ARTICLE IN PRESS

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 509 (2003) 7685

Monte Carlo simulation of the imaging properties of

scintillator-coated X-ray pixel detectors
. a, X. Badelb
M. Hjelma,b,*, B. Norlina, H.-E. Nilssona, C. Frojdh
b

a
Department of Information Technology and Media, Mid-Sweden University, SE-851 70 Sundsvall, Sweden
Department of Microelectronics and Information Technology, Royal Institute of Technology, Electrum 229, SE-164 40 Kista, Sweden

Abstract
The spatial resolution of scintillator-coated X-ray pixel detectors is usually limited by the isotropic light spread in the
scintillator. One way to overcome this limitation is to use a pixellated scintillating layer on top of the semiconductor
pixel detector. Using advanced etching and lling techniques, arrays of CsI columns have been successfully fabricated
and characterized. Each CsI waveguide matches one pixel of the semiconductor detector, limiting the spatial spread of
light. Another concept considered in this study is to detect the light emitted from the scintillator by diodes formed in the
silicon pore walls. There is so far no knowledge regarding the theoretical limits for these two approaches, which makes
the evaluation of the fabrication process difcult. In this work we present numerical calculations of the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) for detector designs based on scintillator-lled pores in silicon. The calculations are based on separate
Monte Carlo (MC) simulations of X-ray absorption and light transport in scintillator waveguides. The resulting data
are used in global MC simulations of ood exposures of the detector array, from which the SNR values are obtained.
Results are presented for two scintillator materials, namely CsI(Tl) and GADOX.
r 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PACS: 07.05.Tp; 07.85.Fv; 29.40.Mc; 87.59.
e; 87.59.Hp; 78.55.
m
Keywords: X-ray; Signal-to-noise ratio; Monte Carlo simulation; Imaging; Pixel detector; Scintillating screen

1. Introduction
Among different X-ray applications, imaging is
without doubt the most important, with a variety
of utilizations. Originally, the only available
technique for imaging was the photographic lm.
With the development of electronics, computers
*Corresponding author. Address for correspondence: Department of Information Technology and Media, Mid-Sweden
University, SE-851 70 Sundsvall, Sweden. Tel.: +46-60-148573;
fax: +46-60-148456.
E-mail address: mats.hjelm@mh.se (M. Hjelm).

and semiconductor detectors, digital imaging

systems are increasing in importance. One approach in these digital systems, used for dental
applications, is to use a silicon charge coupled
detector (CCD) [1]. To overcome the low quantum
efciency of Si for typical dental X-ray energies
(2060 keV), the CCD may be coated with a
scintillating material [2]. This results in good
quantum efciency, but the light emitted in the
scintillating layer is spread laterally, which deteriorates the spatial resolution [35]. The resolution
can be improved with maintained high quantum
efciency if the scintillator material is grown as a

0168-9002/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(03)01553-5

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M. Hjelm et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 509 (2003) 7685

matrix of columns [6,7]. Alternatively, advanced

etching techniques can be used to create a silicon
matrix of pores, which are subsequently lled with
a scintillator, e.g. CsI [812]. In this work we
present numerical calculations of the signal-tonoise ratio (SNR) for two detector designs based
on the latter principle.

