Cations ime, $ wy ith ee 3. 4. 5. Controlled by § i Lc : : Approved by :* é Training Manager au — CASING AND CEMENTATION ‘ORDER CODE : 700.A0.815The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice.Table of Contents CASING AND CEMENTATION TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF VARIABLES SECTION 1 - GENERAL INTRODUCTION. SECTION 2 - CASING EQUIPMENT AND PRACTICES. e 2.1 Introductior 2.2 Types of Casing 2.2.1 Conductor Pip. 2.2.2 Surface Casing......... 2.2.3 Intermediate Casing .. 2.2.4 Production Casing or Liner.. 2.3 Properties of API Casing. 2.3.1 Casing Geometry. 2.3.2 Geometry of Casing Connections... 2.3.3 Mechanical Properties of Casing and Couplings 2.4 Casing Design Considerations. 2.4.1 Casing Seat Selection 2.4.2 Selecting Casing and Hole Sizes ... 2.4.3 Selecting the Casing Weight and Stee! Grade 2.5 Down Hole Accessories for Casing and Cementation 2.5.1 Floating and Guiding Equipment. 2.5.2 Cementing Plugs and Plug Containers.. 2.5.3 Tools for Multi-stage Cementing.. 2.5.4 Subsea Casing Equipment. 2.5.5 Extemal Casing Accessorie: 2.5.6 Liner Equipment 2.5.7 Tools for Remedial 2.5.8 Casing Running Tool 2.6 Running Casing 2.6.1 Preparing for the Casing Jo! 2.6.2 Pre-running CheckS........ 2.6.3 Monitoring the Casing Running Proces: BRBSSIavoVNouaaae ementing SECTION 3 ~ CEMENTATION ~ MATERIALS AND PRACTICES. 3.1 Introduction.Casing and Cementation it Table of Contents Continued 3.2 Cement Composition and Chemistry 3.2.1 Chemical Notation Used in Cementing, 3.2.2 Primary Components of Oil Well Cement: 3.2.3 The Cement Setting Process... 3.24 Volume Changes During the Setting Process 3.2.5 Effect of Temperature on the Setting Process 3.2.6 Flash Set and False Se! 3.27 Effects of Aging.. 3.2.8 Effects of Alkalis and Sulphates. 3.2.9 Effects of Particle-size Distribution 3.3 API Cement Classification. 3.4 Cement Additives. 3.4.1 Accelerators 3.4.4 Weighting Agents. 3.4.5 Dispersants ; 3.4.6 Fluid-Loss Control Agents 3.4.7 Lost Circulation Additives 65 3.4.8 Other Cement Additives .. 6 3.5 Cement Mixing and Pumping Equipment. 3.5.1 Raw Materials Storage and Blending 3.5.2 Cement Mixing. 70 3.5.3 Cement Pumps.. 73 3.5.4 The Cementing Unit. 75 3.6 Primary Cementing, 3.6.1 Operational Feature: 3.6.2 Influence of Casing Type. 3.6.3 Stab-in Cementing. 3.6.4 ‘Top-up' Cementing .. 3.6.5 Single-stage Cementing .. 3.6.6 Two- and Three- stage Cer 3.6.7 Liner Cementing 3.6.8 Primary Cementing Offshore... 3.7 Secondary Cementing.. 3.7.1 Low-pressure Squeeze.. 3.7.2 High-pressure Squeeze. 3.7.3 Running Squeeze Pumping Techniqu 3.7.4 Hesitation Squeeze Pumping Technique 3.7.5 ‘Bradenhead' Placement Technique... 3.7.6 Squeeze Packer/Cement Retainer Placement ‘Technique. 95 3.7.7 Setting Cement Plugs.. 95 3.8 Slurry Hydraulics and Mud Removal 99 3.8.1 Flow Properties of Cement Slurries. 3.8.2 Mud Removal . 3.8.3 Hydraulics Modeling ALS Cement Applicaton. 112Table of Contents Table of Contents Continued 3.10 Monitoring and Evaluating the Cement Job .. 3.10.1 Preparing for the Cement Job 3.10.2 Monitoring the Cementing Proces: 3.10.3 Thickening Time Measurement (Safemix Consistometer) 3.10.4 Cement Job Logging/Evaluation APPENDIX 1 — CASING CALCULATIONS. APPENDIX 2 — CEMENTING CALCULATIONS REFERENCES. INDEX.Casing and Cementation Casing ene Corner NotesList of Variables v LIST OF VARIABLES In this document, most of the equations are presented in versions for metric and API (American Petroleum Institute) measurement systems. Casing calculations in Appendix 1 Use Standard Intemational (SI) units. The abbreviations for measurement units in each system are as follows. Metric: kgf/cm? = kilogrammes-force per sqare centimeter (pressure) SG = specific gravity (density) liters (volume) m3 = cubic meters (volume) API: psi = pounds per square inch (pressure) ppg = pounds per gallon (density) gal = gallons (volume) bbl = Barrels (volume) Sk: Pa, MPa = Pascal, megapascal (pressure) N, daN = Newton, decanewton (force) Most of the casing and cementing calculations in this manual are illustrated by example; where variables are used, their meaning is specified in the text. The hydraulics equations listed in Section 3 and Appendix 2 of this document use the following symbols: = pressure loss for each section, kgf/m2 (metric) or psi (API) length of the section, m (metric) or ft (API) inside diameter of the tubulars, inches outside diameter of the annulus, in. inside diameter of the annulus (outside diameter of the tubulars), in. outside diameter of the tool joints, in. = inside diameter of the tool joints, in. = mud density, kg/l (metric) or ppg, (AP!) = dynamic viscosity = plastic viscosity effective (equivalent) viscosity yield point flow behavior index consistency index mud circulating velocity, m/min (metric) or ft/min (API) critical velocity, m/min (metric) or fUmin (API) Fanning friction factor flow rate, /min (metric) or gal/min (API) Reynolds number ¢ = Gfitical Reynolds number. SESE PROPS SAAS FEC NDCasing and Cementation NotesGeneral introduction 1 Casing and Cementation SECTION 1 — GENERAL INTRODUCTION This document describes aspects of casing and cementing for Geoservices Mud Loggers, ALS Engineers, and anyone else who may assist with oil well casing and cementing operations. Section 1 is this introduction. Section 2 discusses casing types, mechanical and geometric characteristics of casing, introduces the concepts behind casing design, and describes casing equipment and accessories (some of which are used to enhance the cementing operation). Section 3 discusses the physical and chemical characteristics of oil well cements, describes the equipment (primarily at surface) used to mix and pump the cement slurry, and details the various types of cementing operations. Appendix 1 provides formulae for the most often-used casing design calculations, while Appendix 2 provides formulae for various cementing calculations. Note: Users of this manual should have access to a copy of the Drilling Data Handbook (6th Edition)(Editions Technip, 1991) or a cementing company manual, Such as Bigorange Cement Data (issued by Dowell-Schlumberger to their field engineers). Casing is essential in nearly all wells drilled for oil and gas. Casing performs the following general functions: © Prevents collapse of the bore hole wall during long-term well operations © Isolates well bore fluids from formations © Provides a high-strength