Professional Documents
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World of Theatre PDF
World of Theatre PDF
s a m p l e
c h a p t e r
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The Audience
P artners in P erformance
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History
IN PERSPECTIVE
at the Ise Shrine, the most sacred spot in Japan, priestesses of the indigenous Shinto religion perform special
dance ceremonies. Here too, audiences may come to
watch, but the performers face away from them because
the dances are meant primarily for the pleasure of the divine spectators, the Shinto gods. As the human audience
takes on increased importance, we see the movement
from sacred ritual to secular theatre.
We have evidence that ancient Greek tragedy evolved
from dithyrambs, hymns sung and danced in praise of
the god Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility, and early
Greek theatres contained an altar. From the ancient
Egyptian Abydos ritual performance that hieroglyphs date
to 2500 B.C.E. to the Christian passion plays of medieval
Europe, many of the rituals associated with performance
tell tales of resurrection and renewal often connected to
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Scholars believe that many forms of theatre evolved from religious ritual in which
everyone present was a participant and the intended audience was the invisible divinity.
When one member of the group first steps out of a communal role to perform for the
others, theatre appears in its embryonic form. By claiming the role of the actor, the performer also creates the audience. Over time, as the roles become more clearly divided by
functionaudience, performer, playwrightwe have the development of the theatrical
form. In this model, theatre is deeply tied to its communal roots, with the actor and the
audience emerging from the same tightly knit group and held together by an invisible
bond. In some ways, the theatre is always about communitythe community of artists
that create it, the community of spectators that observe it, and the union of both groups
in the moment of performance.
Even today, when the roles of actor and audience feel so distinct, they are still
codependent in the creation of theatre. Actors on stage can feel the audiences reactions and consciously or unconsciously adjust the performance accordingly. If the audience is laughing, an actor will wait until the laughter has died down to speak the
next line. If the audience is quiet and unresponsive, an actor might unconsciously push
or work harder to get the audience to react. An unexpected noise such as the ring of
a cellphone or a sneeze might cause an actor to lose focus for a moment. In many
performance traditions in which participation of the community is required, actors
may direct all their energy toward heightening the audience involvement. Theatre performers are always playing in relation to the audience as its members laugh, cry, sigh,
and breathe together. The live actoraudience interaction is one of the special thrills
of the theatre for both performers and spectators, and it pulls actors back to the theatre despite lucrative film careers.
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Photo 2.1
In this production of The
Blacks: A Clown Show by Jean
Genet, levels of reality were confused as the blackwhite political conflict that is the subject of
this play is realized through the
direct confrontation of white
audience members by black actors. This action reversed the
traditional power structure between blacks and and whites.
At some performances white
spectators were traumatized by
the psychological assault of the
drama. Directed by Christopher
McElroen for the Classical
Theatre of Harlem.
Courtesy of The Classical Theatre
of Harlem, Inc., photo by Richard
Termine
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Photo 2.2
Note the images and symbols
of Chicano culture in Cherrie
Moragas Heroes and Saints at
Brava! for Women in the Arts,
San Francisco, directed by Albert Takazauckas. Actors: Hector Correa and Jaime Lujan.
Courtesy of Brava Theater Center,
photo by David M. Allen
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choose to exploit these differences for social or political reasons. Whether through empathy or distance, the goal is always to increase our understanding of others like or unlike ourselves.
The Free Southern Theaters 1968 production of Slave Ship by Amiri Baraka (b.