77

Scintillator
SiO2
Si

2. Simulated devices
Two possibilities to detect the emitted light are
studied: a CCD coupled to the scintillator-lled pore
array, i.e. the device studied experimentally in Ref.
[12], and diodes located in the pore bottoms and on
the pore walls of the silicon pore matrix. In the
following text we refer to the detector using a CCD as
the CCD device, and to the detector using diode
light-detectors as the diode device. The latter device
was simulated in two versions: (i) with diodes in the
four sidewalls and the bottom of each pore, and (ii)
with diodes only in the bottom of the pores. An
interesting alternative for the light detection is to
use CMOS light sensors [1316], which are not
explicitly simulated in this work. Nevertheless, a
scintillator array placed on top of a CMOS camera
with the same pitch is very similar to the studied
device with diodes in the bottom of the pores, and
we consider the results obtained to be applicable
also for the alternative with a CMOS light detector.
All simulated structures have a scintillator
matrix with 45 mm pitch; see Fig. 1. Walls of
silicon, covered with SiO2 on both sides, separate
the scintillator cells. For the diode device, these
walls are studied in two combinations of SiO2 and
Si layer thicknesses (see Table 1). Side views of the
simulated devices are shown in Figs. 2 and 3 for
the CCD and diode device, respectively. Note that
the pore matrix is also separated from the CCD
light detector with a bre-optic faceplate, resulting
in an effective insulation of the CCD from X-ray
exposure. The thickness of the poly-Si layer in the
CCD device is 0.6 mm. As scintillator material,
CsI(Tl) has been considered as the primary choice,
but to compare with another scintillator, GADOX-lled pores have also been simulated. In the
simulations of light transport it has been assumed
that there is neither dispersion nor attenuation of

Fig. 1. Top view of the simulated structures.

Table 1
Geometrical data

SiO2 thickness (mm)

Si thickness (mm)

CCD

Thick diode

Thin diode

1
2

1
2

2
1

Si

Scintillator
SiO2
Si

Poly-Si

SiO2
Si

Fig. 2. Cross-sectional view of the CCD device. The pore

matrix is separated from the CCD light detector with a breoptic faceplate, not shown in the picture.

the light in the scintillator waveguide. An exception was made for the attenuation caused by pore
defects in the CCD device.

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78

Air

X-rays
MCNP simulation
3x3 pixels

Light
Ray-tracing MC
3x3 pixels

Energy absorption data

Light transmission data

Scintillator
SiO2
Si

Pixel detector MC
25x25 pixels

Si
Si detector for central pixel

Fig. 3. Cross-sectional view of the diode device.

3. Simulation method
All simulations have been performed with a
combination of three Monte Carlo (MC) programs, as shown in Fig. 4. For the interaction
between X-rays and the device, MCNP4C from
Los Alamos was used [17]. In the MCNP
simulation, an X-ray spectrum corresponding to
a 60 kV dental X-ray source with 2 mm Al ltering
was used. All X-ray photons were assumed to be
incident vertically from above the device. In order
to obtain a realistic distribution of the quantity of
light emitted by the scintillator, as well as the
number of electronhole pairs generated by direct
absorption in Si, the distribution of absorbed
energy was sampled in intervals of 5 keV for both
the scintillator and Si. In the cases where the depth
distribution of absorbed energy in the scintillator
was important (the CCD device and the diode
device with diode only in the bottom), the
scintillator sampling was also divided vertically
into 10 mm intervals.
The transport of light from the scintillator to
the light detector was simulated with an in-house
ray-tracing MC program, which considers the
refractive index and polarization dependency of

Flood exposure image

Post-processing
with Matlab
Fig. 4. Overview of the simulation method.

reection and transmission probabilities at the

interfaces between different materials. Diffusive
reection and refraction were used at the interfaces
with a probability of 10% instead of specular
reection angle and refraction angle according to
the refractive index. The light-transport simulations were repeated for emission from cells in a
mesh with 1 mm side in the pore, each simulation
with 2  106 monochromatic super-photons. Data
were sampled for the total light absorption in the
Si layer of the CCD and in the Si diodes,
respectively. For the devices where a depthdistribution of absorbed energy was used, the light
data were later summed vertically in 10 mm steps to
have the same division as for the MCNP data. For
the devices with diodes on 5 surfaces, a constant
mean value was employed for the light absorbed
by the diodes, due to the nearly constant total light
absorption. The optical data used are presented in
Table 2.

