ca hai nhnh cn li va c v d m, va c v
d dng. Nn tip tc chn thuc tnh m lm trc nghim cho nhnh Nng,
v thuc tnh Gi cho nhnh Ma, v cc v d trong cc phn vng con ca cc nhnh
cy ny u thuc cng mt lp, nn gii thut ID3 kt thc v ta c c cy Q nh
hnh 9.3.

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Hnh 9.3 - Cy quyt nh xy dng xong.

Lu , phn loi mt v d, c khi cy Q khng cn s dng tt c cc thuc tnh
cho, mc d n vn phn loi ng tt c cc v d.
* Cc kh nng c th c ca cc phn vng (partition):
Trong qu trnh xy dng cy Q, phn vng ca mt nhnh mi c th c cc dng
sau:
C cc v d thuc cc lp khc nhau, chng hn nh c c v d m v dng
nh phn vng Quang cnh = Nng ca v d trn => gii thut phi tip tc
tch mt ln na.
Tt c cc v d u thuc cng mt lp, chng hn nh ton m hoc ton
dng nh phn vng Quang cnh = m u ca v d trn => gii thut tr v
nt l vi nhn l lp .
Khng cn v d no => gii thut tr v mc nhin
Khng cn thuc tnh no => ngha l d liu b nhiu, khi gii thut phi s
dng mt lut no x l, chng hn nh lut a s (lp no c nhiu v d
hn s c dng gn nhn cho nt l tr v).

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T cc nhn xt ny, ta thy rng c mt cy Q n gin, hay mt cy c chiu cao

l thp, ta nn chn mt thuc tnh sao cho to ra cng nhiu cc phn vng ch cha cc
v d thuc cng mt lp cng tt. Mt phn vng ch c v d thuc cng mt lp, ta
ni phn vng c tnh thun nht. Vy, chn thuc tnh kim tra c th gim thiu
chiu su ca cy Q, ta cn mt php o o tnh thun nht ca cc phn vng, v
chn thuc tnh kim tra to ra cng nhiu phn vng thun nht cng tt. ID3 s dng
l thuyt thng tin thc hin iu ny.
Thuc tnh no l thuc tnh dng phn loi tt nht?
Quinlan (1983) l ngi u tin xut vic s dng l thuyt thng tin to ra cc
cy quyt nh v cng trnh ca ng l c s cho phn trnh by y. L thuyt thng
tin ca Shannon (1948) cung cp khi nim entropy o tnh thun nht (hay ngc
li l pha trn) ca mt tp hp. Mt tp hp l thun nht nu nh tt c cc phn t
ca tp hp u thuc cng mt loi, v khi ta ni tp hp ny c pha trn l thp
nht. Trong trng hp ca tp v d, th tp v d l thun nht nu nh tt c cc v d
u c cng gi tr phn loi.
Khi tp v d l thun nht th c th ni: ta bit chc chn v gi tr phn loi ca mt
v d thuc tp ny, hay ta c lng thng tin v tp l cao nht. Khi tp v d c
pha trn cao nht, ngha l s lng cc v d c cng gi tr phn loi cho mi loi l
tng ng nhau, th khi ta khng th on chnh xc c mt v d c th c gi
tr phn loi g, hay ni khc hn, lng thng tin ta c c v tp ny l t nht. Vy,
iu ta mong mun y l lm sao chn thuc tnh hi sao cho c th chia tp v
d ban u thnh cc tp v d thun nht cng nhanh cng tt. Vy trc ht, ta cn c
mt php o o thun nht ca mt tp hp, t mi c th so snh tp v d
no th tt hn. Phn k tip s trnh by cng thc tnh entropy ca mt tp hp.
Entropy o tnh thun nht ca tp v d
Khi nim entropy ca mt tp S c nh ngha trong L thuyt thng tin l s lng
mong i cc bt cn thit m ha thng tin v lp ca mt thnh vin rt ra mt cch
ngu nhin t tp S. Trong trng hp ti u, m c di ngn nht. Theo l thuyt
thng tin, m c di ti u l m gn log2p bits cho thng ip c xc sut l p.
Trong trng hp S l tp v d, th thnh vin ca S l mt v d, mi v d thuc mt
lp hay c mt gi tr phn loi.
Entropy c gi tr nm trong khong [0..1],
Entropy(S) = 0 tp v d S ch ton v d thuc cng mt loi, hay S l thun nht.
Entropy(S) = 1 tp v d S c cc v d thuc cc loi khc nhau vi pha trn l cao
nht.
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0 < Entropy(S) < 1 ? tp v d S c s lng v d thuc cc loi khc nhau l khng

bng nhau.
n gin ta xt trng hp cc v d ca S ch thuc loi m (-) hoc dng (+).
Hnh 9.4 minh ha s ph thuc ca gi tr entropy vo xc sut xut hin ca v d
dng.
Hnh 9.4 - Entropy(S)

Cho trc:
Tp S l tp d liu rn luyn, trong thuc tnh phn loi c hai gi tr, gi
s l m (-) v dng (+)
p+ l phn cc v d dng trong tp S.
p_ l phn cc v d m trong tp S.
Khi , entropy o pha trn ca tp S theo cng thc sau:
Mt cch tng qut hn, nu cc v d ca tp S thuc nhiu hn hai loi, gi s l c c
gi tr phn loi th cng thc entropy tng qut l:
Entropy(S) = ci = 1 pilog2pi

Lng thng tin thu c o mc gim entropy mong i

Entropy l mt s o o pha trn ca mt tp v d, by gi chng ta s nh ngha
mt php o hiu sut phn loi cc v d ca mt thuc tnh. Php o ny gi l lng
thng tin thu c, n n gin l lng gim entropy mong i gy ra bi vic phn
chia cc v d theo thuc tnh ny.
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Mt cch chnh xc hn, Gain(S,A) ca thuc tnh A, trn tp S, c nh ngha nh

sau:
Gain(S,A) = Entropy(S) v Values(A)

Sv
S

Entropy(Sv)

trong Values(A) l tp hp c th c cc gi tr ca thuc tnh A, v Sv l tp con ca

S cha cc v d c thuc tnh A mang gi tr v.
Cu hi :
p dng gii thut ID3 kt hp vi cng thc entropy v gain to ra cy quyt nh
n gin nht cho bi ton phn loi xem ta c i chi tennis t tp d liu rn luyn
cho trong bng 9.1.
Tm kim khng gian gi thuyt trong ID3
Cng nh cc phng php hc quy np khc, ID3 cng tm kim trong mt khng gian
cc gi thuyt mt gi thuyt ph hp vi tp d liu rn luyn. Khng gian gi thuyt
m ID3 tm kim l mt tp hp cc cy quyt nh c th c. ID3 thc hin mt php
tm kim t n gin n phc tp, theo gii thut leo-ni (hill climbing), bt u t cy
rng, sau dn dn xem xt cc gi thuyt phc tp hn m c th phn loi ng cc
v d rn luyn. Hm nh gi c dng hng dn tm kim leo ni y l php
o lng thng tin thu c.
Hnh 9.5 - Khng gian tm kim ca ID3.

