CHAPTER 3 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS Heat treatment is an important operation in the final fabrication process of many engineering components. Only by heat treatment is it possible to impart high mechanical properties to steel parts and tools for sophisticated application. Heat treatment considered to be a very important tool of the metallurgist by which he can alter the properties of steel easily. The same steel can have a very wide range of mechanical properties if subjected to different heat treatment. Today, when science and technology are advancing very rapidly in pursuit of higher and higher properties in materials, heat treatment plays a very important role. 3.1.Principles of Heat Treatment Heat treatment may be defined as a sequence of heating and cooling designed to get the desired combination of properties in the steel. The changes in the properties of steel after heat treatment are due to the phase transformations and structural changes that occur during the heat treatment. The factors which determine and control these structural changes are called the principles of heat treatment. The important principle of heat treatment are as follows 1.Phase transformations during heating 2.Effect of cooling rate on structural changes during cooling, 3.Effect of carbon content and alloying elements 3.1.1 Phase Transformations in Steel During Heating Before heating, microstructure of steel consists of ferrite, pearlite and carbides in widely different amounts depending upon the carbon content and alloying elements in the steel. During heating the first structure change in steel begins when its temperature reaches lower critical temperature, Ac). At this temperature pearlite changes into austenite. The phase transformation occurs by nucleation of austenite phase at the interfaces between the ferrite and carbide (cememite) crystals, The rate of nucleation increases with increase in the ferrite-cementite interfacial area. As the temperature is increased, more and more ferrite and cementite are dissolved in 49austenite and the structure becomes completely austenitic after reaching the upper critical temperature. However, some undissolved carbides are stil! present and formation of homogeneous austenite occurs after holding the steel at this temperature, The formation of homogeneous austenite is dependent upon the time and temperature of heating as shown in Fig. 3.1 The figure shows that the formation of homogeneous austenite takes place in four stages, namely nucleation of austenite from pearlite, transformation of ferrite and cementite, dissolution of carbides and finally the formation of homogeneous austenite. Figure 3.1 also shows that the formation of homogeneous austenite takes a very long time at low temperatures of austenitizing but becomes rapid at temperatures above 800°C. Therefore, in practice, temperatures above 800°C are used for austenitization. Hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels require still higher temperatures for austenitization. Similarly, alloy carbides (such as chromium, tungsten and molybdenum) also require higher austenitizing temperatures and longer holding times to dissolve in austenite #50 — yt \ Homogeneous e \ +, eustonite vz. 4 820 : 5 ho 18 Wek ; # ool tS 4 2 gre VAustonita 7] 2 “3 “with carbon) € 18 '\ Austenite and Yinnomogeneitios! & \, carbide ~\ ie : = 76° : e Ns, Pearle and austenite. oy {Poersie andcarbide 700, I 5 10 Too 1000-10000 TIME, S Fig. 3.1 Pearlite to austenite transformation on heating in a eutectoid steel as a function of e and temperature3.1.2 Transformation of Austenite During Cooling After the formation of homogeneous austenite, the steel is allowed to cool. Depending upon the rate of cooling, austenite can be made to transtorm, to different phases. Ferrite, pearlite and cementite are obtained during slow cooling, while bainite and martensite are formed when steel is cooled rapidly. In eutectoid steels containing 0.8% carbon, transformation of austenite to peartite occurs when austenite reaches the tower critical temperature (Aci) during slow cooling. The transformation begins by the nucleation and growth of alternate plates of cementite and ferrite at several points along the austenite grain boundaries This forms pearlite colonies, which grow until the entire austenite grain has been consumed and has become a pearlite nodule. When hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels are cooled from the austenitic region, precipitation of ferrite and cementite takes place between the upper and lower critical temperatures. Ferrite or cementite is formed at the grain boundaries of austenite, if sufficient time is allowed for the diffusion to take place. The proeutectoid phase forms at the grain boundaries while the pearlite occupies the center of the grains, thus forming a network structure. Transformation of austenite to proeutectoid ferrite and cementite, and eutectoid pearlite, can be avoided by cooling the steel at a sufficiently fast rate. When austenite is cooled at a rate greater than the critical cooling rate (as given by time- temperature-transformation diagram), it transforms instantly to a new phase called martensite. High hardness and strength are obtained due to the formation of martensite, 3.2.Heat Treatment Processes A heat treatment process consists of the following steps (3) Firstly, the steel is heated to -a high temperature called the austenitizing temperature. During heating, the previous structure of steel is converted into austenite phase (ii) After reaching the austenitic temperature, stee! is held at this temperature for some period of time, called the soaking period. Soaking results in the formation of homogeneous austenite through out the entire cross section $1(iii) Steel having a homogeneous austenitic structure is cooled back to room temperature, at a particular cooling rate depending upon the properties required. GvJIf necessary, steel may be reheated to a higher temperature (but lower than Aci) and cooled again. ‘The above sequence of heating and cooling may vary from a most simple form of heating in a closed furnace and cooling in the air to a more complex form which requires preheating, soaking in a controlled atmosphere and two-step cooling Depending upon the method of heating, the furnace atmosphere, the heating temperature, the cooling medium used, and the properties desired, heat treatment processes may be divided into following basic types 1.Annealing 2.Normalizing 3. Hardening, 4.Tempering 5.Case-hardening. These basic types of heat treatments are widely used in industry depending upon the properties required Details of these processes, their purposes, phase transformations and the resulting properties shall be discussed in the following sections. 