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79

Table 2
Optical properties used in simulations
Gadox

SiO2

Si

poly Si

65
540
1.84

22.4
630

2.20

1.46
1.46
0
0

4.12
3.89
9363
4000

4.24
4.00
23720
4400

Output data from the MCNP and ray-tracing

simulations were subsequently used by a small MC
program, which simulated the response from the
complete detector matrix for ood exposures with
different X-ray doses. For each of the different
types of simulations a special version of this
program was written. It was assumed that each
light photon absorbed in a diode or the Si layer of
the CCD results in an electronhole pair. The
number of absorbed super-photons was scaled to
get the correct number of light photons corresponding to the absorbed X-ray energy. X-ray
photons directly absorbed in diodes were assumed
to generate an electronhole pair for each 3.62 eV
of absorbed energy. The output data from the
simulations were stored in les representing ood
exposures with the number of electronhole pairs
generated for each detector matrix-element. Finally, the data les were processed with Matlab,
giving the results presented in this study.
In the case of the CCD devices, additional
simulations used a randomly distributed number
of defects affecting the light transport. The defects
result in xed pattern noise, which was compensated in the simulation. Despite this compensation,
the presence of defects leads to a lower SNR. This
problem is addressed in more depth in the
discussion section below. Furthermore, a xed
electronic noise was applied in the post-processing
of these results. It is also possible to adapt the
combination of simulations used in this case, to
studies of the radiation hardening effect when
xed-pattern noise reduction is applied.
Figs. 57 show some examples of the intermediate data used in the simulations. An interesting detail here is that the absorption of X-rays,
which impinge on the scintillator, results in energy
absorption in the sidewall and pore bottom Si

-3

x 10
2.5

Absorbed energy [MeV]

Light yield (photons/keV)

Wavelength (nm)
n at 540 nm
n at 630 nm
a (cm
1) at 540 nm
a (cm
1) at 630 nm

CsI

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

20
5

10

10
15

20

y [m]

x [m]

Fig. 5. Mean energy for X-ray photon absorption in a CsI

matrix cell as a function of the point where the photon enters
the detector. The energy shown is the mean energy calculated
over all emitted photons, but only considering absorption
events, where the absorbed energy in CsI is in the 1520 kV
range. The device has 2 mm thick Si diodes covered by 1 mm SiO2
in the bottom and at each side of the centreline of the walls. The
CsI pore lling is 238 mm deep.

diodes (and vice versa). The effect is very evident

in Fig. 6, where it is seen that the mean energy
deposited in the Si diode by X-ray photons
entering the CsI near the pore border is higher
than the mean energy deposited by X-ray photons
entering directly into the Si diode. This effect is
caused by the non-locality of the absorption
events, principally due to high-energy electrons
moving in the device, in combination with the high
X-ray absorption probability in CsI. The low
mean absorbed energy due to photons impinging
directly on the Si diode is caused by the low
probability for any X-ray absorption event at all in
this material.

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80

Table 3 shows the total light absorption for

devices with diodes on 5 surfaces. It is expected
that the low light absorption in the 1 mm thick
diodes also results in low resolution, but we have
not investigated this detail further.

-3

x 10

Absorbed energy [MeV]

2.5
2
1.5
1

4. Results

0.5
0
0

20
5

10

10
15

20

y [m]

x [m]

Fig. 6. Mean energy for X-ray photon energy absorption in the

Si wall and bottom layers as a function of the point where the
X-ray photon enters the detector. The energy shown is mean
energy calculated over all emitted photons, but only considering
absorption events, where the absorbed energy in Si is in the 15
20 kV range. The same geometrical data as for Fig. 5 was used.

16

Absorbed light [%]

4.1. CCD devices

Fig. 8 shows the SNR as a function of the square
root of the radiation dose for the CCD device with
CsI-lled pores. The results simulated without any
pore defects and electronic noise are considerably
higher than the experimental data, which are nearly
the same as for a 100 mm deep device without
defects and noise. The simulation with a model for
pore defects and with electronic noise is in good
agreement with experimental data. Lower electronic
noise and better quality of the CsI pore lling
should lead to higher SNR. However, the SNR
without defects and noise gives an upper limit for
the improvements. The electronic noise has a large
impact due to the strong light attenuation in the

14
12
10
8
30
300

20
200

10
Diag. distance [m]

100
0 0

Depth [m]

Fig. 7. Proportion of emitted light absorbed in a 2 mm thick Si

diode in the pore bottom. The axis marked Diag. distance
represents the distance from the centre of the pore towards one
of its corners. The same geometrical data as for Fig. 5 was used.