1934; also known as Leroi Jones), enacted a history of African Americans in the United
States and deliberately divided its audience along racial lines. A symbolic slave ship was
constructed in the middle of the large playing area, with close seating on all sides. The
hold of the ship, where slave bodies were piled in cramped quarters, was eye level with
the audience, magnifying the inhuman conditions on board. During an enacted slave
auction, female slaves were stripped topless and thrust at white men in the audience, who
were asked what they thought the women were worth. Many white audience members
were so disturbed by this aggressive confrontation with history that they left at midpoint;
others wished they had. At the end of the piece, cast members, invoking black power
movements, invited black audience members to join them in encircling the white audience, while shouting for violent revolution. At many performances, black audience members, feeling empowered by the performance, joined the cast in shouting and
intimidating white spectators. Many white audience members felt threatened and angry
that they had paid to be abused, or felt helpless to express their sympathy with the blacks
in an atmosphere of hostility. This play was meant to provoke different responses from
different audience members to teach the lessons of history, and racial background could
not help but influence the audiences experience of the play. A 2003 production of Jean
Genets The Blacks by the Classical Theatre of Harlem used the same techniques to polarize the audience along racial lines and drive
home similar points (see Photo 2.1). Once again,
many white audience members were visibly shaken
by the direct confrontation.
Chicana playwright Cherrie Moraga (b. 1952)
focuses on the problems of the community of
Mexican American migrant farmworkers in California. In her play, Heroes and Saints, the bodiless
central character Cerezita represents Chicano children with birth defects from pesticides used in the
fields (see Photo 2.2). The plays treatment of homosexuality within the Chicano community interweaves sexuality with religious symbolism and
seeks to expose the oppressive aspects of Catholicism. Moraga liberally mixes English and Spanish
dialogue, reflecting the actual speech patterns of
the Chicano community. The play draws heavily
on Chicano cultural images, and audience members unfamiliar with Spanish or with the social
world Moraga depicts might feel lost or unable to
appreciate her reworking of cultural symbols.
Those familiar with that community might feel
deeply touched by the play. These charged themes
provoke different responses based on sexual preference and religiosity, even within the Chicano
community.
Eve Enslers popular play Vagina Monologues
(see Chapter 1), dealing with such an intimate part
of the female anatomy, elicits different responses
from audience members based on their gender,
even creating a sisterhood among women in the
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Photo 2.3
Note the platform stages reminiscent of fairground booths.
The audience can watch different scenes from various sides
and angles. Some audience
members stand to get a better
view of action taking place at
the opposite side of the playing
area. The Thtre du Soleil
performing 1789 directed by
Ariane Mnouchkine. Scenery
by Roberto Moscoso and costumes by Franoise Tournafond. Cartoucherie de
Vincennes, Paris, 1970.
Martine Franck/Magnum Photos
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In 19701971 the French troupe the Thtre du Soleil created 1789 in the companys
huge old ammunition factory on the outskirts of Paris. Its scenes from the French Revolution took place on five stages surrounding the audience creating a fairground atmosphere with multiple focuses. The audience chose where to look just as they might at an
outdoor fair (see Photo 2.3). One particularly poignant moment used two stages at opposite ends of the space to represent the physical and cultural distance that separated
Louis XVI, the French king, from the illiterate peasants in the countryside. While the
king proclaimed that he wanted to respond to his subjects needs, the peasants had no
means of communicating with him.
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Photo 2.4
At the Roman Arena in Verona,
Italy, audience members play
their part in the operatic spectacle by lighting small candles
during the overture. The entire
arena is aglow in an audiencecreated lighting effect.
Photo by Gianfranco Fainello, Fondazione Arena di Verona. All rights
are exclusively reserved.
played to spectators unfamiliar with their expected role, it can feel like a rock band performing for a classical music audience. The performances can seem lifeless without the
expected audience response, and actors who have come to rely on the vocal support of
their admirers can feel let down. If you are unfamiliar with these customs, you will surely
not be able to fully appreciate a performance that depends on your interaction. You may
feel out of place or unsure how to conduct yourself. One of the most important things to
learn about the theatre is how to be an appropriate audience member.
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Throughout the Middle Ages, theatre was very much a community affair. Audiences
would gather around wandering players in town squares and interact with each other
and the performers. The Christian cycle plays that began in the fourteenth century and
depicted stories from the Old and New Testaments were projects that engaged the entire
town in preparation. The audience who had shared in the creation of the piece, providing sets, costumes, props, and other needs, attended in an open spirit of camaraderie to
watch their fellow townsmen perform.
