452

Medicalization beyond physicians: pharmaceutical

marketing on attention deficit and hyperactivity
disorder in Argentina and Brazil (1998-2014)1
Medicalizacin ms all de los mdicos: marketing
farmacutico en torno al trastorno por dficit de atencin e
hiperactividad en Argentina y Brasil (1998-2014)
Eugenia Bianchi
University of Buenos Aires. School of Social Sciences. Gino
Germani Research Institute. Autonomous City of Buenos Aires,
Bs. As., Argentina.
E-mail: eugenia.bianchi@yahoo.com.ar

Francisco Ortega
State University of Rio de Janeiro. Social Medicine Institute. Rio
de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
E-mail: fjortega2@gmail.com

Silvia Faraone
University of Buenos Aires. School of Social Sciences. Gino Germani Research Institute. Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, Bs.
As., Argentina.
E-mail: silfaraone@gmail.com

Valria Portugal Gonalves

State University of Rio de Janeiro. Social Medicine Institute. Rio
de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
E-mail: goncalves.vp@gmail.com

Rafaela Teixeira Zorzanelli

State University of Rio de Janeiro. Social Medicine Institute. Rio
de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
E-mail: rtzorzanelli@gmail.com

Correspondence
Eugenia Bianchi
Pte J. E. Uriburu 950, 6to piso. Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos Aires,
Bs. As., Argentina. C1114AAD.

Abstract
From a critical analysis of medicalization studies, and
as a contribution to these perspectives, we describe
and analyze the ways in which the transnational pharmaceutical industry penetrates diverse social spaces,
with different marketing strategies, to consolidate
medicalized processes in Argentina and Brazil. We
analyzed two expansion methods of medicalization
processes and specific ADHD diagnostic and treatment
aspects and trends were developed in both countries:
the impact of the pharmaceutical industry on advocacy
groups in Brazil and pharmaceutical marketing strategies aimed at non-medical actors in Argentina. These
two methods are characterized by involving other actors than medical professionals. The methodology includes data from research conducted in Argentina and
Brazil between 1998 and 2014, based in the University
of Buenos Aires and in the State University of Rio de
Janeiro, focused on the study of ADHD diagnostic and
treatment processes and methylphenidate consumption in both countries. We used individual and group
semi-structured interview techniques with professors
and health professionals, official and professional organization statistics, and national and international

1 Investigations conducted in Argentina had two financing sources: Silvia Faraone: UBACyT Project of the University of Buenos Aires
Ciencias Sociales, Salud Mental y Derechos Humanos (2012-2014). Eugenia Bianchi: PhD (2009-2014) and Post-doctoral (2014-2016)
scholarships, funded by the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas (CONICET), who has studied different facets
of the problems linked to the ADHD diagnosis and treatment processes in children in the City of Buenos Aires, between 2007 and 2013
from the perspective of the social sciences. The research conducted in Brazil were funded through the following sources: Francisco
Ortega: Neurocincias, sociedade contempornea e sade coletiva E-26/102/817/2008 Cientista do Nosso Estado Scholarship granted
by FAPERJ from 2/1/2009 to 1/31/2012. Francisco Ortega: Diagnsticos psiquitricos, identidades neurolgicas e sociabilidade contempornea, E-26/102/998/2011 Scholarship granted by FAPERJ from 2/1/2012 to 1/31/2015. Francisco Ortega: Neurocincias, sociedade
contempornea e sade coletiva CNPq-PQ Scholarship, process No. 300655/2010, from 03/01/2011 to 2/31/2014. In addition, another
research was funded through the Post-doctoral Support Program scholarship of the state of Rio de Janeiro CAPES/FAPERJ, process No.
E-26/101.301./2014.
452 Sade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016

DOI 10.1590/S0104-12902016153981

general and specialized literature. We concluded that

the phenomena documented in Argentina and Brazil
highlight the importance of conducting investigations
that covers specific aspects of empirical cases and
their multiple connections with broader and intense
knowledges networks, dispositives, normatives and actors involved in the medicalization in the 21st century.
Keywords: Medicalization; Pharmaceutical Industry; Advocacy Groups; ADHD; Argentina; Brazil.