Table 3
Total light absorption in diode device with diode detectors on 5
surfaces
Material

2 mm thick diode (%)

1 mm thick diode (%)

CsI
GADOX

79
60

56
39

Fig. 8. SNR as a function of square root of X-ray dose for a

device with CsI-lled pores coupled with a CCD light detector.
The results indicated as with pore defects also contain a xed
electronic noise equivalent to 250 electron charges. A xed
pattern noise consisting of defects randomly distributed in the
pores was used, each diminishing the vertical light ow with
2.5%. The number of defects was 8 times the number of mesh
cells.

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81

However, this result is very much dependent on

the assumed properties of the GADOX pore lling
and poly-Si layer. The process of GADOX pore
lling with the required quality is still not
developed.
4.2. Diode devices
Figs. 11 and 12 show the simulated SNR results
for the diode devices with CsI- and GADOX-lled
120

100

120

100

80

SNR

Fig. 9. Image representing the xed pattern noise assumed in

the simulation with pore defects.

60

40

Sim. depth=238 m with defects

Sim. depth=50 m
Sim. depth=100 m
Sim. depth=238 m
Exper. Badel et al. CsI

20

80

SNR

Diode on 5 surfaces, 2 m thick

Diode on 5 surfaces, 1 m thick
Diode on bottom surface, 2 m thick
Diode on bottom surface, 1 m thick

0
0

4
5
6
1/2
sqrt(dose) [mR ]

60

Fig. 11. SNR as a function of the square root of the X-ray dose
for a device with CsI-lled pores and diode light detectors. The
CsI pore lling is 238 mm deep.

40

20
120

4
5
6
sqrt(dose) [mR 1/2]

Fig. 10. SNR as a function of square root of X-ray dose for a

device with GADOX-lled pores coupled with a CCD light
detector. The same electronic and xed pattern noise as in Fig.
8 was used.

poly-Si layer of the CCD. Fig. 9 shows an image of

the simulated xed pattern noise.
In Fig. 10 the results correspond to simulations
for a CCD device with GADOX-lled pores.
These results are better than for CsI lling,
especially when defects and electronic noise are
considered. This is explained by the larger
wavelength of the emitted light, with its lower
attenuation in the poly-Si layer of the CCD.

100

Diode on 5 surfaces, 2 m thick

Diode on 5 surfaces, 1 m thick
Diode on bottom surface, 2 m thick
Diode on bottom surface, 1 m thick

80

SNR

0
0

60

40

20

0
0

4
5
6
sqrt(dose) [mR 1/2]

Fig. 12. SNR as a function of the square root of the X-ray dose
for a device with GADOX-lled pores and diode light
detectors. The pore lling is 238 mm deep.

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82

pores, respectively. In this case, no simulation with

pore defects or electronic noise has been done.
Because of the lack of a poly-Si layer in these
devices, the signals are expected to be considerably
higher. Consequently, the electronic noise has
much less effect. When the diode signal is summed
from 5 surrounding surfaces, it is also evident that
the defects in the scintillator columns have less
importance. In Fig. 12 it is interesting to notice
that the SNR for GADOX-lled pores with diodes
in the ve pore walls is very poor. The explanation
is the lower light emission of GADOX, combined
with the low SNR from X-ray photons directly
absorbed in the diodes of the pore walls. The same
reservation as for the CCD device is valid here,
regarding the quality of the GADOX lling.
In Fig. 13a the SNR for CsI lling and different
pore depths is shown. As expected, a deeper pore
results in a higher SNR. In Fig. 13b the SNR for
the signal generated from direct absorption in Si
diodes is compared with the SNR for the signal
generated by scintillator light emission with subsequent absorption in the diodes. Due to the low
SNR of the directly absorbed X-rays, it is very