An open exchange between actors and the public was part of the spirit of the theatre
even as performances became more formal events performed by professional actors in
theatre buildings during the sixteenth century. In his own time, Shakespeares plays were
performed before a rowdy audience who booed, hissed, cheered, conversed, ate, drank,
and even threw food at the performers, offering one explanation for the rat infestation
in theatres of the period. Many believe that the open roof of the Elizabethan playhouse
was a means to let the stench of food, drink, and unwashed bodies escape. If we remember that Shakespeare wrote for a popular audience, we can appreciate the earthy humor,
double entendres, and theatrical devices that made him a crowd pleaser.
In late seventeenth-century Europe, as theatre moved increasingly indoors, the behavior of the audience was somewhat tempered, but spectators were still actively engaged
in the event. Indoor theatre in this period was a social event for an elite audience. Candelabra lit up the audience as well as the stage, and the horseshoe-shaped auditorium
made it as easy to be seen by others as to see the show. Those seated on the long sides of
the horseshoe actually had to turn their heads to the side to see the stage; when they
looked straight ahead or down, they looked at each other and could easily observe who
else was in the audience, what they were wearing, and who were their escorts, feeding the
social gossip of the time. Some spectators even sat onstage when additional seats were
added to raise revenues, bringing them even more attention.
Photo 2.5
In 1830, audience riots followed the first performance of
Victor Hugos Hernani, pictured here in a painting by Albert Besnard. Hugos romantic
play broke with the stage conventions of neoclassical
tragedy, and the romantics and
the classicists drew battle lines
as to which form should dominate. The horseshoe shape of
the theatre enabled those in the
circular balconies to communicate with the spectators in the
orchestra, facilitating the
shouting match.
Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
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History
IN PERSPECTIVE
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European plays of the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries were punctuated
with dramatic devices addressed directly to the audience such as asidesshort comments that revealed a characters inner thoughts often to comic effect, soliloquies
lengthy speeches through which a character revealed state of mind, and dazzling poetic
monologues or speeches. The audience might erupt in appreciative applause after a
monologue or soliloquy, much the way they do today at the opera after an aria.
The eighteenth- and nineteenth-century theatre, reflecting the democratic revolutions occurring in the outside world, increasingly included popular entertainments and
easily accessible drama. American audiences were some of the rowdiest of all. They exercised their democratic freedom at theatre events and brought tomatoes, cabbages, and
rotten eggs with them to throw at the actors if they didnt like the performance. Sometimes they tore up the seats, throwing those as well, and on occasion they were moved to
riot. At a good performance they cheered ecstatically and cried out for encores; an actor
would have to repeat a speech as many times as the crowd demanded.
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Aesthetic Distance
Peculiarly, the more the conventions of realism separated the audience from the actors,
and the more passively the audience watched, the more they lost their aesthetic distance,
the ability to observe a work of art with a degree of detachment and objectivity. Realism
drew audiences into the performance. The presentation of a world so like their own, inhabited by characters whose concerns and problems so closely paralleled their own experience, heightened the level of audience identification and emotional involvement with the
characters on the stage. Styles other than realism still provide a constant reminder of the
fiction before us, and this awareness enables us to separate psychologically from the work.
Every theatrical experience sets up an emotional relationship with the audience that
is regulated by theatrical convention. This can range from icy dispassion to overwhelming emotional involvement. Some amount of distance is always necessary; without it, we
would be unable to discern that the events unfolding on the stage are a fiction and that
the actors are really playing characters who live only for the duration of the performance.