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T cch nhn ID3 nh l mt gii thut tm kim trong khng gian cc gi thuyt, ta c
mt s nhn xt nh sau:
Khng gian gi thuyt cc cy quyt nh ca ID3 l mt khng gian y
cc cy quyt nh trn cc thuc tnh cho trong tp rn luyn. iu ny c
ngha l khng gian m ID3 tm kim chc chn c cha cy quyt nh cn
tm.
Trong khi tm kim, ID3 ch duy tr mt gi thuyt hin ti. V vy, gii thut
ny khng c kh nng biu din c tt c cc cy quyt nh khc nhau c
kh nng phn loi ng d liu hin c.
Gii thut thun ID3 khng c kh nng quay lui trong khi tm kim. V vy, n
c th gp phi nhng hn ch ging nh gii thut leo ni, l hi t v cc
tiu a phng.
V ID3 s dng tt c cc v d mi bc a ra cc quyt nh da trn
thng k, nn kt qu tm kim ca ID3 rt t b nh hng bi mt vi d liu
sai (hay d liu nhiu).
Trong qu trnh tm kim, gii thut ID3 c xu hng chn cy quyt nh ngn
hn l nhng cy quyt nh di. y l tnh cht thin lch quy np ca ID3.
nh gi hiu sut ca cy quyt nh:
Mt cy quyt nh sinh ra bi ID3 c nh gi l tt nu nh cy ny c kh nng
phn loi ng c cc trng hp hay v d s gp trong tng lai, hay c th hn l
c kh nng phn loi ng cc v d khng nm trong tp d liu rn luyn.
nh gi hiu sut ca mt cy quyt nh ngi ta thng s dng mt tp v d
tch ri, tp ny khc vi tp d liu rn luyn, nh gi kh nng phn loi ca cy
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trn cc v d ca tp ny. Tp d liu ny gi l tp kim tra (validation set). Thng

thng, tp d liu sn c s c chia thnh hai tp: tp rn luyn thng chim 2/3 s
v d v tp kim tra chim 1/3.
Chuyn cy v cc lut
Thng thng, cy quyt nh s c chuyn v dng cc lut thun tin cho vic
ci t v s dng. V d cy quyt nh cho tp d liu rn luyn trong bng 9.1 c th
c chuyn thnh mt s lut nh sau :

If (Quang-cnh =nng) ( m = Cao) Then Chi-Tennis = No

If (Quang-cnh =nng) ( m = TB) Then Chi-Tennis = Yes
If (Quang-cnh =m u) Then Chi-Tennis = Yes

Khi no nn s dng ID3

Gii thut ID3 l mt gii thut hc n gin nhng n ch ph hp vi mt lp cc bi
ton hay vn c th biu din bng k hiu. Chnh v vy, gii thut ny thuc tip
cn gii quyt vn da trn k hiu (symbol based approach).
Tp d liu rn luyn y bao gm cc v d c m t bng cc cp Thuc tnh
gi tr, nh trong v d Chi tennis trnh by trong sut chng ny, l Gi
mnh, hay Gi nh, v mi v d u c mt thuc tnh phn loi, v d nh
chi_tennis, thuc tnh ny phi c gi tr ri rc, nh c, khng.

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Tuy nhin, khc vi mt s gii thut khc cng thuc tip cn ny, ID3 s dng cc v
d rn luyn dng xc sut nn n c u im l t b nh hng bi mt vi d liu
nhiu. V vy, tp d liu rn luyn y c th cha li hoc c th thiu mt vi gi
tr mt s thuc tnh no . Mt gii php thng c p dng i vi cc d liu
b thiu l s dng lut a s, chng trnh tin x l d liu s in vo cc v tr cn
trng gi tr c tn s xut hin cao nht ca thuc tnh .
Bn cnh cc vn c bn c trnh by trong phn ny, ID3 cn c tho lun
nhiu vn lin quan nh lm sao trnh cho cy quyt nh khng b nh hng
qu nhiu (overfitting) vo d liu rn luyn, n c th tng qut hn, phn loi ng
c cho cc trng hp cha gp. C nhiu gii php c a ra nh ct ta li
cy quyt nh sau khi hc, hoc ct ta cc lut sau khi chuyn cy v dng lut. Mt
vn khc na l nu nh mt vi thuc tnh no c gi tr lin tc th sao. Gii
quyt cc vn ny dn n vic sinh ra nhiu th h sau ca ID3, mt gii thut ni
bt trong s l C4.5 (Quinlan 1996). Ngoi ra, mt s k thut c to ra thao tc
trn d liu nhm to ra cc cy quyt nh khc nhau trn cng tp d liu rn luyn
cho nh k thut bagging and boosting.

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TIP CN KT NI: MNG NEURON

TIP CN KT NI: MNG NEURON
Gii thiu
Cc m hnh hc theo tip cn ny bt chc theo cch hc ca cc h thn kinh sinh
vt. Cc h thng theo m hnh ny c khi cn c gi l cc h kt ni (connectionist
systems), tnh ton neural (Neural computing), mng neural (Neural Networks), cc h
x l phn tn song song (parallel distributed processing PDP).
Khng ging nh cc gii thut ca tip cn k hiu, cc m hnh ny khng s dng k
hiu mt cch tng minh gii quyt vn . Thay vo , chng gi cho tr tu pht
trin trong cc h thng gm cc thnh phn (neuron sinh hc hay neuron nhn to) n
gin, tng tc thng qua mt qu trnh hc hay thch nghi m nh kt ni gia cc
thnh phn ny c iu chnh. Vic x l ca cc h thng ny c phn tn trn
mt tp hp cc lp neuron. Cc h thng ny gii quyt vn song song theo ngha
rng tt c cc neuron trong tp hp hay trong cc lp s x l tn hiu vo mt cch
ng thi v c lp.
Trong khi cc gii thut ca tip cn k hiu s dng k hiu m t cc mu ca bi
ton nh ta thy trong gii thut ID3 th nhng nh thit k mng neuron phi to
ra mt s m ha cc mu (pattern) ca bi ton thnh cc i lng s a vo
mng. Vic chn la mt s m ha thch hp ng vai tr quyt nh cho s thnh
cng hay tht bi trong vic hc ca mng.
Cc mu (pattern) ca bi ton c m ha thnh cc vector s. Cc kt ni gia cc
thnh phn, hay neuron, cng c biu din bng cc gi tr s. Cui cng, s bin i
ca cc mu cng l kt qu ca cc php ton s hc, thng thng l php nhn ma
trn. S chn la kin trc kt ni ca nh thit k mng neuron gp phn vo tnh thin
lch quy np (inductive bias) ca h thng.
Cc gii thut v kin trc dng ci t mng neuron thng c hun luyn
(trained) hay to iu kin (conditioned) ch khng c lp trnh mt cch tng tn.
V y chnh l sc mnh ch yu ca tip cn ny.
Cc phng php ca tip cn ny pht huy sc mnh ca chng trong cc bi ton m
kh c th gii quyt bng cc m hnh k hiu. Tiu biu l cc bi ton i hi cc k
nng da vo nhn thc, hay cc bi ton thiu mt c php nh ngha r rng.
Cc bi ton thch hp vi tip cn kt ni thng l:

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 Bi ton phn loi (classification): quyt nh mt gi tr a vo thuc loi

hay nhm no,
Bi ton nhn dng mu (pattern recognition): nhn dng cu trc trong cc d
liu c th l b nhiu.
Bi ton d on (prediction): chng hn nh nhn dng bnh t cc triu
chng, nhn dng tc nhn t cc hiu ng,
Bi ton ti u (optimization): tm mt t chc rng buc tt nht
Bi ton lc nhiu (Noise filtering): hay phn bit cc tn hiu vi nn, tm ra
cc thnh phn khng quan trng trong mt tn hiu.
C bn v mng kt ni:
Thnh phn c bn ca mt mng neuron l mt neuron nhn to, nh m t trong hnh
9.6 sau y.
Mt neuron nhn to
Hnh 9. 6 minh ha mt neuron nhn to bao gm:

Hnh 9.6 - Mt neuron nhn to.

Cc tn hiu u vo, xi. Cc d liu ny c th n t mi trng, hay c
kch hot t cc neuron khc. Cc m hnh khc nhau c th c min gi tr ca
u vo khc nhau; thng thng cc gi tr u vo ny l cc s ri rc
(discrete) ly t tp {0,1} hay {-1,1} hay s thc.
Mt tp cc trng s (weight) c gi tr thc, wi. Cc trng s ny dng m
t sc mnh kt ni, hay sc mnh ca cc kt ni thin lch (bias link)

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 Mt mc kch hot (activation level) hay hm kch hot wixi. Mc kch hot
ca mt neuron c xc nh bi sc mnh tch ly t cc tn hiu u vo
ca n ni m mi tn hiu u vo c t l li bng trng s kt ni wi
u vo . V vy, mc kch hat c tnh ton bng cch ly tng cc gi tr
u vo sau khi c t l ha, wixi.
Mt hm ngng (threshold function), f. Hm ny tnh kt qu u ra ca
neuron bng cch xc nh xem mc kch hot nm di hay trn mt gi tr
ngng l t hay nhiu. Hm ngng ny c khuynh hng to ra trng thi tt/
m ca cc neuron.
Cc c trng ca mt mng Neuron
Ngoi cc tnh cht ca mt neuron n l, mt mng neuron cn c c trng bi
cc tnh cht ton cc nh sau:
- Hnh thi mng (network topology): l m hnh hay mu kt ni gia cc neuron n
l.