3.3.Annealing Annealing may be defined as heating the steel to austenite phase and then cooling slowly through the transformation range. Slow cooling is generally achieved ina closed furnace by switching-off the supply Steel is annealed for one of the following purposes (i)To reduce hardness (ii)To relieve internal stresses GiiTo improve machinability (iv)To facilitate further cold working by restoring ductility (v)To produce the necessary microstructure having desired mechanical, physical, or other properties 52The important characteristic of annealing treatment is the slow cooling of steel during the critical transformation range. This slow cooling results in the formation of spheroidal carbides and coarse lamellar pearlite. These products of transformation are very soft and result in the softening of steel In practice steels are generally annealed by simply switching-off the furnace after the formation of austenite, there is nothing further of consequence that can occur in the steel during further cooling up to room temperature. Therefore, after the complete transformation of austenite, i.e. below 600C the steel may be cooled rapidly in air without affecting the structure or properties. The cooling rate during annealing varies from 50C/hour to 30 C/hour depending upon the alloying elements in the steels. Lower rates of cooling are used for alloy steels as compared to plain carbon steels, 3.3.1 Annealing Temperature and Soaking Times The final heating or austenitizing temperature for annealing for the given steel depends upon the percentage of carbon in the steel. Generally the following guidelines are used Type of steel Annealing temperature, C Hypo-eutectoid Acs +50 Hyper eutectoid Acs + 50 After heating up to austenitizing temperature, the steel is held at this temperature for a minimum of one hour for sections up to 25 mm thick. For larger sections, soaking or holding time is increased at the rate of 30 minutes for each additional 25 mm of thickness. The holding time for hypereutectoid and atloy steels can be increased if low hardness values are required. Lower austenitizing temperatures and longer holding times produce spheroidized structures 3.3.2 Properties after Annealing Annealing results ia the formation of ferrite, spheroidal cementite and coarse pearlite. AU these phases and micro-constituents are relatively soft, Therefore,annealing is called as softening treatment, and produces relatively lower hardness values. After annealing hardness of steel can vary from 110 BHN ( Brineli hardness number ) to 230 BHN, depending upon the carbon content and the alloying elements Hardness increases with increase in carbon content and the alloying elements Variation of hardness with the carbon content in the steel is shown in Table 3.1 Table 3.1 Variation of Annealing Temperature and The Resulting Hardness with Carbon Content in the Steet Si Carbon content in Steel ‘Annealing Temperature hardness No. Per cent Cc) BHN 1 018022 360-900 110-149 2 0.23-0.28 850-890 130-180 3 0.29-0,38 840-880 140-206 4 0,39-0.55 820-870 150-217 5 0.56-0.80 790-840 160-230 6 Q.81-0.99 790-830 170-230 3.3.3 Types of Annealing Annealing as mention above, is a softening process achieved by heating and slow cooling of the material. In practice, materials require different degrees of softening for different applications. The different degrees of softening in steel can be achieved by slight variation in the annealing parameters, such as, heating temperature and cooling rate, Variation in these parameters results in what is known as different types of annealing, isothermal annealing , etc. These different types of annealing processes are widely used in commercial practice to achieve a proper combination of structure and hardness required applications. Important characteristics of different types of annealing processes are as follows (a) Full Annealing. Full annealing is defined as heating the steel to austenite phase and then cooling slowly through the transformation range. When applied to steel, full annealing is called as annealing (b) Box Annealing. Annealing a metal or alloy in a sealed container under conditions that minimize oxidation, is called box annealing. The material is packed with cast iron 54chips, burnt charcoal, or washed sand. It is also called as black annealing, close annealing or pot annealing (©) Bright Annealing. Annealing in a protective medium to prevent surface discoloration is called bright annealing. The protective medium is obtained by the use of an inert gas, such as, argon or nitrogen, or by using reducing gas atmosphere. A typical reducing atmosphere may consists of 15 % Hz , 10% CO , 5% CO» 1.5 % CH; and remainder N2 (d) Stress Relieving. All processes of annealing usually reduce stresses, but if the treatment is applied for the sole purpose of such relief, it is called stress relieving. It may be categorized as finish annealing. It is a low temperature annealing treatment applied to cold worked steels. It results in lowering of the residual stresses, thereby lessening the risk of distortion in machining, Tool steels are generaily stress relieved after rough machining, (e) Process Annealing. In sheet and wire industry, steel is heated to a temperature below Ac] and then cooled slowly, in order to soften the alloy for further cold working, It is called process annealing or intermediate annealing 3.3.4 Applications of Annealing Differem types of annealing treatments are widely used in commercial practice. Some typical examples of these applications are as follows, (a) Annealing of Steel Castings. The structure of cast steel is characterized by a dendritic nature and non-uniformity in composition, due to the processes of dendritic formation and chemical segregation which take place during solidification. The microstructure of a cast steel consisting of dendrites of the ferrite phase is shown in Fig, 3.2. The undesirable cast structure can be modified by annealing. The cast structures are usually annealed at higher temperatures, and for longer time as compared to wrought steels of similar composition. Cored structures are homogenized by annealing 55A AY LUD, AG 4 OER Bite: oy om Fig. 3.2 Microstructure of a 0.28 per cent carbon steel in cast condition stowing dendritic structure of ferrite (white) and pearlite (black) . Etched with Nital, 150 x. (b) Annealing of Steel Sheet and Strip. The