Resumen
Desde un anlisis crtico de los estudios de la medicalizacin, y como un aporte a estas perspectivas,
describimos y analizamos los modos en que la industria farmacutica transnacional penetra en diversos
espacios sociales, con diferentes estrategias de marketing, interviniendo en la consolidacin de procesos
medicalizadores en Argentina y Brasil. Se analizan
dos modalidades de expansin de los procesos de
medicalizacin, y se desarrollan aspectos y tendencias especficas del diagnstico y tratamiento del
TDAH en ambos pases: la incidencia de la industria
farmacutica en los grupos de apoyo en Brasil y las
estrategias de marketing farmacutico orientadas
a actores no mdicos en Argentina. Estas dos modalidades se caracterizan por no involucrar slo al
profesional mdico. La metodologa incluye datos de
investigaciones conducidas en Argentina y Brasil entre 1998 y 2014, con sede en la Universidad de Buenos
Aires y la Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro,
orientadas al estudio de los procesos de diagnstico y
tratamiento del TDAH y el consumo de metilfenidato
en ambos pases. Se emplearon tcnicas de entrevista
semiestructurada individual y grupal a profesores
y profesionales de salud, estadsticas oficiales y de
organizaciones profesionales, y revisin de bibliografa general y especializada nacional e internacional.
Concluimos que los fenmenos documentados en
Argentina y Brasil ponen de relieve la importancia
de efectuar investigaciones que contemplen aspectos
singulares de los casos empricos, y sus mltiples
vinculaciones con entramados ms amplios y en
tensin de saberes, dispositivos, normativas y actores
involucrados en la medicalizacin en el siglo XXI.
Palabras clave: Medicalizacin; Industria Farmacutica; Grupos de Apoyo; TDAH; Argentina; Brasil..

Introduction
The perspective of the medicalization criticism
has more than half a century (Clarke; Shim, 2011).
Its original definition associated with the expansion of the medical domain has been reconfigured,
currently covering a complex space of intelligibility
that includes the definition, description, understanding, and treatment of a problem in medical
terms (Conrad, 2007, 2013). Initially focused on physicians, social movements and inter-professional
organizations, nowadays, it also targets the transnational pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology,
internet, health markets, and consumers (Conrad,
2005, 2013). These elements reinforce the position
of authors, such as Lupton (1997), who supports
the thesis that the asymmetry between the medical power and patient power is no longer enough
to understand the issues involving contemporary
medicalizing processes.
At the same time, the problems related to the
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (hereinafter
ADHD) have aroused the interest of different social
thinking frameworks. The line of analysis of the
societys medicalization processes represented by
Conrad and his colleagues, in particular, has been
developing an analysis of ADHD as a paradigmatic
example of such processes and transformations for
40 years (Conrad, 1975; Conrad; Schneider, 1992;
Conrad; Potter, 2003; Conrad; Bergey, 2014).
In the most recent analysis of the globalization
of ADHD conducted by Conrad and Bergey (2014), a
series of mechanisms that contribute to the positioning of the clinical profile as a global diagnosis
is marked. In their work, they rank the incidence of
non-medical actors in the medicalization processes
of ADHD in the 21st century and emphasize the need
to meet different national cases to understand the
migration of the diagnosis of ADHD outside the
United States.
From a critical analysis of medicalization studies, and as a contribution to these perspectives, we
present herein results of researches conducted in
Argentina and Brazil, developing issues and trends
with their own and specific particularities and nuances of the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in
both countries, through the description and analysis
Sade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016 453

of two main methods of expansion of medicalization

processes, both characterized by involving not only
the medical professionals, but a range of other social groups and actors, institutions and dispositives.
The key issue addressed is the ways in which the
transnational pharmaceutical industry enters various social spaces with different marketing strategies,
so that the different groups and actors consolidate
medicalizing processes. Firstly, we want to describe
and analyze how the pharmaceutical industry influences ADHD advocacy groups in Brazil and, secondly,
how it intervenes in Argentina, through other major
actors in the health and education sectors. On the one
hand, the two aspects identified and differentiated
by countries respond to a difference of scope in the
development of the pharmaceutical marketing in
both countries and, on the other hand, to the need to
contribute to the configuration of a panoramic view
while aspects of a global strategy for both countries
of the region are documented.