Hnh 9.7 - Cc hnh thi mng neuron khc nhau.

Gii thut hc (learning algorithm): l gii thut dng iu chnh cc trng
s cc u vo ca cc neuron. Trong cc phn tip theo ca chng ny s
trnh by mt s gii thut hc tiu biu.
S m ha (encoding schema): Bao gm vic thng dch d liu thc t
thnh cc gi tr u vo ca mng, v vic thng dch gi tr u ra ca mng
thnh mt kt qu c ngha.
Mng neuron McCulloch-Pitts
V d u tin v tnh ton neural c MacCulloch v Pitts a ra vo 1943. u vo
ca mt neuron McCulloch-Pitts l +1 (kch thch) hoc 1 (c ch). Hm kch hot
nhn mi u vo vi gi tr trng s tng ng v cng chng li; nu tng ln hn
hay bng khng, th neuron tr v 1, ngc li, l 1.

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McCulloch-Pitts cho thy cc neuron ny c th c xy dng tnh ton bt c hm

logic no, chng minh rng cc h thng gm cc neuron ny cung cp mt m hnh
tnh ton y .
Hnh 9.8 minh ha cc neuron McCulloch-Pitts dng tnh hm logic and v or.

Hnh 9.8 - Cc neuron McCulloch-Pitts dng tnh ton cc hm logic and v or .

Cc neuron ny c 3 u vo: x v y l cc gi tr cn a vo, cn u vo th ba, i
khi cn c gi l mt thin lch (bias), c gi tr hng l +1.
Ba u vo ca neuron and c 3 trng s tng ng l +1, +1 v 2. V vy, vi cc
gi tr bt k ca x, y, neuron tnh gi tr x+y-2; nu gi tr ny nh hn 0, n tr v 1.
Ngc li tr v 1.
Bng bn di minh ha cho tnh ton neuron x and y.

Bng 9.2 - M hnh McCulloch-Pitts cho logic and.

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Mc d McCulloch-Pitts chng minh cho sc mnh ca tnh ton neural, nhng sc hp

dn ca tip cn ny ch thc s bt u khi cc gii thut hc thc t bt u pht trin.
Phin bn u tin ca mng neuron c km gii thut hc c Frank Rosenblatt a
ra vo cui thp nin 1950, c tn gi l perceptron.
Hc perceptron
Gii thut hc perceptron
Perceptron l mng neuron n tng. Cch lan truyn tn hiu ca perceptron tng t
vi neuron McCulloch-Pitts. Cc gi tr u vo v cc mc kch hot ca perceptron
l -1 hoc 1; trng s l cc s thc. Mc kch hot c xc nh qua tng tngwixi.
Perceptron s dng mt hm ngng gii hn cng, khi mt kch hot nm bn trn
ngng, hm s cho kt qu l 1, v -1 nu ngc li. Cho trc cc gi tr u vo xi,
cc trng s wi, v mt ngng, t, hm ngng f ca perceptron s tr v:

1 nu wixi >= t -1 nu wixi < t

Perceptron s dng mt hnh thc n gin ca hc c gim st (supervised learning).
Sau khi perceptron c gng gii quyt mt mu bi ton (mu ny rt ra t tp d liu
rn luyn training data), chng trnh ng vai tr nh mt ngi thy gio s cung
cp cho n kt qu ng ca mu bi ton (gi tr ny cng ly t tp d liu rn
luyn). Da vo s khc bit gia kt qu ng c cung cp v kt qu m perceptron
tnh ton c, n s t iu chnh cc trng s ca n lm thu hp khong cch li.
Perceptron s dng lut nh sau: vi c l mt hng s cho trc, hng s ny th hin
tc hc v d l gi tr u ra mong mun, perceptron s iu chnh trng s trn thnh
phn th i ca vect u vo mt lng deltawi:

f(tngwixi) chnh l gi tr u ra ca perceptron, n c gi tr +1 hoc -1. V vy, hiu

gia d v f(tngwixi) l 0, 2 hoc -2. V vy, vi mi thnh phn ca vect u vo:
Nu gi tr u ra mong mun v gi tr u ra tht bng nhau, th khng lm g
c.
Nu gi tr u ra thc l -1 v 1 l gi tr mong mun, th tng trng s ca
ng th i ln 2cxi.

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 Nu gi tr u ra thc l 1 v -1 l gi tr mong mun, th gim trng s ca

ng th i -2cxi
S d c c gi l hng s th hin tc hc v nu c ln th cc gi tr iu chnh
deltawi s ln, nh vy, y nhanh qu trnh wi hi t v gi tr ng ca n.
Sau khi c hun luyn bng mt tp hp kh ln cc v d rn luyn cho trc, th
tc ny s sinh ra mt tp cc trng s c tnh cht lm gim thiu trung bnh li trn
ton tp v d rn luyn. Theo Minsky v Papert 1969, nu tn ti mt tp hp cc trng
s em li u ra ng cho mi v d rn luyn, th th tc hc perceptron s hc c
n.
S dng mng perceptron cho bi ton phn loi
Bi ton phn loi

Hnh 9.9 - Mt h thng phn loi y .

Hnh trn a ra mt ci nhn khi qut v bi ton phn loi. D liu th t mt khng
gian cc im c th c sau khi qua b chuyn i (transducer) s c chn v chuyn
i thnh mt khng gian cc d liu hay mu mi. Trong khng gian mu mi ny, b
trch lc c trng (feature extractor) s chn ra cc c trng ca d liu, v cui cng,
d liu th hin qua cc c trng s c a vo my phn loi (classifier) cho ra
kt qu lp phn loi (class) ca d liu .
Trong dy chuyn ny, mng perceptron ni ring v mng neuron ni chung ng vai
tr nh mt my phn loi.

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Mt d liu u vo s c biu din nh mt vect gm n thnh phn (th hin cho

n c trng) x1, x2, , xn. Cc d liu ny c th thuc 1 trong m lp class1, class2,
classm. My phn loi s c nhim v xc nh xem d liu u vo thuc v lp no.
V d perceptron
Trong v d n gin di y, b chuyn i v b trch lc c trng chuyn thng
tin ca bi ton thnh cc tham s ca khng gian hai chiu. Bng 9.3 th hin d liu
rn luyn ca perceptron gm c 2 c trng (x1 v x2) mang gi tr thc, v kt qu
mong mun (output) gm hai gi tr 1 hoc -1, th hin cho hai lp phn loi ca d
liu. Hnh 9.10 th hin hnh nh ca cc im d liu trong bng 9.3 cng vi ng
phn cch hai lp d liu c to ra sau khi mng percpetron c hun luyn trn tp
d liu ny.