hot rolled and the cold rolled steel sheet and strip are annealed to relieve the stresses induced during rolling, and to soften the material for subsequent fabrication, Annealing is done at sub critical temperatures. It results in recrystallization of the elongated and distorted grain structure developed during cold working and improves ductility. It is called process annealing. It is also used to soften hot rolled material (©) Annealing of Steel Forging. Forgings are generally annealed to improve their machinability and to obtain the desired microstructure. Forgings are annealed as per conventional annealing cycles (d) Annealing for Machinability. Machinability depends upon the microstructure and hardness of the steel, A suitable combination of microstructure and hardness results in good machinability. Presence of coarse lamellar pearlite in medium carbon steels results in high machinability. These types of microstructure can be obtained by annealing as follows (a) Medium carbon steels—-Full annealing (b) High carbon steels--- Spheroidizing 56Microstructure of a high carbon steel after spheroidizing is shown in Fig, 3.3 The structure shows that the cementite is present in the globular form to impart good machinability. Fig. 3.3 Microstructure of a 1.0 per cent carbon stee! after spheroidizing showing globutar form of cementite in a ferrite matrix. Etched with Nital, 500 X. 3.4 Normalizing Normatizing may be defined as heating the steel to austenite phase and cooling it in air. It is done to achieve any one of the following purposes. (i)To eliminate coarse-grained structures obtained in previous working operations such as rolling, forging, ete. (ii)To modify and improve cast dendritic structures and reduce segregation by homogenizing the microstructure Gii)To obtain desired microstructure and mechanical properties. (iv)To improve machinability of low carbon steels In normalizing steel is uniformly heated to a temperature which causes complete transformation to austenite. The steel is held at this temperature for sufficient time for the formation of homogeneous structure throughout its mass. It is then allowed to cool in still air in a uniform manner, Air cooling results in faster cooling rate than the furnace cooling. Thus, the cooling time in normalizing is drastically reduced as compared to annealing 573.4.1 Normalizing Temperatures and Soaking Times Depending upon the carbon content of the steel, following normatizing temperatures are recommended. Hypoeutectoid steels ~ Acs + 50C Hypereutectoid steels — Acm + 50 C Normalizing temperature generally varies from 810 to 930C. After reaching the normalizing temperature, it is held at this temperature at the rate of t hour/25 mm thickness. Higher temperatuses and longer soaking time may be given for alloy steels and heavier cross sections. 3.4.2 Properties after Normalizing Similar to annealing, normalizing also results in the formation of ferrite, cementite and lamellar pearlite. But in normalizing due to higher cooling rate, transformation of austenite takes place at much lower temperatures than in annealing. Therefore, the transformation product, pearlite, is finer the interlamellar distance between the two neighboring cementite plates. ‘A normalized steel will have higher hardness and strength than annealed steel due to the following reasons. (i) The amount of pearlite in the normalized steel is more than that in the annealed steel having the same carbon content, due to the shifting of the eutectoid composition to a lower value. (ii) The dispersion of pearlite and ferrite phases is finer (iii) the pearlite of normalized steel is finer and has a lower interlamellar spacing than that of annealed steel Microstructures of a 0.3 per cent carbon steel in annealed and normalized conditions are shown in Figs. 3.4. and 3.5. Hardness after normalizing generally varies from 120 to 300 BHIN depending upon the carbon content and the section thickness. Variation of normalizing temperature and the resulting hardness values with the carbon content in the steel is shown in Table 3.2 58Fig. 3.4 Microstructure of a 0.3 per cent carbon after annealing , showing coarse peariite (black) and ferrite (white). Etched with Nital, 150 X — I Fig. 3.5 Microstructure of a 0.3 per cent carbon steel after normalizing showing finely dispersed peartite (black) and ferrite (white). Etched with Nital, {50 X. 59Table 3.2. Variation of Normalizing Temperature and The Resulting Hardness with The Carbon Content in Steet St Carbon content in steel Normalizing Resulting hardness No. temperature (per cent) cc) (BHN) 1 ~ 0.18-0.22 900-925 120-160 2 0.23-0.28 890-910 140-190 3 0.29-0.38 880-900 150-220 4 0,39-0.58 840-870 180-230 5 0.56-0.80 810-840 210-270 6 0,81-0,99 810-840 260-300 3.4.3 Applications of Normalizing Normalizing is extensively used in industry because it is much more economical 10 normalize a steel as against annealing. In normalizing, cooling takes place in air and the furnace is ready for next charge, but in annealing, cooling takes place in the furnace , which may take about 8 to 20 hours depending upon the quantity of the charge. In many cases annealing may be replaced by normalizing to reduce the cost of heat treatment. It could be done only if the properties requirements are not very critical, Some typical examples of normalizing in commercial practice are homogenization of cast and wrought structures, improvement of machinability, grain size refinement of cast structures and stress relieving of castings. 1. Cast metals and alloys are characterized by segregated, cored and dendritic structures and non-uniform mechanical properties. Similarly, wrought alloys afer forging, rolling, extrusion, etc. are non-uniform in structure and properties. These structures and properties are made homogeneous by normalizing, 2. Machinability of steel depends upon the microstructure, which can be controlled by heat treatment. For example, low carbon steels would have better machinability if the structure is fine and possesses higher hardness: medium carbon steels should possess spheroidized structure and low hardness. The above structures and hardness values 60can be obtained by different treatment processes as given in table 3.3 for different steels 3. The structure of castings is characterized by coarse dendritic or equiaxed grains, due to higher temperatures used during melting, and slow cooling rates during sand castings. This coarse grain structure undesirable and possesses poorer mechanical properties. It can be improved or refined by annealing of normalizing 4. The