Distance maintains the audiences sanity, or else we would all be leaping onto the stage
to stop Romeo from killing himself. Theatre critics from Plato to the present have debated the importance of aesthetic distance and its moral implications. Many have feared
that exposing the audience to violent or sexually explicit acts and offensive language can
foster such behavior. Others have argued that aesthetic distance permits a purging of our
aggressive desires through art and enactment. Aristotle (384322 B.C.E.) referred to this
emotional release as catharsis. These concerns are echoed in todays discussions of violence in the media.
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Photo 2.6
Calavera drums up an audience for a Teatro Campesino
performance in Fresno, circa
1969. Pictured: Feliz Alvarez,
Chale Martinez, Manuel Pickett, Lupe Valdez, Phil Esparza.
Courtesy of El Teatro Campesino
of political theatre aimed at activating audiences for social change in the real world took
root. Such political theatre places special demands on its audience, as its goal is to spur
them to real action. Practitioners experiment with strategies for audience activation
adapted to specific circumstances and political goals.
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Photo 2.7
The map that serves as backdrop and the puppet-like figure of Hitler are both devices
that create a distancing effect
in this production of Bertolt
Brechts Schweyk in the Second
World War directed by Richard
Eyre at the Olivier Theatre,
London.
ArenaPal/Topham/The Image
Works
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Through these and other techniques, Brecht hoped to achieve what he called the
verfremdungseffekt, translated as distancing or alienation effect, a separation of the audience emotionally from the dramatic action. The audience is thus an observer, able to
decide the best course of action to resolve social ills. As politically motivated theatre
practitioners around the world adopted Brechts methods, these devices became a part of
our theatrical vocabulary and no longer have the same startling effect on audiences;
artists therefore continue to look for new techniques and strategies.
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Performance
IN PERSPECTIVE
ADAPTING POLITICAL
STRATEGIES TO LOCAL
AUDIENCES
In countries the world over, political theatre groups develop strategies and find theatrical forms that can speak
to local audiences and issues. When the Peruvian troupe
Yuyachkani discovered that its early pieces about land
reform and miners strikes did not connect with its audiences, its director Miguel Rubio incorporated traditional
celebrations, masks, songs, dances, and costumes from
the communities of miners and peasants they sought to
activate. They now begin a show with a fiesta that is
interrupted by a dramatic conflict.
The Parivartan Theatre Project in the tribal area of
Khedbrahma in Gujarat, India, uses local villagers as performers and incorporates traditional songs and folk theatre conventions to address tribal attitudes toward
women and issues of domestic violence, dowry death,
and infanticide, which plague the region. The first part of
a presentation enacts a well-known folk tale related to
the treatment of women, and the second part retells the
story in a contemporary context. The players go from
house to house to announce the show and after the
presentation disperse into the crowd to discuss the play
with the villagers in small groups.
Sistern, a theatre collective in Jamaica, presents plays
in Creole by and for working-class women on topics such
as womens work, incest, poverty, and violence against
women. In their workshops they use
improvisation, oral histories, traditional
ring games, folk tales, and other techniques to address problems, find solutions, and turn the womens
experiences into educational performances. Their 1978 production
Bellywoman Bangarang, about
teenage pregnancy, was staged in the
audience as a further means of reaching out to spectators.
Yuyachkani grabs the attention of villagers in Quinua, Peru with festive costumes, musicians, and stiltwalkers.
Courtesy of Casa Yuyachkani, Peru
In times of political repression and censorship, a special bond can form between theatres and their audiences
as artists seek to be the communitys mouthpiece. Under
President Suhartos oppressive dictatorship, Indonesias
N. Riantiarno and his group, Teater Koma, addressed
Jakartas urban middle class and critiqued contemporary
society and politics in a blend of Western-style structured
scripts, Brechtian aesthetics, and musical theatre with influences from Indonesias indigenous and more improvisational folk forms. In Time Bomb (Bom Waktu, 1982),
audiences watched the struggles of Jakartas urban slum
dwellers play out underneath a fancy restaurant where
wealthy diners eat a sumptuous meal. In the Philippines
under Ferdinand Marcoss martial law and severe theatrical censorship (19721986), amateur groups, student
groups, and professional urban and rural theatres all took
an active role in denouncing the regimes corruption and
use of torture. In 1979 PETA (The Philippine Educational
Theatre Association) transformed the folk pannuluyan,
a Christmastime street procession in which Joseph and
Mary search for an inn. In their version, seeing the slum
conditions, Joseph and Mary join forces with the downand-out of the city. In 1984, on Human Rights Day, students and faculty from the University of the Philippines
performed The Nations Oratorio (Ortoroyo Ng Bayan).