conduit for produced fluids With the BOP (blowout preventer) systems, permits safe control of formation fluid pressures. Most production operations take place through a perforated casing string, enabling selective production of reservoir fluids. One or more strings of small-diameter production tubing, set within the casing, further control the flow of well bore fluids to surface, and prolong the life of the casing. Oil field cementing jobs are broadly classified as: © Primary cementing, performed to support and protect casing © Secondary cementing, performed as remedial action to solve hole or producing problems. Primary cementing provides the following benefits: 1. Bonds and supports casing in the hole 2. Restricts movement of liquids and gasses between formations at different depths 3. Extends casing life, by protecting casing against corrosion through electrolysis with mineral-bearing formation waters 4, Protects casing against shock loads during drilling 5. Seals off lost circulation (thief) zones.a Primary cementing takes place in one or more stages; each stage consists of the mixing, Fumpitg and displacement of coment in a particular zone, Section 3.6 describes single- End mult-stage cementing processes in greater detail. Secondary cementing jobs include: 4, Squeaze cementing, used in several kinds of remedial operations 2. Plug cementing, to isolate zones or abandon a hole. ‘Squeeze cementing is the most common type of secondary cementing operation. The process requires application of hydraulic pressure to force the cement slurry into contact orm formation, in open hole or via perforations in casing. Section 3.7 describes squeeze land plug cementing in more detail.Casing Equipment and Practices 3 SECTION 2 -- CASING EQUIPMENT AND PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction This section describes types of casing, general casing setting practi casing design. Most of the geometric and mechanical aspects of casing apply 20 small-diameter tubing as well; tubing considerations are included where appropriate. While TDC/ALS Engineers do not normally participate in design of the casing program, the client company may ask for assistance in modifying the program to account for henges in diling conditions. Casing design calculations and formulae can be ‘ound in Appendix 1. Casing strings are among the most expensive components of a drilling program, averaging nearly 20% of the cost of drilling. Thus, the main objective of casing design is to determine the least expensive casing program thet will stil provide safety and integrity during the projected life of the well. tem 7 Coon ped (Cane Coon concictry| ese ‘Surface Casing oon fase 4000 ft. ‘5000 ft 10008 958in 1000 8 intrest Casing 512m Producten TSO 758in, 17000. 16000 ft. Casing Driling Liner Proscton sing = 720007 a 2000 & Production Liner Mississippi Offshore Louisiana Texas Delaware Basin (Smackover trend) {Miocene trend) (Ellenburger trend) ster Bourgare at. Aepld Dig Enger , 1906: Figure 2-1 Example Casing Programs for U. S. Gulf Coast4 Casing and Cementation 2.2 Types of Casing Strings Table 2-1 below lists the properties of different types of casing strings: Table 2-1 Summary of Casing Types Casing Type | Size OD Setting Function (in)__|_depths (ft) Conductor pipe 16-30+ 40-1500 Protects rig foundation Restrains unconsolidated formations Confines circulating fluids Prevents formation fluid flow and lost circulation Surface casing 7-16 104500 _| Supports BOP's and well head Prevents contamination of fresh- water zones Prevents loss of circulation Intermediate | 7-11.75 Varies __| Prevents sloughing and hole casing enlargement during deeper crilling operations Protects production string fren corrosion Protects hole from high formation pressures Helps prevent stuck pipe from ‘key- seating’ Prevents loss of circulation Production 2.375- Through __| Prevents migration of reservoir fluids casing 9.625 producing _| Allows selective production of oil and zone gas from reservoir Protects down hole producing equipment Helps provide well control if tubing fails Liner 57 Through —_| Similar functions to production casing Producing | Limits need for full string of zone production casing Within the casing of producing wells, tubing is often used to bring produced fluids to venice. ‘The AB! lists ten tubing sizes, in inches (OD): 1.050, 1.315, 1.660, 1.900, 2.063, 2.375, 2.875, 3.5, 4, and 4.5. The sizes of hole and casing strings to be used in the well depend on the minimum diameter required for the passage of production tools (and tubing, if used), and the, {otal number of casing strings needed. Thus casing planning first determines the OD tithe last (i.e. deepest) casing string to be run, then each larger hole and casing size. Pi Conventional rotary drilling, casings smaller than § in OD, and open holes larger than 36 in, are rarely used. Exceptions include slim-hole drilling operations, which drill Roles of less than 100 mm (approx. 4 in) in diameter, and boreholes drilled for UAderground nuclear testing, which can be as large os 72 inches in diamaterCasing Equipment and Practices 5 Table 2-2 below lists the API casing sizes and the bit sizes matched with them: Table 2-2 Casing and Bit Sizes Commonly Used in Rotary Drilling Casing Size (OD) in. | Regular Coupling Bit Sizes Used Size (OD) in in 412 5.0 6,6 1/8, 6 1/4 5 5.563 6 1/2, 6 3/4 512 6.050 7718, 8 3/8 6 6.625 77/18, 83/8 65/8 7.390 8 1/2, 8 5/8, 8 3/4 7 7.656 8 5/8, 8 3/4, 9 1/2 758 8.500 97/8, 10 5/8, 11 85/8 9.625 11,12 14 95/8 10.625 12. 1/4, 14 3/4 10 3/4, 1.3/4 11.750, 12.75 15 13.3/8 14.375 16 7 18 5/8, 20 20,21 2.2.1 Conductor Pipe Conductor pipe forms an artificial hole wall and guides the bit during initial drilling (spudding in’). On land wells, conductor pipe is often set before the drilling rig arrives ‘on location. A small truck-mounted rig drills the conductor hole (often drilling the rathole and mousehole at the same time), or drives the conductor into place. Offshore, the conductor pipe is normally driven into place by the drilling rig. 2.2.2 Surface Casing Surface casing should be set as deep as safely possible within the first competent formation. For many well locations, local laws and/or regulations control the minimum, and maximum setting depths for surface casing. 