important to have high light emission from the

scintillator material. Alternatively, some method
could be used to limit the direct X-ray absorption
in the diodes.
It is also important to limit the direct absorption
of X-rays in the diode located in the bottom of the
pore. If the device is designed so that the radiation
does not enter from the bottom, a sufcient pore
depth diminishes this direct absorption. Furthermore, it is important to have a limited depletion
zone in the bottom and it may be necessary to limit
the diffusion length.
4.3. Necessary dose for a given SNR
In order to compare the designs, it is possible to
show the X-ray dose for a given SNR, as done in
Fig. 14. All the simulated diode devices with CsI
lling have lower doses than experimentally
achieved for the CCD device. These doses are
comparable to the simulated doses for the CCD
devices without considering xed-pattern noise
and electronic noise. Since the diode devices all
have a considerably higher signal than the CCD

60

CsI

GADOX

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

20
18

50

16
40

SNR

14
12

30

10
20

8
6

10

4
0

(a)

50
100
238
Scintillator thickness [m]

(b)

Si

CsI

Fig. 13. (a) SNR for 25 mR X-ray dose and different

scintillator pore depths for a device with CsI-lled pores having
diodes in the sidewalls and the bottom. The walls contain the
2 mm thick Si diodes covered by 1 mm SiO2. (b) SNR for the
signal emerging from direct absorption of X-rays in the Si
diodes as well as indirectly via light emission in CsI scintillator
with its subsequent absorption in diodes. The pores are 238 mm
deep; other geometrical data and X-ray dose are the same as
for (a).

2
0

Fig. 14. Comparison of radiation doses corresponding to a

SNR of 30 for CsI and GADOX scintillators. (a) CCD light
detector without xed pattern noise and electronic noise; (b)
CCD light detector with xed pattern noise and electronic
noise; (c) diode light detectors on 5 surfaces, 2 mm thick; (d)
diode light detectors on 5 surfaces, 1 mm thick; (e) diode light
detector on bottom surface, 2 mm thick; (f) diode light detector
on bottom surface, 1 mm thick.

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devices, and, in the case of diodes on ve surfaces,

also have better light transport, we expect the
inuence from xed pattern and electronic noise to
be smaller. Hence, it is reasonable to expect a
radiation dose of 8 mR instead of 11 mR. In
making this comparison, however, it is important
to consider the possibility of improving the pore
lling and lowering the electronic noise for the
CCD devices. Nevertheless, the limit of achievable
dose for a SNR of 30 is 8 mR. The advantage of a
lower radiation dose with the diode devices
gradually diminishes for higher SNR requirements, due to the decreasing importance of the
electronic noise.
The poor results for the device with GADOX
lling and diodes on 5 surfaces is also evident in
Fig. 14.

5. Discussion
5.1. Combination of two signals
The variance of a random process, which is the
sum of two Poisson processes, is described in Ref.
[5]. A short summary is given here.
If a random variable S 0 is the sum of two
independent Poisson variables S1 and S2 :
where k1 and k2 are arbitrary constants, then
varS

k12

varS1

k22

varS2

and
SNRS 0

Table 4
Constants in calculation of the combination of two signals
Material

k; 2 mm thick diode

k; 1 mm thick diode

CsI
GADOX

1550
373

1150
255

interesting for applications with hard X- or g-rays.