Methodology
The information analyzed comes from the investigations conducted in Argentina and Brazil. For
the analysis of pharmaceutical marketing strategies for ADHD in Argentina, we use results of two
investigations between 2007 and 2014, both based
at the University of Buenos Aires (UBA). We analyzed specialized literature both in Argentina and
worldwide, national articles about the subject, official and professional organization statistics, and
65 individual and group semi-structured interviews
with health professionals, with clinical, teaching,
and research attachment in the public sector, with
social security and private sector professionals.
Interviews were also conducted with key informants
and pharmaceutical sales representatives (PSR) of
the pharmaceutical industry.
Interviews were conducted in two stages: 35
between October and December 2007, and between
April and June 2008; and 30 from August 2009
until March 2011, in four jurisdictions: Salta, Corrientes, Tierra del Fuego, and city of Buenos Aires.
A non-probabilistic purposive sampling criterion
was followed. Primary and secondary data obtained
were processed with analytical and interpretative
454 Sade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016

methods, and triangulation methods of sources

and results.
For the analysis of ADHD advocacy groups in
Brazil, we assessed results of different studies
conducted at the State University of Rio de Janeiro
(UERJ). One of them aimed at the literature analysis on ADHD, hyperactivity, and methylphenidate
in SciELO and PubMed databases. Another study
analyzed 103 Brazilian publications, consisting
of 72 reports in mass-circulation newspapers and
magazines and 31 articles of journals of Psychiatry
on the uses of Ritalin, since 1998 the year in which
the drug was authorized in Brazil until 2008. The
search was focused on the Brazilian Psychiatry
journals indexed in SciELO database, as well as
in newspapers and journals aimed at the public in
general, with the largest circulation (Itaborahy;
Ortega, 2013).
Using the semi-structured interview technique
with 16 individuals, aged 18 or more, who were users of methylphenidate, a third study focused on
the analysis of the senses and meanings of the use
of this psychoactive substance by such individuals
(Barros, 2014). A fourth study herein analyzed the
meanings attributed to the diagnosis of ADHD in a
population of educators, by using participant observation techniques and semi-structured interviews
with teachers and health professionals, in a school
in the city of Niteroi, in the State of Rio de Janeiro
(Chagas, 2013).
All investigations comply with the national and
international applicable standards and ethical safeguards for studies on human health.

The diagnosis of ADHD and

the latest characteristics of
medicalization
With the pioneering studies that analyzed hyperkinesis and deviant behavior, the current classification of ADHD was positioned as an empirical
example for the theorization of the problem of the
medicalization of society. Focused on the medical
institution as a social control agent, Conrad (1975)
registered his work in the analyses linking the psychiatry and public health to the deviant social be-

havior, and considers them as social control agents.

In the following decade, the ADHD (then called
hyperactivity) was also discussed as an example of
medicalization of deviance, identifying a series of
actors that are still related to the current problems,
which include schools, families, pharmaceutical
companies and physicians themselves (Conrad,
1982). Subsequently, the analysis of hyperactivity
was ranked together with crime and child abuse, as
examples of the medicalization of childhood. The
distinctive weighting of childhood lies in the fact
it is, at the same time, subject to regulations and
sanctions, and triggers preventive and protection
actions on behalf of the social group, making it a
sector of society especially susceptible to be at risk
of medicalization (Conrad; Schneider, 1992).
ADHD is presented as one of the pioneering diagnoses in the use of psychotropic drugs for child
behavior problems, resulting in extremely high
profits for the pharmaceutical industry (Conrad,
2005). However, although initially it was associated with a primarily childhood condition (CDC,
2015) and predominantly borders within the United
States (Faraone et al., 2003), more recently, ADHD
shows an increase in diagnosis of adults (Conrad;
Potter, 2003) and an expansion into other countries
(Polancyk et al., 2007;) Conrad; Bergey, 2014; Singh
et al., 2013). From the analysis, which understands
the medicalization is expressed in gradients, ADHD
in adults is a relevant example to illustrate how the
psychiatric categories, once established, can expand
and include new aspects (Conrad; Potter, 2003). Also
to illustrate how patients acquire health-related information and incorporate it in their demands and
criticisms to the health professionals they see. In
this context, we highlight the incidence of internet
and advocacy groups in the medicalization today
(Conrad; Leiter, 2004).
More recently, works about ADHD and medicalization that analyze the recreation of the health consumer and the biomedicalization of childhood have
been published (Iriart; Iglesias Ros, 2012). ADHD is
also taken as an example of the changes introduced
by DSM-5 handbook in the categorizing logic of the
so-called mental disorders (Bianchi, 2015).
In line with these changes, Conrad and Bergey
(2014) outlined some features of what they call the