2.2.3 Intermediate Casing ‘One or more strings of intermediate casing may be set in the well, depending on the pressures and formation conditions encountered during drilling. Intermediate casings are set in: 1. Impermeable formations (shales or other ‘tight’ formations), lying between permeable zones that have pressure gradients different from each other 2. At a depth sufficient to prevent formation fracture by any amount of pressure expected during later drilling 3. At the base of unstable formations, such as salts or so-called ‘heaving’ snales.6 Casing and Cementation 2.2.4 Production Casing or Liner The final casing string enables selective production of formation fluids. The design Inay be a casing string that runs to surface, or a liner. A liner does not run all the way. Trey ptace, but terminates inside the bottom of the previous casing string, reducing the {stand complexity of the casing run. A special liner hanger supports the top of the liner section. A tie-back is a section of casing that extends from the top of the liner to surface. ‘Several types of liner and tie-back configuration exist; Figure 2-2 describes them. Liner Tie-back ‘A casing section suspended [A section of casing exending within existing casing. Overlaps ‘Upward from the top of an ‘existing ting by 200-400 teiting liner. May or may not (60-120m) and is cemented in pace. be cemented in place. ‘Scab Liner ‘Scab Tie-back Liner A section of casing used to A section of casing eatending repair damage to an existing ‘upward from the top of an exiting ‘casing sting. May be cemented liner, bt not to surface. Normally cor sealed with packers at top ‘cemented in pace. ‘and botom. iqure 2-2 Liner ConfigurationsEquipment and Practices Benefits of liner includ 1. Less time required for casing of open hole section 2. Less weight carried by well head and surface pipe 3. When tie-back liner, protects an upper section of casing from wear due to passage of drilling tools. The maximum depth of the production casing or liner depends mainly on the depth and thickness of the expected reservoir. Obviously, if the well is planned as an open-hole completion (a rarely-used option in recent years), no production casing or liner is run. Likewise, if formation evaluation reveals a dry hole, the production string is unnecessary. 2.3 Properties of API Casing 2.3.1 Casing Geometry API Standards 5A defines the geometric and mechanical properties of casing for oil ‘and gas wells, Section C of the Drilling Data Handbook (pages 107-192) provides similar information. Geometric properties include: Nominal Size (D) ~ this is the average OD of the pipe body; sizes range from 4 1/2 inches to 20 inches as previously listed in Table 2-2. Pipeline tubulars, from 22 to 42 inches, and tubing from 1,050 to 4 1/2 inches may be used for special casing operations as well. Length -- the API defines three ranges for casing, based on pipe length. Range 1 is from 16 to 25 feet (4.88-7.62 meters); Range 2 is from 25 to 34 ft (7.62-10.36 m). Range 3 is from 34 to 48 feet (10.36 to 14.63 m). Most casing jobs use Range 3 pipe. Tubing is available in Ranges 2 and 3 only. When the pipe is supplied with threads and couplings, the length is measured from the outside end of the coupling. Nominal weight — The nominal weight is measured in pounds per foot (Ib/ft). This i turn defines the pipe wall thickness (1). Permitted tolerance on thickness is 12.5%. The actual weight of the pipe is calculated from the equation: W, =(w,, xL)+e, where: W, = Weight of a pipe of length L », Linear weight of the smooth pipe body rpe L = Total length of the pipe, including couplings = weight of coupling Inside diameter (d)-- this values depends on the nominal size and the wall thickness: d=D-2 Again the permitted tolerance is 12.5%.a Casing and Cementation ‘Dit — also known as mandrel diameter, this is the maximum diameter of a caliper that Gan pass through the pipe body under a force equal to the caliper's weight. The geometric properties of the caliper are: Casing Size (in) 2.7/8 (or less) 3.12 (or less) 3.112 to 8 5/8 9 5/8 to 13 3/8 16 or more ‘Threaded Connector (buttress) [Bl stab-type Connector Figure 2-3 Common Casing Connector DesignsCasing Equipment and Practices 2.3.2 Geometry of Casing Connections To enable connection, casing joints may contain a threaded box-and-pin arrangement similar to that of drill pipe, or use separate couplings. Separate couplings in turn may be threaded or quick-locking stab-type devices (Figure 3a-b). Within each of these general types, numerous variations exist. Use of stab-type connectors enables faster casing running times, but such connectors are mainly for shallow installations and low- to moderate pressures. In general, threaded connectors provide greater strength than stab-type connectors, and connectors integral with the pipe body provide greater strength than separate couplings. Taper: 6.25% Sttroadsin, P= 3.175 mm H=0.866P =2.750mm h = 0.626 P-0.178 = 1.810mm tb =0.120 P +0061 =0.432mm t8=0.120P +0.127 = 0.508mm Taper: 6.25% ‘Thread eraastsroots parallel to cone. ‘Dimensions in mm. [EB Buttress Thread Form THREAD! PEK. GEOSERMCES TRANG DEPT. REV. 12n182 Figure 2-4 Common Casing Thread Forms10 ‘Specific casing connection devices includ Casing and Cementation 1. Round thread with separate couplings —- Figure 2-4a illustrates the thread geometry, while Figure 5a shows the coupling arrangement. Round thread Couplings exist in so-called ‘short’ and ‘long’ versions. ‘Long’ couplings, with a longer threaded section, are used mainly on thick-wall pipes for added strength. 2. Buttress thread with separate couplings - this design provides higher-strength ‘connections than round-thread couplings. Figure 2-4b illustrates the thread geometry. Regular buttress thread couplings feature an outside diameter identical to that of round-thread couplings. Special buttress thread couplings have a slightly ‘Smaller outside diameter for increased annular clearance when required. The VAM coupling is buttress thread type, but includes an internal stop to form a metal-to-metal seal; this provides better sealing in high-pressure and/or gas wells. 