castings are also characterized by the presence of high internal stresses developed due to differences in the cooling rates at the surface and at the core during solidification and subsequent cooling, These internal stresses are undesirable because they may cause cracking during subsequent fabrication, handling or service period. These intemal stresses can be relieved by normalizing or annealing the castings Table 3.3 VARIATION OF MICROSTRUCTURE FOR HIGH MACHINABILITY FOR DIFFERENT CARBON STEELS SINo | Carbon content in steel % | Desirable microstructure for high | | machinability jou 0.06 to 0.20 As cold rolled | 2 0.20 to 0.30 Normalized 3 0.30 to 0.40 ‘Annealed to give coarse pearlite 4 0.40 to 0.60 Annealed to give coarse pearlite and coarse | spheroidite $s 0.60 to 1.20 100 per cent spheroidized, coarse to fine. 3.5. Hardening of Steel Hardening may be defined as rapid cooling of steel from the austenite phase The rapid cooling is obtained by immersion of steel in a liquid bath such as water or oil. Sometimes forced air can also be used. The fast cooling of steel from austenite phase results in the formation of a meta-stable phase called martensite, Hardening is also called as quenching, because steel is quenched from a high temperature to a liquid bath at room temperature 61The main purpose of hardening of steel is, to increase hardness, strength and wear resistance, and to obtain a suitable microstructure which will have desired mechanical properties after tempering, Successful hardening of steel requires two conditions to be met. Firstly the formation of homogeneous austenite. And secondly, rapid cooling of austenite which will result in the transformation to martensite. The formation of homogeneous austenite takes place when steel is heated to the correct austenitizing temperature, and held at this temperature for a sufficient time. After the formation of homogeneous austenite, steel is cooled rapidly by immersion into water or oil baths. This results in the formation of martensite. The transformation of martensite. The transformation of austenite to martensite is very critical and greatly depends upon the cooling rate and other variables. 3.5.1 The Process of Quenching When a piece of heated steel is dropped into a liquid quenching medium the outer surface will cool more rapidly than the core as indicated by two cooling curves in Fig 3.6. Each cooling curve can be divided into three parts called the stages of quenching. These stages are the vapour-blanket stage, the vapor transport or boiling stage as shown in Fig.3.6. ‘As soon as the hot metal is dropped into the bath, it is cooled rapidty and becomes surrounded by a blanket of vapor film of quenching medium. After formation of the vapor film the cooling rate drops, because the hot specimen is prevented from coming in contact with the liquid medium, and further cooling occurs only through the vapor film by conduction and radiation. This first stage of quenching is called vapor blanket stage. The vapor film is stable, generally at (emperatures upto 400°C. When the temperature of the specimen falls below this temperature, the vapor film breaks away and the liquid comes into contact with the hot metal. Due to this vigorous boiling occurs and the metal is cooled rapidly. This second stage of quenching is called boiling stage due to continuous formation of bubbles at the metal surface, Formation of martensite occurs during this stage When the metal cools to approximately the boiling point of the quenching medium, the boiling cases and the second stage of boiling ends. Cooling during the 62third stage, i.e., liquid cooling stage begins by convection and conduction through the liquid. The cooting rate in this stage is much slower than the other stages. It is advantages if austenite to martensite transformation occurs during, this stage. It will result in much lower residual stresses, distortion and quench cracks. i 3 ng 4 Ri eps Bath temperoture TIME Fig. 3.6 Cooling curves for surface and core and various stages of quenching in a liquid bath 3.5.2 Hardening Temperatures and Soaking Times Austenitizing temperature prior to hardening depends upon the carbon content of the steel, Hypoeutectoid steels are heated to completely austenitic phase, while hypereutectoid steels are heated to obtain a phase mixture of austenite and cementite ‘The austenitizing temperature is determined as follows Hypoeutectoid steels — Acs * 50°C Hypereutectoid steels - Aci + 50°C These temperatures are generally unaffected by the presence of small amount of alloying elements. Care must be taken to obtain temperature uniformity through the entire cross-section and not to exceed the recommended temperatures. Optimum hardening temperatures for different carbon steels are given in Table 3.4. Afterreaching the austenitizing temperature, steel is held at this temperature at the rate of 1 hour / 25 mm thickness. Table 3.4. Variation of Hardening Temperature and the Resulting Hardness with Carbon Content in Steet Si Carbon content in Hardening Resulting hardness No steel temperature ic} BHN Re 7 0.18-0.22 Not hardened _ - - 2 0.23-0.28 850-890 370-440 40-47 3 0.29-0.38 840-880 420-570 45-57 4 0.39-0.55 820-870 550-615 55-61 5 0.56-0.80 790-840 : 61-63 6 0.81-0.99 790-830 = 62-64 3.5.3 Microstructure and Properties After Hardening When steel is quenched from the austenitizing temperature, austenite is transformed to martensite. This transformation of austenite to martensite is temperature dependent, and some amount of austenite remains untransformed even at room temperature, The untransformed austenite is called retained austenite. Retained austenite is always present in steels after quenching, unless steel has been quenched at subzero temperature (temperatures fess than room temperature and up to ~ 196°C) In addition to martensite and retained austenite, hardened steel may contain carbides which sere not dissolved in austenite during austenitizing. Therefore, microstructure of a hardened steel may consist of martensite, retained austenite and carbides. Relative amount of these phases will vary depending upon the composition of steel, austenitizing temperature, soaking time, and temperature of the quenching medium, lf the cooling rate during quenching is low and less than the critical cooling rate, formation of ferrite, pearlite and bainite may result before the formation of martensite from austenite, 64The hardness of steel after quenching depends upon the hardness of martensite. Hardness of martensite is a function of its carbon content. It increases with increase in