In this case it has also to be considered that the
relation between the direct and indirect contributions to the signal is changed due to different
absorption coefcients.
When evaluating the results presented earlier in
this study, the condition of independence should
be considered. In reality, we do not have complete
independence of the two contributions to the
signal in the studied devices. Each absorption of
an X-ray photon impinging on a Si diode in a pore
wall generally results in energy deposited both in
the diode and in a part of the scintillator-lled
pore. Similarly, the absorption of an X-ray photon
impinging on the outer part of the scintillator
generally results in energy deposited both in the
scintillator and the near part of the Si diode. We
have not considered this dependence in our
simulations.
5.2. More than two signals

S0 k1 S1 k2 S2 ;
0

83

S0
k1 S1 k2 S2
q:
sS0
k2 varS k2 varS
1

For the diode devices with diodes on 5 surfaces,

and assuming 30 keV X-ray photons with complete
absorption, we have calculated k values according
to Table 4. The k for direct absorption in Si is
about 8300. Since the variance is equal to the
number of events for a Poisson process, it is clear
from the expression above that a contribution with
few events and high k results in a relatively large
decrease of the SNR. For X-ray photons of higher
energy it is more difcult to insulate a CCD from
the radiation. This makes the diode devices more

It is possible to generalize the reasoning above

for more than two signals, and for a continuously
varying signal. We have not deduced any mathematical expressions for these cases. Nevertheless, if
for instance X-ray absorption in different parts of
a detector results in different detected charges, this
leads to a decrease of the SNR. Hence, the
different percentage of light transported to the
bottom of the pore, with the best transport from
the lower part of the pore, leads to a smaller SNR
both for the CCD device and for the device with
only a diode in the pore bottom. In these devices, if
there are defects in the scintillator columns, the
light emitted above a defect is attenuated whereas
the light emitted below the defect is not affected.
The light generated above a defect has therefore a
reduced probability of reaching the pore bottom.
Consequently, defects in scintillator-lled pores

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M. Hjelm et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 509 (2003) 7685

lead to a further reduction of the SNR, which

cannot be compensated by a xed-pattern noise
correction.

6. Conclusions
The SNR for detectors with CsI-lled pores in
proximity to a CCD for light detection was
simulated. Good correspondence with experimental data was obtained when pore defects and
electronic noise were considered. A simulation was
also made for a similar device with GADOX-lled
pores. This device shows a somewhat better SNR
than the structure with CsI-lled pores. The
explanation is that the longer wavelength of the
light emitted by GADOX results in less attenuation in the poly-Si layer of the CCD. However, this
result is achieved assuming no dispersion and the
same attenuation of the light in a GADOX-lled
pore as in a CsI-lled pore. The fabrication
process to achieve the assumed quality of the
GADOX pore lling is still not developed.
Simulations were also made for devices with
light-absorbing diodes located in the pore bottom
or in the four lateral pore walls plus the pore
bottom. Their inherent SNR properties are not
signicantly better than for the CCD devices.
However, a higher SNR for the same radiation
dose is expected due to the higher signal and, in the
case of diodes on ve surfaces, less inuence of
defects in the scintillator-lled pore. This effect is
especially important for relatively small SNRs,
where the electronic noise may have a large
inuence. The simulation with GADOX scintillator and diode in the pore bottom shows a good
SNR. As for the corresponding CCD devices, the
latter result is dependent on the realization of a
fabrication process for high-quality GADOX pore
lling.
The direct absorption of X-ray photons in the
diodes constitutes an important limiting factor for
the SNR of the diode devices. The signal from
direct absorption in the diodes has to be minimized compared to the signal generated from
absorption of the light emitted from the scintillator in order to get higher SNR. The GADOXlled pores with diodes on 5 surfaces have

considerably lower SNR than the other simulated

detectors. This is due to the relatively low light
emission from GADOX, which results in a higher
impact of the signal from direct absorption.
In the diode devices the SiO2 layers limit the
injection of high-energy electrons (and photons)
into the Si diodes. The thickness of SiO2 can be
optimized since a thick layer results both in better
insulation from high-energy electrons and a
smaller pixel area.

Acknowledgements
This work was carried out as a part of the 3DRID project, which is nancially supported by the
European Commission through the Fifth Framework Programme. Sun Microsystems are gratefully acknowledged for their support to the
computational infrastructure used in the simulations.

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