3. Extreme line joint — this design uses threaded casing joints without couplings, providing the benefit of greater annular clearance while running and cementing the casing. Figure 5b illustrates the coupling arrangement. The pipe ends are ‘of extra thickness to accept the threads. The threads themselves are similar, but not identical to, the buttress type. The design includes a thread limit stop for a metal-to-metal seal. 4, Two-stage threaded joint -- a threaded casing joint without couplings, as for the extreme line joint. The difference is that the threads are milled in two staged Sections, with the outside section of larger diameter. The casing joint may or may not have an external upset to accommodate the connection threads. Figure 5c illustrates the coupling arrangement. 8, VETCO threaded connectors -- these are intended for large-diameter casing joints (16 to 30 in.). Four versions exist, including: Type L, for standard casing and moderate pressures Type LS, for high tension loads and pressures Type LX, for very high tension loads and pressures Type R, for 30 in casings and moderate pressures. Figure 2-6 illustrates the coupling arrangement. VETCO uses @ special tapered thread design for their couplings. 6. Stab-type couplings -- these are unthreaded joints to make quick connections between large-diameter casings. Examples include VETCO "Sanch' joints.Casing Equipment and Practices 11 sonTon, HaxoncHT MaKe om oRFT CENTER OF BUMETER COPLNG LNT 1D, pox POWERTGHT MAKEUP es cass Neva E@Short Round-thread = J Extreme Line [BJ Two-Stage Casing and Coupling Joint Joint ASCON POX GECSERVCES TRANG DEPT REV 131182 Figure 2-5 Profiles of Various Threaded Casing Connections12 Casing and Cementation TypeL Types Type Lx TypeR Figure 2-6 VETCO Threaded Casing Couplings ‘Three types of the VETCO stab-type couplings exist: © Type ALT, for high tension loads and pressures @ Type ATD, for moderate tension loads and pressures (and greater annular clearance) © ‘Type ST, for low tension loads and pressures; more economical 2.3.3 Mechanical Properties of Casing and Couplings ‘The primary concern in evaluation of casing is its response to tensile load. This in turn 1's finction of the grade of steel used in its construction, The API. in Casing ‘Se ndards 5A, classifies steel casing by yield strength; this value, in psi, is.the stress eizith produces & permanent elongation (at least 0.5%) in a standard specimen. For convenience, the API assigns an alphanumeric code to each grade of steel (as col corined by yield strength) approved for use in oil well casing. The code consists of @ fater followed by the minimum yield strength in thousands of psiCasing Equipment and Practices 13 The API recognizes three general types of steel that may make up the body of a joint of casing: ‘Normal steels — the pipe body must be seamless or electrically-welded tube, without the addition of foreign metal. The steel undergoes heat treatment (normalizing). ’ Maximum Phosphorus content is 0.040% and sulfur Content is 0.060% API ‘normal’ steel grades include: Yield Strength Ultimate Strength maximum Grade minimum MPa 276 Psi 40000 H40 552 60000 J55 55000 379 80000 552 75000 K55 55000 379 ‘80000 552 95000 [| 665 NBO 80000 552 410000 758 400000 | 689 High-strength steels — these pipes are seamless tube only, with the same requirements for maximum phosphorus and sulfur content. API grades include: Yield Strength Ultimate Strength Grade maximum minimum psi MPa psi MPa psi MPa P105 | 105000 724 135000 931 120000 €27 P110__| 110000 758 140000 965 4125000 827 125 | 125000 862 155000 | 1069 | 135000 $31 V150 150000 1034 - = 160000 1104 Reduced yield strength range steels — these are seamless or electrically-welded tubes composed of specialty steels with various amounts of carbon (< 0.5%), manganese, molybdenum, chromium, nickel or copper. API grades include: Yield Strength Ultimate Strength | Hardness Grade minimum maximum minimum maximum psi MPa psi__| MPa | _psi MPa | HRC c7s_| 75000 | 517 | 90000 | 620 | 95000 | 655 2 eo | 80000 | 552 | 95000 | 665 | 95000 | 655 23 c90 90000 620 105000 724 100000 690 25.4 ces | 95000 | 655 | 110000 | 758 | 105000 | 723 = Casing for use in hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-prone areas requires certain metallurgical properties to reduce or prevent hydrogen embrittlement. Steels with yield strengths Greater than 80000 psi, at temperatures from 100° F (35° C) to 300° F (150° C), are most ‘susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.14 Casing and Cementation Casing for HS service uses various grades of reduced yield strength steels, with H2S caetance indicated by addition of the suffix 'VH1" or VH2' to the grade designation: Yield Strength Ultimate Strength | Hardness Grade inimum maximum minimum maximum psi L80 95000 95000 VH1 L80 eo000 | 552 | 95000 | 655 | 95000 | 655 22 VH2 _| C90 0000 | 620 | 105000 | 724 | 100000 | 690 24 VHS C95 5000 | 655 | 110000 | 758 | 105000 | 723 27 VH1 C95 5000 | 655 | 110000 | 758 | 105000 | 723 VH2 If formation waters contain carbon dioxide (CQ), casing steels alloyed with copper and/or aluminum are prone to excessive corrosion. Casings for CO2 service generally are alloyed with nickel, chromium and/or molybdenum. COz-resistant casing grades are indigated with a VC or VCM suffix; for example, C75 VC or L80 VCM. Casing couplings follow the same nomenclature listed above. Special buttress couplings; with reduced diameter for increased clearance may require the use of a higher steel grade than that of the casing body, to maintain strength. Available grade combinatiors for casing and special buttress couplings include: Pipe grade | K55 | C75] L80 | Neo | Ces | ProsiP110/0125 vi50 | Coupling nso | c95 | C95 | P105 | - ‘V150 - grade P110 Mud Loggers can visually identify the grades of casing to be run from a variety of external markings. Stencil markings are applied to the exterior of each casing joint (Figure 2-7), beginning Btleast 610 mm from the coupling or female end. Stenciled information includes: 4. Manufacturer's name or logo 2. API monogram 3, Nominal O. D. (as listed in Table 2-2) 4. Weight per length unit (usually feet) 5, Grade (as described above) 6. Manufacturing process (seamless or electrical welding) List continued on next page. . .Casing Equipment and Practices 15 ‘Stencil markings continued —_— 7. Additional requirements (described in AP! Standards 54, Appendix C; not discussed here) 8. Length, in decimal feet or meters 9. Pipes with non-AP! threads 10, Test pressure in psi 11. Type of thread. Punch markings are made on the outer surface of each joint, 305 mm from the coupling or female end. Punch markings include items 1-6 of the stenciied items listed above. ze] 1111 .8-1280-BUTTRESS Coupling Die ‘Stamp L__ Coupling Color Bands Sour Pipe Body Die Weight of Stamp Joint Manufacturer's | | Length Mark Size (0.D.) Manufacturing Method | (seamless) Nominal | aan Weight CASMRK1.DRW GEOSERVICES TRAINING DEPT. REV. 17/1292 Figure 2-7 Typical Casing Markings and Stamps16 Casing and Cementation in addition to stenciled and punched markings, each joint of casing ‘and production pipe In ae pe marked with a color code indicating the steel grade, The code consists of one or re bands circing the pipe body, 60 cm from the coupling or less; or encircling the coupling itself. Color codes include: 4. H40 — no color or black 2. K55 — two green bands 3. C75 — one blue band 4, NBO — one red band 5, L80 — one red and one brown band 6. C90 — one purple band 7. C95 — one brown band 8. P105 — one white band 9. P1410 — one white band. 2.4 Casing Design Considerations The following factors govem the design of a given casing string: 4. The setting depth (depth of the bottom of the casing string) 2. The size of hole in which the casing string is to be set (and the hole size to be drilled below the casing) 3. Mud column and formation fluid pressures 4, Well bore deviation 5, Presence of corrosive fluids in the well bore. A property-designed casing string: Will not fail in tension Will not collapse or burst during production Resists corrosion from exposure to down hole fluids © Reduces well costs by being neither under- nor over-designed for the job. Casing design selects the appropriate sizes, weights and grades of casing to satisfy all of F258 Stone listed above. Often, casing strings will use two, three or more weights and grades to achieve the desired properties.Casing Equipment and Practices: 17 2.4.1 Casing Seat Selection Casing seat selection is an integral part of the well planning process, and expected casing setting depths are determined before drilling commences. When unexpected formations or pressure conditions are encountered, however, changes in the casing program may be required on short notice. Mud Loggers and ALS Data Engineers should understand the processes governing the selection of casing points, and assist drilling personnel as much &5 possible in choosing appropriate casing shoe depths. ‘The various functions of the casing strings, as described in Section 2.2, determine the depth of each casing seat. ‘The first step in selecting casing setting depths is to obtain as much knowledge as possible conceming: © Geological conditions © Formation fluid pressures © Fracture gradients for the area of the well in question. Numerous methods exist for calculation of formation fluid pressures and fracture gradients; for formulae used by Geoservices while driling, see the manual Pressure Evaluation While Drilling, Section § (order code 700.AQ.559). Equivalent Density Equivalent Density Depth EXTRA STRING ‘OF CASING REQUIRED EBL cesing Setting Depths With FEB cesing setting Depths With Optimum Mud Density Excessive Mud Density Figure 2-8 Effect of Formation Fluid Pressure, Mud Density and Fracture Gradient on Casing Setting Points18 Casing and Cementation ‘The primary consideration in planning casing setting depths is to prevent any occurrence Wheve the pressure of well bore fluids exceeds the fracturation pressure (the fracture Gradient when expressed as a densi) of any formation further upnole. This may occur as a result of formation fluid pressure increase, or simply because excessive mud weights a result of figure 2-8 illustrates the interaction between mud weights, formation fluid cressures and fracture gradients, and their influence on casing setting depths. in ihe Pes ewle well data analysis prior to driling projects two 'steps' or increases in formation fluid pressures. During well planning, selection of the casing setting depths is made from bottom to eutace Figure 2-88 shows a highly simplified casing program (one intermediate string Sly) assuming an optimum mud density that maintains well bore pressure slighty in reese St the projected formation fluid pressure. A line drawn vertically upward from Septh L! intercepts the fracture gradient at depth 12; to protect formations uphcle, @ ‘casing string must be run to (or for safety, just below) L2. On many exploration wells, uncertainty about the true formation fluid pressures means oats ynud weights used are considerably greater than optimum, providing a safety Mhatgin against kicks, Note that in Figure 2-7b, use of these higher densities.narrows the sree enes between well bore pressure and fracturation pressure. The result is that not aie but two intermediate strings are required; one at intercept L2, which is now deeper, and the other at a new intercept, L3. Depending on operating company practices, fracture gradient calculations may Incorporate a kick margin (not shown) to reduce the chance that a kick at the casing Shing depth may result in lost circulation. This further narrows the gap between mud Sensivy and fracture gradient, and thus may result in the need for additions to the casing program. During exploratory driling, operating companies commonly run Leak-off Tests (of ouriong) just after driling out of casing, to verify the estimated fracture gradient, ALS Data Engineers must record the results after each Leak-off test (or other formation integrity fest), Monitor the difference between estimated formation fluid gradient and the Fracture gradient, and inform client and driling company personnel of changes, as they occur. Normally, the casing program lists the preferred setting points for each casing string, with the actual setting points dependent on ‘formation conditions. Appendix 1 lists the design the 2Gerations in more detail, Below are general guidelines for selecting the casing point from geological data obtained during drilling: Conductor Pipe ~ setting depth sufficient to protect against collapse of incompetent surface formations. Surface Casing — set in the first competent formation, to provide well shut-in capability at Se carly a stage as possible. In many areas, local legislation specifies required setting Gepths and engineering guidelines for surface casing. Intermediate casing — setting depths chosen: 4. In impermeable formations (usually shales) that lay between permeable zones that may have different pressure gradients 2. at sufficient depth that the maximum formation pressure expected is less than the lowest formation fracture pressure in open hole 3. at