the carbon content and attains the saturation at a carbon content of about 0.6 per cent. The figure shows that steels containing less than 0.2 per cent carbon give low hardness values after hardening. Hardness greater than 50 R, can be obtained only after hardening steels containing 0.3 per cent carbon 3.5.4 Variables Affecting Hardening of Steel The process of hardening of steel is widely used in industry. Most of the engineering components are hardened and tempered before they are put into service. ‘The hardening process of steel looks to be very simple. It requires heating the steel to austenitizing temperature and then quenching it in a liquid bath. But it may not give you the expected hardness in steel. The reason is, that the kinetics of formation of martensite are very complicated, and are greatly affected by a large number of variables which may reduce the hardness to an appreciable extent, Some of these variables are austenitizing temperature, holding time, type and temperature of quenching medium, mass and size of the object, etc. (a) Austenitizing Temperature The steel should be heated to the optimum austenitizing temperature. A lower austenitizing temperature may result in incomplete transformation to austenite and hence lower hardness after hardening. An excessively higher austenitizing temperature will result in lower hardness due to any one of the following defects (i) A coarse-grained structure. (ii) Higher amount of retained austenite after quenching. (ii) Decarburization and oxidation at the surface. In addition to lower hardness, higher austenitizing temperature gives increased distortion and danger of forming cracks in the specimen (b)Soaking Time After heating the steel to the correct austenitizing temperature, it should be held at this temperature for long enough to allow for the formation of homogeneous austenite, As a rile, stee! is held at the austenitizing temperature at the rate of | hour for every 25 mm thickness. If carbides and alloying elements are not fully dissolved in austenite, one may not get the required hardness after quenching 65Soaking time increases with increase in the section thickness and the amount of alloying etements. (c)Delay in Quenching After heating and soaking the steel at the austenitizing temperature, it should be quenched immediately into a liquid bath. Delay in quenching may reduce the hardness of steel due to the partial transformation of austenite to other phases such as ferrite, pearlite, etc. (d) Type of Quenching Medium As soon as the hot specimen is dropped into liquid bath, extraction of heat from the specimen by the liquid begins. Transformation of austenite takes place when the surface of the specimen reaches the martensitic transformation temperature, called M, temperature. For plain carbon steels this temperature lies between 210 to 340°C. At this temperature a large amount of martensite instantly forms. But if the reaching of this temperature is delayed, some amount of austenite may transform to ferrite, pearlite and bainite. Therefore, temperature of the specimen should be decreased below the M, temperature as quickly as possible by the liquid bath to suppress the transformation of austenite to other products, The degree of the lowering of the specimen temperature by the liquid will depend upon the rate of heat extraction by the liquid, The rate of heat extraction will depend upon the heat transfer characteristics of the liquid. The following liquid baths provide different rates of heat extraction (arranged in order of decreasing rates.) (i) Water + 5 to per cent (by weight) salts, such as sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride etc It is called as brine bath. Gi) Water Gil) Water + oil (iv)Oil (iv)Molten salt baths The higher the heat transfer characteristics of the liquid, higher will be the rate of cooling che specimen, and earlier will be the Ms temperature obrained at the surface of the specimen. The effect of the type ‘of quenching medium on the hardness. of a 0.5 per cent plain carbon steel is shown in the Table 3.5. Brine quenching gives the maximum hardness of about 60 R. while oil quenching at room temperature gives only about 28 R,. The lower hardness after oil quenching is due to the formation of some amount of ferrite and pearlite {addition to martensite 66In industry, water and oil are widely used as quenching media, Water is recommended for plain carbon steels, for simple shapes, and when the section thickness is not too large. It is a dangerous quenchant, and generally results in higher distortion and quench cracking, Oil is universally used for quenching of alloy steels, larger sections, and for complex shape parts. (e) Temperature of Quenching Medium Changing the temperature of the quenching medium affects the heat transfer characteristics of the liquid and hence changes the cooling rate at the surface of the specimen. It gives different hardness values at the surface of the specimen. The effect of the temperature of the quenching medium on the hardness of a 0.5 per cent carbon steel is shown in the Table3.5. The table shows that on one hand the hardness is decreased by increasing the temperature of the water bath; and on the other hand, hardness is first increased by increasing the temperature of the oil bath (ue to an appreciable decrease in the viscosity of oil) and then decreased with further increasing the temperature of the bath. Table 3.5. Effect of Type and Temperature of the Quenching Medium on the Hardness of A 0.5 Per Cent Carbon Steel After Hardening (Specimens were austenitized at 850 °C and quenched in liquid bath without agitation) Sl Type of quenching media Temperature of the Hardness obtained No media after hardening c R 1 Brine Gwater plus 10% NaCl) 20 60 2 Water 20 59 3 Water 70 56 4 Oil 20 28 Ss Oi 60 36 6 Oil 120 24 (f) Agitation and Circulation of Liquid Bath The cooling power of the liquid is greatly improved by agitation and circulation of the fiquid bach Hence, i results in obtaining higher hardness values than without agitation, In practice, either the object 67is strongly agitated in the liquid bath or the liquid is circulated in the tank at a high speed to get the best results. (@) Alloying Elements in Steel. Alloying elements (such as manganese, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, etc.) have no effect on the hardness of martensite obtained after hardening. Hardness after hardening is mainly determined by the carbon content in the steel. In spite of the fact that alloying elements do not affect the hardness of martensite all the important