Perceptron dng phn loi bi ton ny c thit k nh sau:

Hnh 9.11- Mng perceptron cho v d ca bng 9.3.Tn hiu u vo: 2 tham s x1 v
x2, cng vi mt u vo thin lch (bias) lun c gi tr 1.
Mc kch hot:
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net = w1x1 + w2x2 + w3

Hm ngng f(net) l mt hm du, hay cn gi l hm ngng hai cc tuyn tnh

f(net) = +1, nu net>0f(net) = -1, nu net<=0

Tn hiu thin lch phc v cho vic chuyn dch hm ngng trn trc tung. Phm vi
ca chuyn dch ny s c hc bng cch iu chnh trng s w3 trong khi hun luyn
mng.
By gi chng ta s dng cc im d liu ca bng 9.3 luyn tp perceptron ca
hnh 9.6.
Gi thit ban u cc trng s wi c gi tr ngu nhin ln lt l: [0.75,0.5,-0.6]
S dng gii thut hc perceptron trnh by trn vi tc hc c c chn l mt s
dng nh 0.2
Chng ta bt u bng v d u tin trong bng 9.3:
f(net)1 = f(0.75 * 1 + 0.5 * 1 0.6 *1 ) = f(0.65) = 1
Ta thy f(net)1 c gi tr ng vi gi tr u ra mong mun, nn ta khng iu chnh
trng s. Cho nn W2 = W1 , W l vect trng s i din cho 3 trng s w1,w2,w3.
n v d th 2:
f(net)2 = f(0.75 * 9.4 + 0.5 * 6.4 0.6 *1 ) = f(9.65) = 1
Nhng gi tr mong i y l -1, v vy, ta cn iu chnh trng s theo lut hc:
Wt = Wt-1 + c( dt-1 f(net)t-1)Xt-1
trong : c l hng s hc
W, X: l vect trng s, v vect d liu u vo

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t l thi im
Trong trng hp ny: c = 0.2, d2 = -1, v f(net)2 = 1
p dng lut hc trn, ta c:

By gi chng ta xt v d th 3:
f(net)3 = f(-3.01 * 2.5 -2.06 * 2.1 1.0 *1 ) = f(-12.84) = -1
Trong khi gi tr mong i ca v d ny l 1, nn cc trng s tip tc c iu chnh

C tip tc nh th, sau 10 ln lp, ng phn cch tuyn tnh nh trong hnh 9.10
xut hin. Sau khi lp li vic hun luyn perceptron trn tp d liu cho, khong
500 ln lp tng cng, vect trng s hi t v gi tr [-1.3, -1.1, 10.9]. V y chnh l
cc h s ca phng trnh ng phn cch tuyn tnh trong hnh 9.10:
-1.3 * x1 1.1 * x2 + 10.9 = 0.
Gii hn ca perceptron tnh tch ri tuyn tnh ca bi ton
Ban u, mng perceptron c cho n mt cch nhit tnh. Tuy nhin, Nils Nilsson
(1965) v nhng ngi khc phn tch nhng gii hn ca m hnh perceptron. H
chng minh rng perceptron khng th gii quyt mt lp cc bi ton kh, c th l cc
bi ton m cc im d liu khng th tch ri tuyn tnh. Mt v d cho bi ton phn
loi khng tuyn tnh l php ton ex-or. Ex-or c bng chn l nh sau:

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T th hnh 9.12, ta thy khng th tm c bt c mt ng thng no c th

tch ri cc im d liu ca lp 0: {(0,0), (1,1)} ra khi cc im d liu ca lp 1:
{(0,1),(1,0)}.
Chng ta c th quan nim tp hp cc gi tr d liu i vi mt mng neuron nh
dng nh ngha mt khng gian. Mi tham s ca d liu u vo tng ng vi
mt chiu trong khng gian, v mi gi tr u vo s nh ngha mt im trong khng
gian . Trong bi ton ex-or trn, bn gi tr u vo, c nh ch s theo cc ta
x1, x2, to thnh cc im d liu trong hnh 9.12. Bi ton hc mt phn loi nh phn
ca cc d liu rn luyn rt li thnh bi ton tch cc im ny thnh hai nhm. Nh
vy, i vi mt khng gian n chiu, mt s phn loi l phn tch c mt cch tuyn
tnh nu nh cc lp ca n c th c tch ra bi mt mt phng n-1 chiu. (Trong
khng gian hai chiu th mt siu phng n-1 chiu l mt ng thng, trong khng gian
3 chiu th n l mt mt phng, ).
Lut Delta
Mt cch d dng tng qut ha mng perceptron l thay hm ngng gii hn cng
bng mt hm kch hot kiu khc. Chng hn nh, hm kch hot lin tc ( c kh
nng ly vi phn) to iu kin cho cc gii thut hc phc tp hn.

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Hnh 9.13 - Cc hm ngng.

Hnh 9.13 minh ha th ca mt s hm ngng: hnh 9.13a l mt hm ngng hai
cc, hnh 9.13b minh ha mt hm kch hot sigmoidal thng dng (hm sigmoidal l
hm c hnh cong nh ch S), c gi l hm logistic, hm ny c cng thc nh sau:
f(net) = 1/(1 + e-l*net) vi net = tngi wixi
Cng nh cc hm nh ngha trc y, xi l u vo ca ng th i, wi l trng s
trn ng vo i, v l tham s nn c s dng iu chnh cong ca ng.
Khi cng ln, th ng cong cng tim cn vi hm ngng tuyn tnh (trong hnh
9.13a). Khi cng tin gn n 1, n cng gn nh l mt ng thng.
Hm logistic c mt tnh cht c bit l, o hm ca hm ny c mt cng thc rt
n gin:
f (net) = f(net) * (1- f(net)) (1-1)
T hnh 9.13 ta thy vi cc hm ngng lin tc, neuron s cho kt qu chnh xc hn
nh vo vic iu chnh tham s .
Vic a ra cc hm kch hot lin tc lm xut cc tip cn mi lm gim li
trong khi hc. Qui lut hc do Widrow-Hoff a ra vo khong 1960 c lp vi hm
kch hot, ti thiu ha bnh phng ca li gia gi tr u ra mong mun v kch hot
ca neuron, neti = WXi. Mt trong s lut hc quan trng cho cc hm kch hot lin tc
l lut delta (Rumelhart et al. 1986).

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 s dng lut delta, mng phi s dng mootj hm ngng lin tc c th ly vi

phn. Hm logistic trnh by bn trn c c tnh cht ny. Khi cng thc hc
theo lut delta cho vic iu chnh trng s u vo th j ca nt th i l:
deltaw = c(di Oi) f(neti)xj
trong , c l hng s iu khin tc hc, di v Oi l cc gi tr u ra thc s v
mong mun ca nt th i. f(neti) l o hm ca hm kch hot cho nt th i, v xj l
u vo th j ca nt th i. Thay th cng thc o hm (1-1) ca hm logistic f(net),
ta c cng thc iu chnh trng s nh sau:
deltaw = c(di Oi) Oi( 1 Oi) xj (1-2)
T cng thc ny cho thy, cng thc iu chnh trng s ny ch c th p dng cho
cc nt ca mng perceptron n tng, v ti ta mi c cc gi tr u ra mong mun
di.
Hc Lan truyn ngc:
Nh phn tch trn, ta thy cc mng perceptron n tng c kh nng gii hn,
chng khng th phn loi c cc bi ton khng tch ri tuyn tnh. Trong phn tip
theo, chng ta s thy rng cc mng a tng c th gii quyt c cc bi ton ny.

Hnh 9.14 - Hc lan truyn ngc trong mng kt ni c mt tng n.

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Cc neuron trong mt mng a tng (xem hnh 9.14) c kt ni vi nhau theo tng
lp, trong cc neuron tng k s truyn kch hot ca chng ch cho cc neuron
tng k+1. X l tn hiu a tng c ngha l cc li nm su bn trong mng c th lan
ra v pht trin mt cch phc tp thng qua cc tng lin tip. V vy, vic phn tch
nguyn nhn gy ra li tng ra (output layer) l rt phc tp. Gii thut hc lan truyn
ngc s cung cp mt phng php iu chnh trng s trong trng hp ny.
Gii thut hc lan truyn ngc
T lp lun cho rng ti cc nt ca mt mng a tng, li m mt nt phi chu trch
nhim cng phi c chia phn cho cc nt tng n trc n v v vy cc trng s
phi c iu chnh mt cch ph hp.
Gii thut lan truyn ngc bt u ti tng ra v truyn cc li ngc v xuyn qua cc
tng n (nh hnh 9.14).

Hnh 9.15 - tng j delta j *w ij l tng ng gp ca nt i vo li tng ra.