the base of any unstable formations; i.e. heaving shales, salts, etc. Production casing — maximum depth depends on the depth and thickness of the east zone. If the reservoir is uneconomic, as determined by testing, the production casing run may be canceled.Casing Equipment and Practices 19 2.4.2 Selecting Casing and Hole Sizes ‘The minimum casing size is determined by the need for passage of production tools. Of course, the smaller the diameter, the less expensive the casing. Conventional drilling typically uses minimum casing sizes from 5 to 7 inches OD; thus the minimum hole size typically ranges from 6 to 8.5 inches. Maximum hole size depends on the number of casing Strings necessary. See Table 2-2 for a list of casing sizes and corresponding hole sizes, Pressure ——» Formation Extemal Driling —? (may be equal) Fluid Casing Annulus (fuid- Casing filled) Collapse Resistance Depth Fluid CASPRESI.PCK GEOSERVICES TRAINNG DEPT. REV. 1871482 Figure 2-9 Schematic Collapse Analysis of a Casing String 2.4.3 Selecting the Casing Weight and Steel Grade Casing is subject to a number of forces in the well bore, any of which can result in casing failure. These forces and the failure caused include: 1. Extemal pressure (collapse) 2. Intemal pressure (burst or intemal yield) 3, Axial tension (pipe and connection failure and/or collapse) 4, Bending stress (tension/compression failure or buckling) in deviated or ‘dogJeg' wells, Casing design requires calculation of each of the estimated forces, from surface to the bottom of the string. Appendix 1 provides the basic calculations; mud logging personnel,20 Casing and Cementati however, are not normally required to assist in the selection of casing weights and steel grades. “The design loads for each factor of stress (burst, collapse, tension) are the masts that roe oe pected, not only during the running of the casing but during the life of the well Typically, the maximums are: 4. Collapse — maximum occurs if the pipe is empty of fluid and: ‘a. Full pressure of formation fluid acts on casing 'b. Formation rock stress acts on casing 2. Burst — maximum occurs if all the mud inside the casing is displaced by pressurized gas 3, Tension — maximum loads occur while running easing through dog-legged zones, or during stability loading after cementing. “The optimum casing string for a given situation may be composed of a single weight for the entire string, or (more often) may be a tapered string, using two or more weights and/or steel grades at different depths. For safety and reliability, the string is designed around safety factors that increase the calculated forces by fixed amounts. Thus, for tension stresses, the calculated forces are tnultipied by 1.5 to 1.8: by 1.0 to 1.25 for extemal (collapse) pressures and by 4.1 to 1.33 for intemal (burst) pressures. Pressure ——> i] H “Formation Fluid GASPRES2.PCX GEOSERVICES TRANNG DEPT. REV. 1971182 Figure 2-10 Schematic Burst Analysis of a Casing String eeCasing Equipment and Practices 24 Collapse pressures are important factors in the design of all strings except conductor pipe. Maximum extemal pressure occurs at the bottom of the string, or, in the case of tapered strings, at the bottom of each section of a different weight and steel grade. Calculation of collapse pressure is based on the maximum pressure of the column of fluid outside the Pipe, minus the pressure of the fluid column (if any) within the pipe. Figure 2-9 shows the Effect of collapse pressures on a tapered string at various depths. Long casing strings must be partially filled with drilling fluid to resist collapse pressures. Consideration of intemal yield (burst) pressure is most important when the chance of high well head pressure exists, as in abnormally-pressured wells. Where this is not the case, casing designed to withstand collapse and tension forces will be sufficient to withstand burst forces. Figure 2-10 shows the effect of burst forces on a tapered string at various jepths. Forces of tension exert the greatest effect on the string configuration (single-weight or tapered), and are significant in all strings except conductor pipe. The greatest stress is imposed at the top of the string, or in the case of tapered strings, at the top of each ‘section of a different weight or grade. In addition to these parameters, bending forces in deviated or dog-legged holes add complex tension and compression forces to the consideration of casing stresses. Tension forces are based on the load per unit of cross sectional area for the grade of steel used. Figure 2-11 shows the effect of tension forces on a tapered string at various depths. M casing Yield Strength API Joint Strength Compression ‘CASPRES.PCX GEOSERVICES TRANING DEPT. REV. 25/1182 Figure 2-14 Schematic Tension Analysis of a Casing String A ciitical parameter in casing tension analysis is the pullout strength of the connection. Figure 2-12 is an example of pullout failure due to tension, Pullout strength is almost always less than the strength of the pipe body itself, and thus defines the maximum tension allowed for a given string. For tubing, a different value, known as connection efficiency, is used in tension analysis. Connection efficiency represents the ratio of connection cross-sectional area to that of the pipe body, or the ratio of tensile yield strength of the connection to that of the pipe body. An efficiency of less than 100 indicates that the connection is weaker than the pipe body. The Drilling Data Hanabook, page 113, describes the calculation of connection efficiency.22 Casing and Cementation Figure 2-12 Casing Pullout Failure 2.5 Down Hole Accessories for Casing and Cementing This section describes typical casing tools and accessories, most of which are intended to help improve the subsequent cement job. In general, casing and cementing accessofies include floating and guiding equioment, cementing plugs, stage cementing equipment, packers and plugs, and liner setting equipment. Cementing also of course requires various items of mixing, pumping and storage equipment; these items are described in Section 3.5. 