engineering steels used after hardening contain an appreciable amount of alloying elements, It is because of the fact that alloying elements help to achieve the expected hardness values in larger cross-sections and by quenching in oil or even in air. In other words, alloying elements suppress the transformation of austenite to pearlite, bainite, etc., and allow uniform hardness to be obtained throughout the cross section for larger size specimens, The effect of alloying elements on the hardness of steel at the surface and at the centre, for different diameter bars, is shown in the Table 3.6. Table3.6 Effect of Alloying Elements on the Hardness After Hardening Different Diameter Bars (Specimens were quenched I oil from the recommended austenitizing, temperatures) Si Composition of Diameterof Hardness at Hardness a the No. steel the bar the surface centre Percent Mm R R I “€-04 ~~ So 58 26 ~ 100 28 18 2 c-04 50 50, 46 Crt 100, 48 43 Mo-0 25, 1S0 44 38, 200 40 30 3 cr-0.4 50 37 BE 68Cr-1.0 100 56 52 Mo-0.25 150 54 48 Ni-LS 200 $2 44 250 50 40 (h) Mass and Size of the Object. When a small specimen (up to 20 mm in thickness) is austenitized and quenched in a liquid bath, the expected hardness values may be obtained by the rapid cooling of the specimen by the liquid. But as the mass and size of the object increases, the cooling rate at the surface and at the interior of the object decreases, because a large quantity of the heat per unit surface area of the object is to be removed by the liquid. It takes a longer time to achieve the same temperature at the surface of a large object than for a small specimen. During this larger duration of time, austenite may transform to other products, such as pearlite, and hence hardness decreases. The effect of the bar diameter on the resulting hardness of a 0.5 per cent carbon steel after hardening is shown in Table 3.7 The table shows that 0.5 per cent carbon steel bar of 150 mm diameter will develop a hardness of 21 R- only, even after water quenching Table 3.7 Effect of Bar Diameter on the Hardness AT The surface After Quenching (Specimens containing 0.5% C were austenitized at 840C for different times and quenched in water) sl Bar diameter Surface hardness No. R. i 59 _ 2 20 55 3 40 a2 4 60 36 5 100 28 6 150 2 693.6 Time-Temperature-Transformation Diagram When steel is heated above the critical temperature, austenite is formed. This austenite phase in steel is stable only at temperatures above lower critical temperature (Ai). When steel is cooled below this temperature, austenite will transform to some other phases, This transformation of austenite is greatly dependent upon the temperature and time of transformation, A relationship between these three quantities is given by a diagram called “ Time-Temperature-Transformation” diagram or in short, a TTT curve. A TTT curve for eutectoid steel is shown in Fig 3.7. This TTT curve is having a characteristic “S” shape and hence, it is also called as “S” curve. A TTT curve shows the transformation of austenite into different phases with temperature and time. The most important part of the curve is called the nose (Fig 3.7) It divides the curve into two parts, The upper part of the curve shows transformation of austenite to pearlite. The line marked “P.” shows the start of pearlite formation, and the line marked “Pr” shows the finish of pearlite transformation. The part below the” nose “of the curve. i.e, between 550°C to 230°C, shows the transformation of austenite to an another phase called bainite. Bainite is formed when steel is cooled rapidly to a temperature befow the “ nose » of the curve and held isothermally at this temperature for the finish of bainite transformation. The lowest part of the TTT curve shows the transformation of austenite to martensite. At a temperature called “ M,” temperature, the martensite transformation begins. As we go below the M. temperature, more and more martensite forms, Formation of martensite requires that the austenite phase must be cooled rapidly to avoid the nose of the curve to a temperature below My Transformation of austenite to martensite is instantaneous. It does not depend upon time, but depends only upon the temperature of transformation In the case of hypo-or hyper-eutectoid steels, the TTT curve shows the presence of an additional line indicating the transformation of austenite to proeutectoid ferrite or cementite before the formation of eutectoid pearlite, A TTT diagram for a 0.3 per cent carbon steel is shown in Fig. 3.8. The curve marked F, indicates the formation of proeutectoid ferrite in the steel during cooling. The diagram indicates that the formation of ferrite cannot be avoided even by the most rapid cooling 70727 TEMPERATURE, °C 7 4 90% 4 301 4 18 SECS. MINS HOURS. TIME Fig, 3.7 Time- temperature- transformation diagram for a 0.8 % C steel containing 0.76 % Mn 7TEMPERATURE, °C 4 1 4 30 1 4 30 + 4 15 SECS. MINS. HOURS TIME Fig. 3.8 Time- temperature- transformation diagram for a hypo-eutectoid steel containing 0.3 % C 3.6.1 Austenite to Pearlite Transformation As per the TTT diagram, transformation of austenite to pearlite begins when the temperature of austenite falls below lower critical temperature (Ai). The transformation can begin at different temperature as indicated by the P. ( pearlite start) fine. The transformation starts by formation of cementite crystal nuclei at austenite grain boundaries. Carbon diffuses from the surrounding austenite to the cementite, and the growth of carbide begins. As carbon diffuses, the adjacent austenite is depleted in carbon and transforms o ferrite, With formation of ferrite, there is @ rejection of carbon from the ferrite region, ie, effective enrichment of the adjacent austenite takes place. This results in the formation of additional nuclei of cementite. Because of the alternate formation of cementite and ferrite, cementite can only grow away from the boundary of the original austenite grain as a platelet, Nucleation and 72growth of alternate plates of cementite and ferrite occur at several points along the austenite grain boundaries. This forms pearlite colonies which are approximately hemispherical regions. Usually several such colonies form within any one austenite grain, These pearlite colonies grow until the entire austenite grain has been consumed and has become a pearlite nodule. The process of pearlite formation is sometimes referred to as“ sidewise nucleation and edgewise growth”. The structure of pearlite consists of alternate lametlae (or plates) of cementite and ferrite. The distance between