Lut delta tng qut iu chnh trng s ca u vo th k ca nt th i:
deltawk = c(di Oi) Oi (1 Oi) xk cho nt tng ra
deltawk = c tngj (deltaj wij) Oi (1 Oi) xk cho nt tng n
vi deltaj = (dj Oj) Oj (1 Oj)

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j chy trn cc nt ca tng k tip m ti nt i truyn cc u ra ca n.

i vi mng c nhiu hn mt tng n, ta cng p dng th tc tng t mt cch
quy truyn li t tng n th n vo tng n th n-1.
V d 1: Mng NetTalk
Mng NETtalk l mt v d hay cho vic s dng gii php mng neuron gii quyt
mt vn hc kh. NETtalk hc c c vn bn ting Anh. y l mt nhim v
kh khn i vi tip cn hc da trn k hiu, v pht m trong ting Anh mang tnh
bt quy tc. Mc d c cc chng trnh da trn lut (rule-based) c vit gii
quyt vn ny, nhng chng u phc tp v thc hin cha hon ho.
NETtalk hc c mt chui vn bn v tr v mt m v cng vi trng m lin h
cho mi ch ci trong chui. V pht m ca mt ch ci n nht ph thuc vo cc
ch ci xung quanh n, ngi ta a vo NETtalk mt ca s gm 7 k t. Khi vn bn
dch chuyn qua ca s ny, NETtalk tr v mt cp m v/trng m cho mi ch ci.
Hnh 9.15 minh ha kin trc ca mng NETtalk. Mng gm c 3 tng neuron. Cc
neuron u vo tng ng vi ca s 7 k t ca vn bn. Mi v tr trong ca s c
biu din bi 29 neuron u vo, 26 neurons cho 26 k t alphabet, v 3 neurons cho
du v khong trng. K t mi v tr trong ca s s kch hot neuron tng ng.
Cc neuron u ra m ha m s dng 21 c im khc nhau ca cch pht m ca con
ngi. 5 neurons cn li m ha du nhn v gii hn m tit. NETtalk c 80 neuron
tng n, 26 gi tr u ra v 18.629 kt ni.

Hnh 9.15 - Hnh thi mng ca NETtalk.

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Kt qu ca NETtalk l c th pht m ng 60% sau khi rn luyn vi mt tp d liu

rn luyn gm 500 v d v lp li 100 lt.
Ngoi kt qu t c trn, NETtalk cn cho thy mt s tnh cht ng ch ca
mng neuron, c nhiu tnh cht trong s phn nh bn cht t nhin ca vic hc
ngi. Chng hn nh, vic hc, khi c o bng phn trm cu tr li ng, s tin
trin nhanh lc u, sau chm dn khi t l ng tng ln. V cng nh con ngi,
khi neuron cng hc pht m c nhiu t, th n cng pht m ng cc t mi nhiu
hn.
V d 2: Exclusiveor
Mt v d khc cho mng a tng l dng gii quyt bi ton Ex-or m mng n
tng khng th phn loi c.
Hnh 9.16 minh ha mng vi hai u vo, mt nt n v mt nt u ra. Mng cng c
hai u vo thin lch (bias), mt i vo nt n v mt i vo nt u ra. Mt im c
bit l cc u vo cng c ni trc tip vo nt u ra. Lin kt thm vo ny cho
php nh thit k mng neuron t c mt mng vi t nt hn trn tng n v hi t
nhanh hn.
Gi tr net cho nt n v nt u ra cng c tnh nh cch thng thng, l tng ca
cc tch gia gi tr u nhn vi trng s. Cc trng s c iu chnh theo gii thut
hc lan truyn ngc v s dng hm kch hot sigmoidal.
Tht ra, mng neuron trong hnh 9.16 khng phi l mt mng duy nht c th gii quyt
bi ton ny.

Hnh 9.16 - Mt mng lan truyn ngc dng gii quyt bi ton exclusive-or.

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Mng ny c rn luyn vi 4 v d: (0,0) 0; (1,0) 1; (0,1) 1; (1,1) 0

Sau khi c hun luyn 1400 lt vi 4 d liu trn, cc trng s hi t v cc gi tr
nh sau:
WH1 = -7.0 WHB = 2.6 WO1 = -5.0 WH2 = -7.0
WOB = 7.0 WO2 = -4.0 WHO = -11.0
Vi gi tr u vo l (0,0), gi tr u ra ca nt n s l:
f(0 * (-7.0) + 0 * (-7.0) + 1* 2.6 ) = f(2.6) 1
Kt qu tr v ca nt u ra cho (0,0) s l:
f(0 * (-5.0) + 0 * (-4.0) + 1 * (-11.0) + 1 * (7.0)) = f(-4.0) 0
Nh vy, ta thy rng mng lan truyn ngc phn loi c cc im d liu khng
tuyn tnh.
Nhn xt chung v mng neuron
Ni chung cc mng a tng l y v mt tnh ton (computationally complete), c
ngha l c th gii quyt c mi bi ton. Tuy nhin, thit k mt mng neuron a
tng th nh thit k phi gii quyt c nhng vn sau:

Lm sao chn s nt n v s tng n thch hp?

Khi no s dng cc nt thin lch?
Cch chn mt tp rn luyn?
iu chnh cc trng s nh th no?
Nn chn tc hc nh th no?

Ni chung, khng c mt quy lut no v tt c nhng iu ny, n ph thuc vo kinh

nghim ca nh thit k, cng nh l kt qu ca qu trnh th-sai lp i lp li.

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TIP CN X HI V NI TRI: GII THUT DI

TRUYN (GENETIC ALGORITHM - GA)
TIP CN X HI V NI TRI: GII THUT DI TRUYN
(GENETIC ALGORITHM - GA)
Gii thiu
Cng nh cc mng neuron, cc thut ton di truyn cng da trn mt n d sinh hc:
Cc thut ton ny xem vic hc nh l s cnh tranh trong mt qun th gm cc li
gii ng vin ang tin ha ca bi ton. Mt hm thch nghi (fitness function) s nh
gi mi li gii quyt nh liu n c ng gp cho th h cc li gii k tip hay
khng. Sau , thng qua cc php ton tng t vi bin i gene trong sinh sn hu
tnh, gii thut s to ra mt qun th cc li gii ng vin mi.
Gii thut

Hnh 9.17 - Gii thut di truyn.

Hnh 9.17 m t gii thut di truyn tng qut. Ty theo tng bi ton m nh thit k
gii thut s phi m t chi tit hn v:

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 Phng php biu din mt c th trong qun th cc li gii ng vin ca bi

ton, hay ni khc hn l hnh thc biu din mt li gii tim nng ca bi
ton. Khng phi li gii ca mi bi ton u c th c m ha mt cch d
dng v t nhin di dng biu din mc bit nh trong bi ton tha mn CNF
di y.
ln ca qun th l s lng ng vin c trong qun th. Thng thng cc
ng vin ca qun th ban u c chn mt cch ngu nhin. ln ca
qun th l khng i qua cc th h, v vy, s c mt qu trnh chn lc v
loi b mt s li gii ng vin c thch nghi thp.
iu kin dng ca vng lp: c th l chng trnh t ti mt s ln lp nht
nh no , hay t ti trung bnh tt no ca qun th,
Hm nh gi (fitness function): Dng nh gi mt ng vin c tt hay
khng. Mt ng vin cng tt ngha l thch nghi ca n cng cao v tin
n tr thnh li gii ng ca bi ton. Vic thit k mt hm nh gi tt l
rt quan trng trong thut ton di truyn. Mt hm nh gi khng chnh xc c
th lm mt i cc ng vin tt trong qun th.
Chn la bao nhiu phn trm li gii tt gi li? Hay chn bao nhiu li
gii ng vin kt hp vi nhau v sinh ra li gii con?
Phng php to thnh vin mi t thnh vin hin c, cn gi l ton t di
truyn (genetic operators): Cc ton t di truyn ph bin l
Lai ghp (cross-over): Ton t lai ghp ly hai li gii ng vin v chia
tng li gii ra thnh hai phn, sau trao i cc phn vi nhau to
ra ng vin mi. V d xem hnh 9.18.
t bin (mutation): t bin ly mt ng vin n l v thay i mt
cch ngu nhin mt kha cnh no ca n. V d xem hnh 9.18.
thch nghi(fitness)

Hnh 9.18 - V d minh ha gii thut v ton t di truyn.