impeding globalization of ADHD, under the expansion of the category outside the United States.
They argue that, although the global information
is sparse, the available data suggest an increase in
the global prevalence of ADHD diagnosis (Polancyk
et al., 2007), and an increase in the consumption of
medication for ADHD in a wide range of countries.
That is why the analysis of ADHD advocacy groups
in Brazil and the pharmaceutical marketing strategies about ADHD aimed at parents and teachers in
Argentina mean a contribution to increase the still
few studies that show how the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD are migrating to different regions of
the globe (Conrad; Bergey, 2014; Zorzanelli; Ortega;
Bezerra, 2014).

Globalized medicalization:
physicians and beyond them
Although the studies conducted in the 1970s
ranked among the most important forces of medicalization to physicians, social movements and
interest groups, and some professional or interprofessional organizations since then to now, the
medicine has shown significant changes, making
other formerly underlying forces to contribute to the
process of medicalization. The most recent perspective outlined by Conrad to address the problems of
medicalization has the peculiarity of not focusing
on the influence of physicians or law reformers,
nor in medical and scientific discoveries. His contribution is focused on the creation of markets, and
the impact of those markets in the medicalization
(Conrad, 2007).
Although the actors involved are similar, the
emphasis of each is different, and this is the main
key to understand the characteristics of the medicalization of society today. With the changes in the
medical setting, important areas of medicalization
are moving from a professional-medical dominance
to a market dominance (Conrad; Leiter, 2004).
Linked to the displacement of the central role of
health professionals is the relevance that, in the
21st century, acquires the consumption, as a general
logic with which to approach the problems related to
medicalization processes. Both Conrad and others
(Conrad; Leiter, 2004; Conrad, 2013; Conrad; BerSade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016 455

gey, 2014) and Clarke and Shim (2013) and Lupton

(1997) recognize this displacement and highlight
the link between the creation of health markets,
the validity of a growing logic of consumption in
relation to access to health, and the dominance of
the transnational pharmaceutical industry, with
its multiple marketing strategies applied to different population segments, as a result of the specific
psychiatric diagnosis.
Then, we registered two investigated phenomena, which account for the repositioning of medical professionals and the relevance taken by other
actors in the medicalization processes of ADHD.
On the one hand, we highlight the deployment of
various strategies of pharmaceutical marketing
for ADHD in Argentina, which are not aimed at the
physician as the main recipient, and on the other
hand, its incidence in the advocacy groups in Brazil.

Argentina: the integration between

old and new actors
In the case of ADHD, associations and advocacy
groups for patients and families in Argentina do not
reach the scale or articulation with pharmaceutical
companies existing in Brazil, United States, and
European countries.
According to Conrad and Bergey (2014), the pharmaceutical industry identifies certain countries as
potential markets for the expansion of ADHD. Some
market research companies suggest that the global
market of drugs for ADHD is shrunk because there
is still no knowledge about the disorder. Facing an
oversaturated market like the American market,
so-called emerging markets, such as China, India,
and Brazil, can contribute to the global growth
of the pharmaceutical industry in the short term.
This indicates the need for further marketing and
advertising campaigns targeted at both physicians
and potential consumers.
From the analysis on marketing strategies in
the pharmaceutical industry in Argentina, however,
we observe a mixture between a physician-oriented
marketing model (in which the professional is the
main objective) and a consumer-oriented marketing
model (which includes family and school) (Bianchi;
Faraone, 2015).
456 Sade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016