the two consecutive plates ‘of cementite is called interlamellar spacing of pearlite. Higher interlamellar spacing of pearlite is called coarse pearlite and it will have lower hardness as compared to fine pearlite which forms at lower temperatures of transformation, Therefore, hardness of pearlite depends upon its coarseness and fines which is determined by the temperature of its formation. Pearlite which forms at a temperature just above the nose of he TTT diagram is called fine pearlite 3.6.2 Austenite to Bainite Transformation Bainite is the name given to the structures that form on isothermal transformation at temperature below the nose of the TTT diagram. Bainite is formed when austenite is cooled rapidly to a temperature below the “ nose” of the curve and held isothermally at this temperature for the start (B.) and finish (By) of the bainite transformation, as shown in the TTT diagram, Fig. 3.7.Like pearlite, bainite is a fine and intimate mixture of ferrite and cementite. In pearlite, the cementite appears as plates embedded in a ferrite matrix. In bainite (when the structure is completely resolved), the cementite appears to exist as tiny spheroids, quite uniformly distributed throughout the ferrite. The arrangement of the cementite particles in the ferrite matrix gives the appearance of the formation of a pattern. This pattern has a somewhat feathery appearance at higher temperatures of formation, and has a sharply acicular appearance at lower temperatures of transformation is called upper bainite or feathery bainite. On the other hand, bainite which forms at lower temperatures (just above My temperature) is called lower bainite or acicular bainite. Accicular bainite will have higher hardness as compared to feathery bainite Appearance of bainite under microscope is shown in Fig, 3.9.Due to differences in size, shape and distribution of 73cementite particles, bainite is normally harder, stronger, and tougher than fine pearlite of the same chemical composition. Steels containing bainite structure will have much higher toughness (impact strength) as compared to steels having peartite or martensite structure. Fig. 3.9 Microstructure of lower bainite in alloy steel obtained by isothermal transformation at 300°C. Etched with Nital, 1000X Fig. 3.10 Microstructure of a 0.5 per cent carbon steel after heating to 850°C and quenching in water. The structure consists of martensite (black) ferrite and retained austenite. Etched with Nita} ,500 X. 743.6.3 Austenite to Martensite Transformation The lowest part of the TTT curve shows the transformation of austenite to martensite. Martensite transformation begins when austenite is cooled below a certain critical temperature, called the M, ( martensite start) temperature. As we go below he M, temperature, more and more martensite forms and complete transformation occurs only at a temperature called Mr ( martensite finish). Formation of martensite requires that the austenite phase must be cooled rapidly (equal to or greater than the critical cooling rate) to avoid the nose of the TTT curve to a temperature below Mg. The transformation to martensite is diffusionless, and involves no change in the chemical composition of austenite. There is no nucleation followed by growth like pearlite. During martensitic transformation , small discrete volumes of the parent austenite phase suddenly change their crystal structure from face-centered cubic to body-centered tetragonal. The austenite to martensite change ocours as platelets. Each platelet is formed in a very short time (perhaps less than a micro-second). The platelets of martensite have acicular appearance under a microscope. The platelet and needle-like structures of martensite in steels obtained by rapid cooling are shown in Fig, 3.9 and 3.10. Martensite is a single-phase, super-saturated solution of carbon in ferrite, with carbon atoms located interstitially in a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) lattice. The normal BCC structure of iron is distorted to BCT structure due to excessive super- saturation by carbon atoms. It is a hard phase and its high hardness is due to the following reasons. (i)Straining, and distortion of the solvent lattice due to entrapping of carbon atoms (ii)Occurrence of twinning in the crystals of the product phase, martensite. (iii) Very fine size of martensitic plates or needles (iv)Significant increase in the dislocation density and defects A TTT curve is valid only when transformation of austenite takes place isothermally. But when steel is cooled continuously from a high temperature to a low temperature, the TTT curve shifts to the right as shown by the shaded area in Fig, 3.11 This curve is called continuous cooling transformation (CCT) curve, In hardening process of steel, a CCT curve is followed. By measuring the time it takes to cool a sample of steet to a certain temperature, one can calculate the cooling rate. Four 15different cooling rates marked I,I], III and IV, are shown in the Fig. 3.14. The cooling rate I is very fast, 350°C/s, and results in the formation of martensite. It avoids the nose of the curve. The cooling rate marked Ul, ie, 140°C/s, also results in the formation of martensite, but it just touches the nose of the curve, and is called the critical cooling rate. It is the minimum cooling rate required for the formation of complete martensite. The cooling rate marked III, cuts the P, and Py line of the curve and results in the formation of complete peartite. The cooling rate marked IV, also results in the formation of pearlite. If formation of pearlite takes place at relatively high temperature, the product is called coarse pearlite, if it takes place at a lower temperature, it is called fine pearlite. Fine pearlite will have higher hardness than coarse pearlite. Continuous Cooling Transformation Curve TEMPERATURE, °C + 2 901 4 30 1 2 15 Secs. Mins. Hours 5 TIME <—> Fig. 3.11 Various cooling rates superimposed on time temperature transformation (TTT) and continuous cooling transformation (CCT) curves 763.7. Hardenability of Steel Steel becomes hard after quenching. A properly quenched steel gives hardness of about 60 Re. This value is generally measured on the surface of he steel. As one goes towards the centre of the part, hardness decreases. This decrease in hardness along the diameter (cross-section) of the steel is called hardenability. The hardenability determines the depth of hardening obtained by quenching, which is usually specified as the distance below the surface where the amount of martensite had been reduced to $0 per