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Trong v d minh ha bng hnh 9.18, ta thy ti th h th n ta c mt li gii c

thch nghi rt thp (2), v v vy, n khng c s dng trong qu trnh ti sn xut.
Thay vo , li gii c thch nghi cao nht (13) s c nhn i v a vo qu
trnh ti sn xut.
Hoc t ph bin hn l cc ton t di truyn:
o ngc (inversion): o ngc th t cc bit trong mu li gii.
Trao i (Exchange): Trao i hai bit bt k trong mu li gii vi nhau.

Mt ton t di truyn tt ng mt vai tr quan trng trong thut ton di truyn. Ton
t di truyn phi bo ton nhng mi quan h ct yu trong qun th; v d, s c mt
v s duy nht ca tt c cc thnh ph trong hnh trnh ca ngi bn hng trong bi
ton ngi i bn hng.
Thay th thnh vin mi cho cc thnh vin hin c nh th no?

V d 1: Bi ton tha CNF
Bi ton tha mn dng chun hi (Conjunctive normal form CNF) l mt bi ton
n gin: Mt biu thc ca cc mnh (clause) dng chun hi hay CNF khi n
l mt dy cc bin mnh c kt ni vi nhau bi ton t quan h and (). Mi
mnh c dng l mt tuyn (disjunction), gm cc ton t quan h or () trn cc
bin mnh (literal).
V d : Nu ta c 6 bin mnh a, b, c, d, e v f, th biu thc sau y l mt CNF:

(1-3)
Tha mn CNF c ngha rng chng ta phi tm ra mt php gn true hoc false (1 hoc
0) cho mi bin mnh a, b, c, d, e, f sao cho biu thc CNF c gi tr l TRUE.
Mt cch biu din t nhin cho li gii ca bi ton ny l mt dy su bit, mi bit theo
th t a, b, c, d, e, f biu din true (1) hoc false (0) cho mi bin mnh . Nh vy
mu bit:

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101010
cho bit a, c, v e l true v b, d, v f l false, v do khi thay cc gi tr ny vo biu
thc (1-3), th cho gi tr false.
Chng ta mun rng cc ton t di truyn sinh ra cc th h li gii sao cho biu thc
CNF mang tr true, v vy mi ton t phi sinh ra mt mu 6-bit ca php gn true cho
biu thc. Cch biu din li gii di dng mt mu cc bit nh trn mang li cho ta
rt mt iu rt thun li l bt k ton t di truyn no (lai ghp, t bin, o ngc,
hay trao i) u to ra mt mu bit mi l mt li gii kh d hp l.
Vic chn la mt hm thch nghi cho qun th cc chui bit ny khng phi hon ton
d dng. Thot nhn chui bit, ta kh c th xc nh mt hm thch nghi nh gi
c cht lng ca n nh th no, ngha l kh on c tt ca n so vi p n
ng. p n ng y chnh l chui bit sao cho biu thc CNF c gi tr true.
Tuy nhin c mt s cch khc. Nu ta ch n biu thc CNF (1-3), th ta thy rng
n c to thnh t hi ca 5 mnh . Do chng ta c th thit lp mt h phn
hng cho php chng ta sp hng cc li gii (mu bit) tim nng trong khong gi tr t
0 n 5, ty thuc vo s mnh m mu tha mn. Do mu:
1 1 0 0 1 0 c thch nghi l 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 c thch nghi l 2
0 1 0 0 1 1 c thch nghi l 3
1 0 1 0 1 1 c thch nghi l 5, v n chnh l mt li gii.
V d 2: Bi ton ngi i bn hng TSP
Bi ton ngi bn hng (traveling salesperson problem TSP) l mt bi ton c in
i vi AI v khoa hc my tnh
Pht biu ca bi ton TSP: Mt ngi bn hng c nhim v gh thm N thnh ph
nh l mt phn ca l trnh bn hng. ng i gia mi cp thnh ph c mt chi
ph (v d nh di on ng, gi v my bay). Hy tm ra ng i c chi ph
thp nht cho ngi bn hng bt u ln ng ti mt thnh ph, thm tt c cc
thnh ph khc ch ng mt ln ri quay li thnh ph xut pht.
. Nh chng gii thiu chng III, ton b khng gian trng thi ca n i hi
phi xem xt N! trng thi c th tm ra li gii ti u, trong N l s thnh ph
cn i qua. Khi N kh ln th bi ton s b bng n t hp, v vy ngi ta t vn
l c cn thit hay khng cho vic chy mt my trm lm vic t tin trong nhiu gi
cho mt li gii ti u hay ch nn chy mt PC r tin trong vi pht c c
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nhng kt qu tt. Gii thut di truyn chnh l mt gii php cho la chn th
hai.
bi ton ny, dng mu bit biu din cho li gii ca bi ton khng phi l mt
cch hay. Chng hn, ta c chn thnh ph cn gh thm 1, 2, 9, ta xem mi thnh ph
nh mt mu 4 bit 0001, 0010, 1001. Khi mt li gii kh d s c hnh thc nh
sau:
0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001
Vi cch biu din nh vy, vic thit k cc ton t di truyn s tr nn rt kh khn.
Ton t lai ghp nht nh l khng c, v chui mi c to t hai cha m khc
nhau hu nh s khng biu din mt ng i trong gh thm mi thnh ph ng
mt ln. Trong thc t, vi lai ghp, mt s thnh ph c th b xa b trong khi cc
thnh ph khc c gh thm nhiu hn mt ln, v v vy khng phi l mt li
gii hp l. Cn ton t t bin th th no? Gi s bit tri nht ca thnh ph th su,
0110, c t bin thnh 1? 1110, hay l 14, th n khng cn l mt thnh ph hp l.
Mt cch tip cn khc l s b qua biu din dng mu bit v t cho mi thnh ph
mt tn theo bng ch ci hoc s, v d 1, 2, 9; xem ng i qua cc thnh ph l
mt s sp th t ca chn k s ny, v sau chn ton t di truyn thch hp to
ra cc ng i mi. y ta thy php trao i (exchange) ngu nhin hai thnh ph
trong ng i c th s dng c, cn php ton lai ghp (crossover) th khng. Vic
trao i cc on ca mt ng i vi nhng on khc ca cng ng i , hoc
bt c ton t no sp xp li cc ch ci ca ng i y (m khng xa b, thm,
hay nhn i bt c thnh ph no) u c th s dng c. Tuy nhin, nhng phng
php ny gy kh khn cho vic a vo th h con chu nhng thnh phn tt hn
ca cc mu trong cc ng i qua ca cc thnh ph ca hai cha m khc nhau.
Nhiu nh nghin cu a ra cc ton t lai ghp c kh nng khc phc nhng vn
ny, trong c ton t lai ghp c th t (order crossover) do Davis a ra vo nm
1985. Lai ghp c th t xy dng con chu bng cch chn mt dy con cc thnh ph
trong ng i ca mt mu cha m. N cng bo ton th t tng i cc thnh ph
t cha m kia. u tin, chn hai im ct, biu th bi du |, im ct ny c chen
vo mt cch ngu nhin vo cng mt v tr ca mi mu cha m. Nhng im ct ny
l ngu nhin, nhng mt khi c chn, th nhng v tr nh nhau s c s dng cho
c hai cha m. V d, c hai mu cho m p1 v p2, vi cc im ct sau thnh ph th
ba v th by:
p1 = (1 9 2 | 4 6 5 7 | 8 3)
p2 = (4 5 9 | 1 8 7 6 | 2 3)

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Hai mu con c1 v c2 s c sinh ra theo cch sau. u tin, cc on gia hai im

ct s c chp vo cc mu con:
c1 = (x x x | 4 6 5 7 | x x)
c2 = (x x x | 1 8 7 6 | x x)
Bc k tip l bt u t im ct th hai ca mt trong hai mu cha m, nu ta ang
mun hon tt mu c1, th ta s bt u t im ct th hai ca mu p2, ta chp cc
thnh ph t im ct ny theo th t vo cc ch cn trng ca c1, b qua nhng thnh
ph m c1 c (cc k s c in m v nghing trong s bn di). Khi n cui
mu p2, th quay li u mu p2 tip tc chp sang c1 cho n khi c1 .