2.5.1 Floating and Guiding Equipment ‘A casing string (especially in deep driting) tends to weigh much more than the equivalent fength of dil sting, Floating the casing into the hole (Tunning the string partialy OF completely empty of fluid) uses the buoyancy of well bore fluids to reduce the sees fhpesed on the derrick or mast. Floating equipment includes various types cf valves and collars to control fluid flow into and out of the string Guiding equipment helps the casing string slip past irregularities in the well bore, and centers the casing in the hole to allow cement to flow around the entire casing-hole annulus. Basic types of floating and guiding equipment include: 4. Guide shoes, with or without a fluid passage 2, Float shoes, containing internal float valves, or automatic fillup valves 3, Float collars, similar to float shoes, and used in conjunction with guide shoes or float shoes.Casing Equipment and Practices 23 Down Jet Type ‘with Cement Guide Ba ‘Open End "Texas" Type [GUDE!.PCX GEOSERMICES TRANNG OEDT. REV. 501182 Figure 2-13 Halliburton-type Guide Shoes The simplest guide shoe (Figure 2-13) is a simple threaded collar, usually with a rounded concrete nose, run at the lower end of the first joint of casing. Circulation occurs through the open end of the guide shoe, or via side ports that promote fluid agitation, useful during pumping of cement slury.24 Casing and Cementation ‘tomatic Flap Fest Shoe Runaing in Hole — Vabe in Open Postion Wich Fd Entering Casing i i a i se 5 Pumping From ‘Sutace Shears Pine to Release Fp Unit se fox GEOSERVEES TRANG CEPT AEWA Figure 2-14 Halliburton-type Float Shoes ‘Afloat shoe (Figure 2-14) combines the guide shoe with a balktype or spring loaded back pressure valve, “The valve is encased in plastic and concrete, and is drilled out after the Presa get and cemented. During casing running, the valve prevents fluids from entenng the casing. If the casing must be partially filed to maintain collapse resistance, Sater fuid is pumped in from surface, or through a filup device in he float shoe. Crice Creag ing is landed at the required depth, circulation can take place down the casing, through the float shoe, and up the annulus to surface. eeCasing Equipment and Practices 25 Differential filup or automatic fillup float shoes allow controlled fluid flow into the bottom of the casing during running operations. This reduces casing running time by eliminating the need to stop the running process, install an injection head, and pump fluid in from surface. The restricted flow area of the differential valve controls the amount of flow; the back pressure valve is held out of service until itis released by start of circulation from surface. a i ecru oa Pu earn Latch-down Phig tna teaing Seow (crcemttng eeamaee br FLOAT PEK CEOSERDES TRANG DEFT. REV. suNIA2 Figure 2-15 Halliburton-type Float Collars26 Casing and Cementation For some casing operations a float collar (Figure 2-15) is added to the casing string, one to three joints above the guide or float shoe. The float collar provides the same function ‘Sra float shoe, incorporating a back pressure valve to prevent unwanted fluid entry. The float collar provides a landing point for the cementing plugs (see Section 2.5.2), while the Space between the float collar and shoe serves as a trap for contaminated cement and driling mud wiped from the intemal surface of the casing. When a cement plug seats at the float collar, it shuts off flow and prevents overpumping of the cement, The resulting increase in surface pressure indicates that cement displacement is complete; in oil field jargon, this is known as ‘bumping the plug’. For shallow casing jobs, a simple (and cheaper) flapper valve may be used, one or two joints above the guide shoe. 2.5.2 Cementing Plugs and Plug Containers Cementing plugs, usually made of rubber, separate fluids (for example, cement slurry End displacement fluid) and wipe the intemal surface of the casing, o prevent slury Contamination during the cementing operation. In some cases the plugs control the operation of down hole equipment (see Section 2.5.3). Bottom Plug Figure 2-16 Conventional Wiper Plugs for Cementing A simple single-stage cement job usually uses one bottom plug, released ahead of the Slumy’ and one top plug, released behind the slurry. The plugs are similar in external appearance (Figure 2-16), ‘but the bottom plug has an intemal fluid passage, with thin diaphragms covering the hollow center section. When the plug reaches the restriction of fahfoat collar, the Glaphragms rupture, allowing the cement slurry to flow through the plug and onward into the casing-hole annulus. Latch-down plugs (Figure 2-17) are primarily used when cementing small strings, such as tubing. Latch-down plugs, as the name implies, feature a positive Connection to hold the plug in place after cementing pressure is released.27 Plain Latch-down Tubing Plug rt Double Latch-down Tubing Plug and Bartle Swwiper Lateh-down Tubing Plug ' Te tone baat Pluge for Lateh-down Indicating Bate for Latch-down ‘Type Plug Catcher Tubing Pluge Figure 2-17 Halliburton-type Latch-down Cementing Plugs A plug container is a part of the circulating head attached to the topmost joint of casing. The plug container allows the drilling crew to release plugs as necessary during the cementing operation. Swivels between the connecting collar and the plug container allow rotation of the casing string while the string is suspended in the slips, 2.5.3 Tools for Multi-stage Cementing Many long casing strings require cementing at two or three points behind the casing. This procedure is used to: Cement the full annulus of a long casing string Minimize loss of cement to ‘thief zones © Reduce pump pressures required for cementation of a long vertical interval Reduce ‘channeling’ effects that ruin the pressure integrity of the cement job.28 Casing and Cementation Freefall Type Disiecseenee! 