cent. A steel is said to have a good. hardenability when the decrease in hardness towards centre is very low. On the other hand, a shallow (low) hardenability steel shows a steep hardness gradient from surface towards centre. Hardenability of steel is expressed as the diameter of the bar that will form a structure composed of 50 per cent martensite at the centre when quenched with a severity of quench, H, of infinity. This is called the ideal critical diameter, and is designated as D. When the steel bar is quenched in a liquid medium having a definite value of severity of quench, H, the resulting diameter which will have 50 per cent martensite at the centre, is called the critical diameter, D.. The critical diameter ofa given steel varies with the severity of quench and is atways less chan the ideal critical diameter for the same steel. FULLY PARTLY HARDENED AREA HARDENED AREA TMM: poy - ey #4 , me | = biameren, mm ———> o) HARDNESS, Re ————> Fig, 3.12 (a) Fully partly hardened areas and (b) Variation of hardness along the diameter for different diameter bars.3.7.1 Significance of Hardenability From the heat treatment point of view, hardenability is very important property. Hardenability answers the following, questions in heat treatment (i) It determines the cooling rate, or the quenching medium which should be used for quenching a given sample of steel. Lower the severity of the quenching medium, lesser would be the distortion and cracking of the part (jiHardenability cells about the maximum hardness possible on the surface and below the surface for the given composition and size of the steel sample by quenching in different media. Therefore, steel selection for strength is usually made on the basis of hardenability, (iii)Hardenability determines how the distribution and depth of hardness will vary with the change in the size of the sample. For some steels, smail changes in the oross- section of the components can greatly affect the properties obtainable by heat treatment. (iv)Hardenability calculations can be used to predict the formation of compressive and residual stresses after quenching in load bearing and fatigue resistance steels (v)Hardenability. greatly affects the cracking tendency after welding of steel components. 3.7.2 The Jominy-End Quench Test The hardenability of a steel is governed by the cooling rates at which austenite decomposes to ferrite, pearlite and bainite during quenching Consequently, hardenability is best assessed by studying the steel’s response to a quenching treatment and measuring hardness obtained at different cooling rates in the sample. ‘The most popular method to determine the steels response to a hardening treatment is called Jominy-end Quench test. In this method , a standard specimen of 25mm diameter and 100 mm length, as shown in Fig.3.13.(a) , is heated upto the austenitizing temperature and then dropped into a holding fixture and quenched at its ‘one end as shown in Fig;3.13(b). In this way, different rates of cooling are obtained along the length of the specimen from the most sever water quench to an air cooled condition. The hardness is measured along the length of the specimen and a curve is plotted between the hardness versus distance from quenched end as shown in Fig3.14. The resulting curve is called a Jominy curve. The curve shows decrease in hardness at different distances from the quenched end of the specimen, This Jominy curve can be used to find out all the necessary data about the hardenability of the given steel. Jominy curves for steels having different chemical compositions, have been determined and reported in handbooks. A standard Jominy curve for En-31 steel (AISI — 52100) is shown in Fig.3.15. HOLDING FIXTURE 3175 mm JOMINY -END. QUENCH i TEST PIECE WATER JET | CONTROL VALVE Pump == 3o2mm rad {a} Fig. 3.13 Jominy end quench test (a) Standard Jominy specimen (b) Holding fixture and quenching method 79HARDENED, GROUND AND MARKED(1/18") JOMINY SPECIMEN HARDNESS, Re $38 Bess 49) 1 8 16 24 a 40 48 DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END, x 5/16 IN Fig, 3.14 Hardened and ground Jominy specimen showing the plotting of a Sominy curve TEEL En 3} 1086, 23h, 03261, Ad Cr HARDNESS, ROCKWELL C @ 28 32 36 40 DISTANCE FAOM QUENCHED END, 1/7644 Fig. 3.15 Jominy curve and hardenability band (for En-31 AISI-52100) steel 803.7.3 Factors Affecting Hardenability Hardenability is dependent targely upon the amount of alloying elements present in the steel. However, to some extent it is affected by the following factors. 1.The mean composition of austenite 2. The homogeneity of austenite 3.The grain size of the austenite 4.The non-metaitic inclusions in the austenite 5. The undissolved carbides and nitrides in the austenite, Hardenability is greatly increased when the elements are dissolved in austenite before quenching. All elements increase hardenability except cobalt. Greater increase in hardenability is obtained when manganese, molybdenum, chromium, silicon and nickel are dissolved in austenite, Hardenabitity also increases with increase in the carbon content. Due to the significant effect of composition on hardenability of steel, itis possible to predict the hardenability of steel from time-temperature- transformation (TTT) diagram of the given steel. A TTT curve for a high hardenability steel (En-24) is shown in Fig. 3.16. ‘A lack of homogeneity in the composition of the austenite is mainly due co the incomplete dissolution of carbides in the austenite. The regions of low carbon content, will have relatively poor hardenability, whereas those of high carbon content will have high hardenability. Therefore, non-uniformity of austenite will tend towards lower hardenability Hardenability of steel is increased by increasing the grain size of austenite Coarse-grained steels will harden to a greater depth than fine-grained steels because lower grain size promotes the nucleation of pearlite, From a practical stand point, it is not desirable to increase the hardenability by coarsening the prior austenite grain, because coarse grain size results in lower toughness and makes the steel brittle Undissolved carbides reduce both the alloy and carbon content of the austenite, and therefore reduce hardenability, It has been observed that for alloy steels, quenching from a higher temperature promotes deeper hardening. A higher temperature may increase the austenitic grain size and also cause a solution of additional carbide, Carbide forming elements also result in fine grain size and lower hardenability at normal temperatures of austenitizing 81