Vi gii thut lai ghp ny, cc ng i ca th h con s c m bo l cc ng

i hp l, i qua mi thnh ph mt ln duy nht.
Tm li, trong lai ghp th t, cc mnh ca mt ng i c truyn t mt cha m,
p1, sang mt con, c1, trong khi sp xp ca cc thnh ph cn li ca con c1 c tha
k t cha m kia, p2. iu ny ng h cho trc gic hin nhin l th t ca cc thnh
ph ng vai tr quan trng trong vic to ra ng i vi chi ph thp nht, v v vy
vic truyn li cc on thng tin c th t ny t cc cha m c thch nghi cao sang
con ci l mt iu rt quan trng.
Ngoi ton t lai ghp th t trn, cn c rt nhiu ton t lai ghp v t bin khc
c a ra gii quyt bi ton ny. Bng 9.5 lit k cc ton t lai ghp, bng 9.6
lit k cc ton t t bin.
Nm Tc gi
Alternating Position Crossover (AP) (1999) Larranaga, Kuijpers, Poza, Murga
Cycle Crossover (CX) (1987) Oliver, Smith and Holland
Distance Preserving Crossover (DPX) (1996) Freisbein and Merz
Edge Assembly Crossover (EAX) (1997) Nagata and Kobayashi
Edge Recombination Crossover (ER) (1989) Whitley, Timothy, Fuquay

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Heuristic Crossover (HEU) (1987) Grefenstette

Inver-over Operator (IOO) (1998) Tao and Michalewicz
Maximal Preservative Crossover (MPX) (1988) Mhlenbein, Schleuter and Krmer
Position Based Crossover (POS) (1991) Syswerda
Order Crossover (OX1) (1985) Davis
Order Based Crossover (OX2) (1991) Syswerda
Partially mapped Crossover (PMX) (1985) Goldberg and Lingle
Voting Recombination Crossover (VR) (1989) Mhlenbein
Bng 9.5 - Danh sch cc ton t lai ghp cho bi ton TSP.

Bng 9.6 - Danh sch cc ton t t bin cho bi ton TSP.

nh gi gii thut
Cc v d va nu trn lm ni bt nhng vn mang tnh duy nht ca thut ton di
truyn v biu din tri thc, chn ton t di truyn, v thit k hm thch nghi. Biu din
c chn phi h tr cho cc ton t di truyn. Mt im dng lu na l cc ton
t di truyn phi c thit k sao cho bo lu c nhng mnh thng tin c ngha
trong li gii tim nng t th h ny sang cc th h tip theo.
Mt sc mnh quan trng ca thut ton di truyn l bn cht song song trong tm kim
ca n. Cc thut ton ny thc hin mt dng mnh ca leo ni (hill climbing) trong
duy tr nhiu li gii (trong qun th cc li gii), loi b nhng li gii khng c
trin vng, v nng cao cht lng ca nhng li gii tt. Hnh 9.19 phng theo Holland

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(1986), cho thy nhiu li gii hi t v cc im ti u trong khng gian tm kim.

Trong hnh ny, trc honh biu din cc im c th c trong khng gian li gii, trong
khi trc tung phn nh cht lng ca nhng li gii . Cc im chm nm trn cung
l cc thnh vin ca qun th hin ti. Khi u, nhng li gii c ri trong khng
gian nhng li gii c th c. Sau mt vi th h, chng c khuynh hng cm li xung
quanh nhng vng c cht lng li gii cao hn.

Hnh 9.19- Cc thut ton di truyn c xem l leo ni song song (theo Holland
1986)Tuy nhin, vi sc mnh nh vy, gii thut genetic cng khng th p dng cho
tt c cc bi ton c th c. V nh ta thy qua hai v d trn, li gii ca bi ton phi
c biu din di mt dng mu thch hp cho cc ton t di truyn hot ng.
Trong thc t c nhiu bi ton khng th lm c iu ny. V vy, khi nghin cu
v gii thut ny, c rt nhiu cu hi c a ra nhm hiu r hn na v bn
cht hot ng ca n:
Liu chng ta c th a ra nhng c im v cc loi bi ton m gii thut
di truyn (GA) c th thc hin tt
Cc loi bi ton no th khng thch hp vi GA.
Da vo u ta c th ni l GA thc hin tt hay khng tt i vi mt loi
bi ton no ?
Liu c nhng qui lut no m t hnh vi ca GA mc v m? Hay c th
hn, l liu c bt k s phn on no v s thay i ca thch nghi ca cc
nhm con trong qun th theo thi gian?
C cch no m t cc hiu ng khc nhau ca cc ton t di truyn nh lai
ghp, t bin, o ngc, v.v
Trong nhng trng hp no (bi ton no, ton t di truyn no) th GA s
thc hin tt hn cc phng php nghin cu ca TTNT truyn thng.
Nhng cu hi ny (v cn nhiu hn na) vn v ang c cc nh khoa hc nh
Holland, Mitchell, Golderg, nghin cu.

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TNG KT CHNG IX
Ni dung chnh ca chng ny bao gm:
Gii thiu tng qut v mt nhnh nghin cu mi ca Tr Tu Nhn To, l
Hc my. Hc c nh ngha nh l bt c s thay i no trong mt h
thng cho php n tin hnh tt hn trong ln th hai khi lp li cng mt
nhim v hoc vi mt nhim v khc rt ra t cng mt qun th cc nhim
v .
C ba tip cn hc: Tip cn th nht l tip cn k hiu, hai l tip cn mng
neuron hay kt ni v tip cn th ba l tip cn ni tri haydi truyn v tin
ha.
Cc chng trnh hc theo tip cn k hiu s biu din vn di dng cc
k hiu. Chng ny trnh by mt gii thut c s dng rng ri ca tip
cn ny, l ID3. ID3 s hc t tp d liu rn luyn bao gm rt nhiu v d,
mi v d bao gm mt tp cc cp thuc tnh gi tr. Thuc tnh v gi tr
y l cc k hiu. Sau khi hc xong, ID3 biu din khi nim hc c bng
mt cy quyt nh.
Tip cn kt ni hay mng neuron m phng h thn kinh ca con ngi hc
c cc khi nim m khng s dng k hiu biu din vn . Mng n
tng perceptron cho thy sc mnh ca mng neuron, tuy nhin kh nng p
dng ca chng ch hn ch cho cc bi ton c tnh tch ri tuyn tnh. Mng
a tng p dng gii thut hc lan truyn ngc vt qua nhng hn ch ca
mng perceptron, chng t c sc mnh thc s ca tip cn ny.
Tng t nh tip cn kt ni, tip cn di truyn v tin ha c cm hng bt
ngun t tri thc ca con ngi v s tin ha ca sinh vt: ch c nhng c th
c kh nng thch nghi vi s thay i ca mi trng th mi tn ti v pht
trin. Thut ton di truyn m phng theo nguyn l .
Bi tp chng IX
Cho mt tp hp cc v d rn luyn nh sau:

An mun p dng gii thut ID3 xy dng cy quyt nh vi tp d liu rn luyn

trn. p dng cc cng thc tnh entropy v gain, hy gip An xc nh thuc tnh no
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(A1, A2, hay A3) l thuc tnh tt nht hi u tin nhm to ra mt cy quyt nh
n gin nht. (Lu : phi trnh by cc tnh ton entropy v gain i n kt lun).
ng dng gii thut di truyn tm gi tr ca cc bin x, y, z sao cho hm f(x,y,z) =
ysin(zcos(x)) xcos(zsin(y)) t gi tr ln nht. Bit rng 0 < x < 10, 0< y < 10, 0 <z
< 10.
Cho mt tp hp gm 10 v d rn luyn nh sau:

Tp d liu trn th hin quyt nh s ch bn hay khng ca mt ngi khi bc vo

mt nh hng ng khch khng cn bn trng. Quyt nh ca anh ta s ph thuc
vo mt s yu t nh hm c phi l ngy cui tun khng (cui-tun) A1, anh
ta c ang i khng (ang-i) A2, thi gian ch bn (TG-ch) A3: di 10 pht
(0-10), t 10 n 30 pht (10-30) hay trn 30 pht (>30).
p dng cc cng thc tnh entropy v gain, xc nh thuc tnh tt nht hi k
tip nhm to ra mt cy quyt nh n gin nht theo gii thut ID3. Trnh by cc
tnh ton entropy v gain mi bc.