While the audience sang and chanted, the actors read
out articles from the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, enacting scenes that illustrated its abuse under
the current regime.
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Artists
IN PERSPECTIVE
inflammatory political statements that brought spectators to their feet, and sometimes to
the top of their seats, screaming back in anger. Company members then invited spectators to join them onstage and in their nomadic, tribal lifestyle.
The work of the Living Theatre became famous and inspired many theatre artists of
the 1960s and after to adapt the groups techniques for their own purposes. The Living
Theatre is still held up as an important example of engaged theatre and continues to perform today with pieces such as Not in My Name, a ritualistic action against the death
penalty, enacted in Times Square in New York City on the eve of every state execution.
In this piece, performers confront passers-by individually, avowing that they themselves
will never kill and asking spectators for the same commitment, continuing their use of
direct encounter to motivate an end to violence.
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pieces in public for surveillance cameras. Their performances point out the unobtrusive
cameras that watch our every move.
At his Church of Stop Shopping, Bill Talen performs in the guise of Reverend Billy,
a preacher who speaks out against consumer culture. Performances are mock revival
meetings with left-wing politics rather than religion as their theme. During the course of
his shows, Reverend Billy asks audience members to practice stop-shopping techniques
such as discarding their credit cards. At the end of every piece, Reverend Billy leads the
audience outside the theatre to take action in the real world. His audiences have walked
to a community garden under threat by corporate development and planted seeds, and
marched with him to picket the local Starbucks that had forced out neighborhood stores.
Reverend Billys audience participation teaches spectators how grassroots activism can
help local people take back control of their neighborhoods.
Photo 2.8
Original cast members, Rachel
Benbow Murdy as Mia and
Anna Wilson as Sander, perform among the audience in
The Donkey Show, club El
Flamingo, New York. Note the
lively interaction with the involved crowd. Randy Weiner
and Diane Paulus, creators and
writers.
Courtesy of and special thanks to
Randy Weiner, Creator and Writer
of THE DONKEY SHOW, Diane
Paulus, Creator and Director of
THE DONKEY SHOW and Keira
Fromm Resident Director of Project
400 Theater Group and THE DONKEY SHOW.
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Photo 2.9
For this production of Faust,
heavy demands were placed on
the audience. Note the audience members standing and
surrounding the action and the
orange curtains that separate
the playing spaces used for alternate scenes. The audiences
frequent migrations between
the spaces forced them to continually reorganize themselves,
fostering social interactions.
Goethes Faust, Parts I and II,
directed by Peter Stein, Berlin,
Germany.
Ruth Walz
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Photo 2.10
Members of the Montana
Shakespeare in the Parks company bring their performances
to remote areas around the
state and are housed by local
families. Featured here is a performance of Tartuffe in Poker
Jim Butte. The audience travels
long distances to partake of
this cultural event
Ted Wood
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KEY IDEAS
The audiences presence is vital to the theatrical experience. The immediate interaction between actor and audience is one of the special thrills of live performance.
The presence and participation of the audience reflects
the theatres communal roots in ritual. When you join
the audience, you become part of a unique, temporary
community.
Audience members also respond to the theatre as individuals influenced by their own personal histories. Ethnicity, religion, race, class, or gender can divide or unite
an audience.
Unlike film audiences, theatre audiences choose their
focus.
Conventions of audience response and participation
vary from place to place, throughout history, and even
from one production to another. These conventions