Although product promotion methods by pharmaceutical industries involve a range of actors,

physicians constitute a historical stronghold, and
are irreplaceable when drugs require prescription
(Conrad; Leiter, 2004). Besides the well-known
strategies of incentives and/or controls (Jara, 2007;
Lakoff, 2004), in Argentina and, with respect to
ADHD, we also documented the use of healthcare
professionals such as disseminators of information,
named as opinion leaders or speakers.
Regarding the first strategy, we found that
its dynamics has suffered variations regarding
the classic method of regular visits to the physician by PSR. In child mental health, we realized
that PSRs hardly visit pediatricians, and that the
information about psychoactive drugs circulates
through publications of laboratories and those socalled Consensus Guidelines. These guidelines
consist of agreements on the clinical practices to
follow built from what is known as available evidence. This consensus comes from expert meetings, often under the sponsorship of laboratories
(Gonzalez Pardo; Prez lvarez, 2007) and with
the support of scientific societies. Thus, protocols
and evidence-based medicine were turned into
rules to follow and invoke to not be left out of the
hegemonic scientific consensus (Iriart, 2008). In
general terms, these publications are aimed at
child and adolescent psychiatry and child neurology; the latter being the most relevant specialty in
the specific case of ADHD in Argentina (Arizaga
et al., 2008).
On the other hand, the involvement of opinion
leaders is so influential that it is incorporated into
the calculations of profitability of the pharmaceutical campaigns (Moynihan; Cassels, 2006). The dissemination of innovations regarding the diagnostics and therapeutics in scientific meetings, media
and specialized publications, and the recognition
of other professionals, position them as relevant
actors in marketing strategies. In the case of ADHD,
we highlighted in the sources and interviews that
opinion leaders are child and adolescent psychiatrists and child neurologists belonging both to public and private institutions, with renowned medical
reputation in the city of Buenos Aires, and other
jurisdictions in the country (Faraone et al., 2009).

Among family-oriented strategies, we registered

that some laboratories organize groups of two,
three or more families to provide information about
ADHD. Referred to as help desks, these meetings
are frequently promoted at schools, and carried out
in non-medical care areas.
As part of the expansion of objectives of the pharmaceutical industry, Conrad and Bergey (2014) underline that educators position themselves as other
non-medical professionals, for whom campaigns are
intended. In fact, they point out them as potential
sickness and treatment brokers or disease spotters.
The school is an outstanding actor in the beginning
of the derivation circuit and treatment of ADHD, and
teachers contribute, by filling out questionnaires
and other instruments in the diagnostic evaluation
of the clinical picture.
In Argentina, we documented four pharmaceutical marketing and advertising methods aimed at the
educational community. The first, also called help
desk, consists of meetings and informative sessions in schools and especially in education offices
carried out by laboratory sales representatives, and
sometimes with participation of medical specialists.
The second identified method works through
the publication of booklets and newsletters aimed
at teachers. These publications contain advice for
teachers and detailed information about the drugs
used in the treatment of ADHD, statistical data
and general advice for detection of clinical profile
(Faraone et al., 2010). The third identified method
is the merchandising distribution in educational
institutions of the city of Buenos Aires and northern
area of the province of Buenos Aires, such as school
supplies with slogans and images of the psychotropic drug, and with the logo of the laboratory.
Finally, we documented the inclusion in journals for
teachers and educational psychologists, of articles
for the dissemination of drugs for the treatment of
ADHD, sometimes dedicating full issues to the topic.
Opinion leaders connected to laboratories producing widespread psychiatric drugs are responsible
for the authorship of these articles and dossiers.
These methods are not allowed legally in Argentina according to the National Mental Health Law
26,657, approved in 2010, confronting the medicalpharmaceutical hegemony and establishing in its

article 12 that the psychotropic medication must

only be prescribed for therapeutic purposes, and
never replace the therapeutic monitoring or special care. There is also a regulation in force since
1964, the Law 16,463, which prohibits any form of
advertising for medicinal products requiring a physicians prescription. Conrad and Bergey (2014) emphasize that the existence of restrictive regulations
of the marketing of psychotropic drugs indicated
for ADHD discourages the entry of pharmaceutical companies, and conversely countries such as
France or Italy, with less robust legal barriers, offer a greater accessibility and attractiveness to the
pharmaceutical industry.
The analysis of pharmaceutical marketing strategies for ADHD in children in Argentina, however,
allows questioning these considerations, since the
existing national regulations, although it includes
prohibitions, restrictions and a perspective of rights
for people who are diagnosed with any psychiatric
condition, has not resulted by itself in a limitation or
discouragement to pharmaceutical marketing strategies; rather, they have demonstrated a remarkable
capacity of response, diversifying proposals, actions
and offers, and consolidating in the different existing regulatory gaps.