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TI LIU THAM KHO

TI LIU THAM KHO
SCH
George F. Luger, William A. Stubblefield Artificial Intelligence - Structure and
Strategies for Complex Problem Solving(3rd edition) - Wesley Publishing Company,
1997
Bi Xun Toi, Trng Gia Vit (Bin dch) Tr tu nhn to Cc cu trc v chin
lc gii quyt vn - NXB Thng k, 2000
Elaine Rich, Kevin Knight Artificial Intelligence (Second Edition) McGraw-Hill,
1991.
Tom M. Mitchell Machine Learning McGraw Hill, Inc, 1997
Jean-Louis Laurire Problem solving methods and Artificial Intelligence - Prentice
Hall, 1987,1990
Judea Pearl Heuristics Intelligent Search Strategies for Computer Problem Solving
Addison-Wesley Publishing company, 1984
Stuart J. Russell and Peter Norvig ArtificalIntelligence: A Modern Approach Prentice
Hall. Second edition, 2002
Bch Hng Khang, Hong Kim Tr tu nhn to Cc phng php v ng dng NXB Khoa hc k thut, 1989
PTS. Nguyn Thanh Thy Tr tu nhn to Cc phng php gii quyt vn v
k thut x l tri thc NXB Gio dc, 1995.
Nguyn Trung Tun Tr tu nhn to (ti liu dng cho sinh vin, k s, c nhn
ngnh CNTT) - NXB Gio dc, 1998
TRANG WEB
Wikipedia Bch khoa ton th m - Lch s ngnh Tr tu nhn to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence

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Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (Second Edition) by Stuart

Russell and Peter Norvig : Introduction on AI
http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/
Heuristic search
http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~alison/ai3notes/subsection2_6_2_3.html
Blackboard Architecture
http://www.nb.net/~javadoug/bb.htm
Wikipedia Bch khoa ton th m - H chuyn gia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_system
H chuyn gia
http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~alison/ai3notes/chapter2_5.html
H chuyn gia MYCIN
http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave/AI1/mycin.html
Fuzzy Logic
http://pandora.compsci.ualr.edu/ milanova/7399-11/week14/ FuzzyLogic.ppt
Wikipedia Bch khoa ton th m - Hc my: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Machine_learning

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Tham gia ng gp
Ti liu: Tr tu nhn to
Bin tp bi: Trn Ngn Bnh
URL: http://voer.edu.vn/c/764b3239
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Li ni u
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/9091b0ec
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: GII THIU TNG QUAN V TR TU NHN TO
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/69497232
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: GII THIU V TR TU NHN TO
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/be6c71bf
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: LCH S HNH THNH V PHT TRIN CA TR TU NHN TO
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/2c2f7092
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: NH NGHA TR TU NHN TO
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/bc02d3a0
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: KHI QUT CC LNH VC NG DNG CA TTNT
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/0022c3a8

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Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Module: MT S TNG KT V TTNT
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/e868b119
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: LOGIC HNH THC
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/9dce2657
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: I SNH MU V PHP HP NHT
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/7e324e08
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: M U
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/70515552
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: CC CHIN LC DNG CHO TM KIM TRONG KHNG GIAN
TRNG THI (TK-KGTT)
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/83f45674
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: DNG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI BIU DIN QU TRNH SUY
LUN BNG PHP TNH V T
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/5e57f683
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: M U
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/2ab0f63d
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Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Module: THUT TON TM KIM HEURISTIC
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/90488a73
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: S DNG HEURISTIC TRONG CC TR CHI
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/a66239c3
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: TM KIM DA TRN C S QUI
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/2b04cc7e
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: H THNG LUT SINH (H SINH PRODUCTION SYSTEM)
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/23be6661
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: KIN TRC BNG EN (BLACKBOARD ARCHITECTURE)
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/13967c0c
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Gii thiu:
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/e66281f2
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: TNG QUAN V CNG NGH H CHUYN GIA
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/50e51387
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

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Module: H chuyn gia DA trn LUT (RULEBASED ES)

Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/cb7ee57c
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: SUY LUN DA TRN M HNH: (MODELBASED REASONING)
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/62b77327
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: SUY LUN DA TRN TRNG HP: (caSeBASED REASONING)
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/339b82be
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Gii thiu
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/8b9fa2d1
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: TIP CN THNG K I VI TNH KHNG CHC CHN
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/205e7423
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: SUY LUN VI CC TP M (fUZZY LOGIC)
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/016c4f61
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Gii thiu
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/f5812ee3
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: NHN XT V PHNG PHP HP GII

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Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo

URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/0ed5547f
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Gii thiu
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/203bcc4e
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: TIP CN K HIU: gII THUT QUY NP CY QUYT NH ID3
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/cb4f35f8
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: TIP CN KT NI: MNG NEURON
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/d120b932
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: TIP CN X HI V NI TRI: GII THUT DI TRUYN (GENETIC
ALGORITHM - GA)
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/0499fa55
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: TI LIU THAM KHO
Cc tc gi: Huynh Tram Vo
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/6ad41374
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

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Chng trnh Th vin Hc liu M Vit Nam

Chng trnh Th vin Hc liu M Vit Nam (Vietnam Open Educational Resources
VOER) c h tr bi Qu Vit Nam. Mc tiu ca chng trnh l xy dng kho
Ti nguyn gio dc M min ph ca ngi Vit v cho ngi Vit, c ni dung phong
ph. Cc ni dung u tun th Giy php Creative Commons Attribution (CC-by) 4.0
do cc ni dung u c th c s dng, ti s dng v truy nhp min ph trc
ht trong trong mi trng ging dy, hc tp v nghin cu sau cho ton x hi.
Vi s h tr ca Qu Vit Nam, Th vin Hc liu M Vit Nam (VOER) tr thnh
mt cng thng tin chnh cho cc sinh vin v ging vin trong v ngoi Vit Nam. Mi
ngy c hng chc nghn lt truy cp VOER (www.voer.edu.vn) nghin cu, hc
tp v ti ti liu ging dy v. Vi hng chc nghn module kin thc t hng nghn
tc gi khc nhau ng gp, Th Vin Hc liu M Vit Nam l mt kho tng ti liu
khng l, ni dung phong ph phc v cho tt c cc nhu cu hc tp, nghin cu ca
c gi.
Ngun ti liu m phong ph c trn VOER c c l do s chia s t nguyn ca cc
tc gi trong v ngoi nc. Qu trnh chia s ti liu trn VOER tr ln d dng nh
m 1, 2, 3 nh vo sc mnh ca nn tng Hanoi Spring.
Hanoi Spring l mt nn tng cng ngh tin tin c thit k cho php cng chng d
dng chia s ti liu ging dy, hc tp cng nh ch ng pht trin chng trnh ging
dy da trn khi nim v hc liu m (OCW) v ti nguyn gio dc m (OER) . Khi
nim chia s tri thc c tnh cch mng c khi xng v pht trin tin phong
bi i hc MIT v i hc Rice Hoa K trong vng mt thp k qua. K t , phong
tro Ti nguyn Gio dc M pht trin nhanh chng, c UNESCO h tr v c
chp nhn nh mt chng trnh chnh thc nhiu nc trn th gii.

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