Brazil: the development of

advocacy groups
As stressed out by Conrad and Bergey (2014), the
advocacy groups about ADHD, both online and faceto-face, are common in the United States, bringing
together different but interested actors, with scopes
ranging from local presence, in specific cities, to
international associations. Though in Brazil there
is not a tradition of movemets of advocacy groups
to patients, as there is in United States, there are associations of family and patients with diseases such
as autism, ADHD, obsessive compulsive disorder,
which play an important role in the dissemination of
knowledge about these diseases and in the struggle
for better conditions of treatment and citizenship
(Nunes, 2014). In countries such as United States,
Canada, Australia, and South Africa, some groups
seek to combat the medical-scientific discourse
about the pathology and healing from the affirmaSade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016 457

tion of an identity different from the normative

standard (Ortega, 2009; Baker, 2011; Orsini; Smith,
2010; Orsini, 2009), rather than to secure rights and
social inclusion.
In the case of ADHD in Brazil, among the members of the associations of patients and caregivers
we find, as well as family members and people
diagnosed, medical professionals and internationally recognized researchers, the latter with a strong
presence in groups. The best known national group
is the Brazilian Association of Attention Deficit (Associao Brasileira de Deficit da Ateno - ABDA),
created in 1999. It is a non-profit organization that
aims to spread the knowledge about ADHD. Its
website (www.tdah.org.br) address is published in
various magazines and scientific journals, and has
an average of 200 thousand accesses per month.
In addition, the mixed composition of the ABDA
turns it into an important means of dissemination
for laymen and professionals, being also responsible for the dissemination of biomedical discourse
about ADHD in the country, in the form of academic
research disseminated both on its website and in
journals aimed at the legitimation of ADHD as an
organic disorder. On the website of the Association
is stated that it is sponsored, among other institutions, professional associations, federations and
national and international companies, by the
Novartis and Shire Pharmaceuticals, besides the
annuity paid by the members. In the website of the
Association, they explain what ADHD is, its causes,
diagnosis and treatment, as well as to provide advice
for family members and patients, and disseminate
activities and considerations of professionals
working in this field. Among other actions, the
Association provides training to health and education professionals about ADHD, through services
provided to towns and cities. Professionals and
researchers also used the virtual space of the ABDA
to answer questions about the ADHD published in
non-specialized press, thus expressing opinions
and positions on the validity or legitimacy of the
content published.
Through the website of the ABDA, it is also
possible to identify some of the main Brazilian
research centers devoted to the study of ADHD,
reporting them as possible search websites for the
458 Sade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016

treatment of patients with the disorder. Some of

which contained in the webpage are the Attention
Deficit Study Group (GEDA), associated to the Institute of Psychiatry of the Federal University of
Rio de Janeiro, located in the southeast of Brazil.
The group is responsible for much of the research
published about methylphenidate and ADHD in the
country, and participates in the Scientific Council
of the ABDA. Another group is the Attention Deficit/
Hyperactivity Disorders Program (ProDAH) associated to the School of Medicine of the University of
Rio Grande do Sul (Famed/UFRGS), located in the
southern region of the country. Another institution
appearing on the website is the Santa Casa de Misericrdia of Rio de Janeiro, a philanthropic hospital
funded through donations and public financing of
some hospital services provided to the population.
Linked to the Hospital das Clnicas of the School
of Medicine of the University of So Paulo (HCFMUSP), there are two programs: one for children
and teens, called Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders Out-patient Facility (ADHDA) and the
adult-oriented program called Attention Deficit and
Hyperactivity in Adults Project (PRODATH).
In addition, we documented that the Alcohol
and Drugs Research Unity (Uniad), associated to
the Federal University of So Paulo (Unifesp) is in
force. These research groups receive the sponsorship of several pharmaceutical companies, such as
Janssen-Cilag, manufacturer of Concerta, BristolMyers Squibb, Eli Lilly and Novartis, Abbott and
Astra-Zeneca. They usually have free consulting
rooms specialized in child psychiatry, and some
of the professionals of these research centers are
involved in the Scientific Council of the ABDA,
making frequent presentations in pharmaceutical
laboratories. They are also responsible for a significant number of publications about methylphenidate
in the country.
The partnership among the main centers of
research in that country promote knowledge
about ADHD to advocacy groups to patients, and
its partnerships with pharmaceutical companies
form an important pole for the dissemination
of the official discourse about the disorder, as
analyzed by a research conducted at the Institute of Social Medicine, State University of Rio

de Janeiro (Itaborahy; Ortega, 2010). In this research, it was found that the publications in the
Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria, major specialized
journal in the country, contain, to a large extent,
research of GEDA, and that many of them included
Concerta drug ads. The conflict of interest regarding the treatment of the users was stated in
them, however in other articles, the financing of
laboratories was not explained. In addition, we
documented that the supplement to this same
journal of the year 2007 was entirely funded
by a laboratory responsible for manufacturing
methylphenidate, from articles to propaganda.
The information gathered leads to consider that
the financing of pharmaceutical laboratories in
research carried out in the country about ADHD
must not be analyzed with a priori criticism about
the validity of them, since the need for funding
for the development of complex investigations
requiring an extensive infrastructure.
However, the direct influence of the presence of
the pharmaceutical laboratories in support of the
research and its main researchers demand a need
for control and evaluation of the process and the
ethical implications arising from such sponsorship.

Conclusions
Medicalization is not an univocal, homogeneous,
or general process. As we argued, Conrad is the
main author who highlights the medicalization as
a variable process, irregular, and uneven, in function of its target and its related social group. By
emphasizing the role of actors outside the medical
field, such as the activities of the pharmaceutical
industry, pediatrics, associations for children with
learning difficulties and the medical journals of the
1960s, the involvement of a multiplicity of vectors
in the medicalization process of ADHD was observed
(Conrad, 1975).
The globalization of ADHD is being configured
with different characteristics in each country,
and with the consolidation and differential insertion of actors and links between them. The two
cases we presented in Argentina and Brazil are
examples of how these processes are occurring,

where the medicalization is extended to nonmedical areas.

In Argentina, the impact of the pharmaceutical
industry expresses its versatility in the mixture
of marketing strategies, maintaining a focus on
the physician as the main recipient, which since
any scientific productions surveyed is considered
typical of historical moments earlier in the process of medicalization of society, and extending
its insertion towards non-medical actors, with a
strong influence on the teaching field, and among
the parents of children diagnosed with ADHD, in
a movement that has been understood as a characteristic of the medicalization of psychiatric
diagnosis in the 21st century, and its globalization
outside the United States and some European
countries.
A relevant point is that, although in Argentina
there is a long-standing regulation which restricts
the advertising of medication, and recent legislation that fights for the rights of people with mental
illness, the pharmaceutical industry carried out
interstitial actions through which it maintains and
expands its marketing strategies.
In Brazil, it is worth mentioning that the topic
is gaining ground in recent decades in and out
of the reach of the academic research, through
publications and reaction movements to what has
been termed the medicalization of everyday life
(Moyses, 2001; Lima, 2005; Caponi, 2009; Figueira;
Caliman, 2014; Meira, 2012; Zorzanelli; Ortega;
Bezerra, 2014).
As we stressed, the organization of groups
of Brazilian patients has substantial support
from specialized professionals. The ABDA, main
support group related to the diagnosis of ADHD,
has among its members the presence of professionals and researchers of international renown,
as well as patients and caregivers. This group,
with presence in different regions of the country,
disseminates the work of the most important
research centers in Brazil in relation to the disorder. The connections between research centers,
patient groups and pharmaceutical companies
constitute a complex network of training and
dissemination of biomedical knowledge about
ADHD in Brazil.
Sade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016 459

The phenomena documented in Brazil and

Argentina set the tone of the specificity of local
configurations that being raised in relation to
the globalization of ADHD as medicalized diagnosis, and highlight the importance of carrying
out inves t igations (including those conducted
for this article), which can maintain, at the same
time a rigorous approach to researches conducted
in other parts of the world, but that address the
unique aspects in each empirical national case and
its multiple connections with wider and always in
tension frameworks, of knowledges, dispositives,
normatives and actors involved in the processes of
medicalization in the 21st century.

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Authors contributions
All authors worked together in all instances of the preparation of
the article.
Received on: 09/03/2015
Accepted on: 11/24/2015
462 Sade Soc. So Paulo, v.25, n.2, p.452-462, 2016