0 Ef Closing Plug Opening Plug y Opening Plug By-pess Plug By-pass Baffie Figure 2-18 Plug Sets for Multi-stage Cementing ‘The cementing is done in separate stages of mixing and displacement: the first stage is always the placement of cement around the bottom of the casing, Stage cemertag tools provide the necessary control over the depth of cement injection for the successive stages. Stage cementing uses special collars placed in the casing string while the string is run in thefole. Two-stage cementing jobs are the most common, requiring one set of stage tementing equipment. The stage cementing tools (Figure 2-18) may be free-fall or displacement-type. The main component of both systems is a stage cementing collar, containing several cementing pons and a moveable, two-part intemal sleeve. The sleeve is closed during CSsing runing and displacement of the first cementing stage, allowing full circulation to the section of string beiow the colar.Casing Equipment and Practices 29 Free-fall tools are used when the cement does not have to fill the annulus from the bottom of the casing all the way to the stage collar. In addition, use of a full-closure shutoff plug prevents overcementing of the first stage. A shut-off baffle with an intemal restriction is placed in the string somewhere between the float collar and the stage cementing collar. After the first cementing stage, a specially- shaped shut-off plug sized to fit the baffle is then dropped down the string. The plug closes off the restriction in the baffle. A second plug, called the opening plug, is dropped down the string; the opening plug forces the opening sleeve of the stage collar downward, opening the cementing ports. After stage displacement, a closing plug follows the cement down the string, engaging and shutting the closing sleeve of :ne stage collar. Figure 2-19 shows the sequence of operations for a two-stage cement job using free-fall equipment. VU Opening Plug First Stage Second Stage Completed PRIMCMT2.PCX GEOSERVICES TRAINNG DEPT. REV. 2771142 Figure 2-19 Stage Cementing With Free-fall Equipment Displacement-type tools are similar, except that a by-pass baffle and by-pass plug replace the shut-off baffle and plug. Displacement-type tools are used when it is, necessary to cement the full annulus section, or in deep or deviated holes where free-fall plu 1s may require too much time to reach the stage collar. The by-pass openings allow fluid flow past the plug and baffle. This permits pumping of a displacement fluid ahead of the second cement stage, to ensure that the first-stage cement is fully displaced into the annulus. Figure 2-20 shows the sequence of operations for a two-stage cementation using displacement-type equipment. Three-stage cement jobs use the same techniques, but with two sets of stage collars and plugs.30 Casing and Cementation Opening Plug First Stage Second Stage Completed PRIMCMT3PCX GEOSERVICES TRANING DEPT. REV. 2771182 Figure 2-20 Stage Cementing With Displacement-type Equipment 2.5.4 Subsea Casing Equipment Casing run from a floating rig reaches only from landing depth to the well head, Drill pipe a ertBe well head to surface provides the means to run the casing to landing depth, and fel hecessary conduit for cement. Thus subsea casing and cementing requires certain specialized components: 4. A well head casing hangar 2. A subsea running and cementing assembly, incorporating specially-designed plugs ‘attached to each other by shear pins 3, A cement head at surface that adapts to the drill pipe, and controls release of the ‘cement plugs in the subsea cementing assembly. Figure 2-21 shows the various components. The cement head contains a launching ball Figs sunching dart, which provide the control over plug release. Just prior tc injection of ae cement slay, the launching ball is released; the ball travels dowm the drill pipe, into ne Sebsea cementing assembly, and seats in the bottom plug. /A7 to 19 kaf/cm2 (100 to $75 psi) pressure increase shears the connector pins between the top and Battom plugs, Zllawing the bottom plug to travel down the casing ahead of the cement.Casing Equipment and Practices 31 Top Plug Launching Dart Drill Pipe Installation Tool ‘Sea Floor— Outer Casing Casing Hanger (cemented) Running Mandrel Inner Casing (to be cemented) Top ‘Cementing Plug Plug Connection’ Bottom ‘Cementing Plug Ball Catcher’ / 2 ace Figure 2-21 Subsea Casing and Cementing Equipment32 Casing and Cementation When the bottom piug stops at the float collar or casing shoe, the resulting pressure Whease extrudes the ball from the plug, and displacement continues. When the cement Sony has been injected, the launching dart is released. The dart, which is basically a small-diameter latch-down plug, seats in the top cementing plug. Increased pump pressure (25 to 35 kgf/om2, or 350 to 500 psi) shears the top plug retaining pins launching fhe plug. ‘At the end of displacement, the top plug seats at the float collar or casing shoe: Multi-stage subsea cement jobs using this equipment require fluid spacers between the ‘cement stages, since only one set of two plugs can be used. As an altemative, flaliburton provides a Selective Plug Release System that enables use of displacement type stage plugs, released by a series of launching darts. 2.5.5 External Casing Accessories Extemal accessories (attached to the outside of the casing string) include: 4. Centralizers 2. Scratchers. Figure 2-22 shows the appearance and placement of these items. In addition, external Egmont baskets may occasionally be used in certain special cementing operatons. Centralizers are very simple yet useful aids to primary cementing. Centralizers help Srsure that the casing contacts the hole wall as litle as possible, which provides the following benefits: © Reduced drag, and less chance of differential sticking, while running ¢ Improved cement placement (more uniform wall thickness) @ Improved performance of other extemal equipment. Centralizers exist in two types - spring-bow, which are the most common, and rigid. Spring-bow centralizers provide casing standoff over a range of hole shapes and sizes, while vigid centralizers fit a specific hole or casing size and work best where clearances Sre very limited, Both types are available with solid or hinged collars; the hinged type, being easier to install, is most often used. Optimum centralizer placement and spacing are functions of several factors, including hole size, casing size and degree of hole deviation. ‘Scratchers are designed to remove caked mud from the well bore, providing 4 better erate seal. The lilustration shows reciprocating scratchers, the most common type. he seratchers are simply collars with attached stiff wires, or loops of cable. The TMS Stent of the casing while running in, and casing reciprocation during and after Comenting, removes mud from the hole wall. Various types of rotating Scratchers also Seige these are straight bars, again with projecting wires or cable loops, and attached Vertically to the casing. Rotation of the casing string is required to ‘accomplish the scratching action. Ring-ike devices called Jimit clamps may be attached above and below each centralizer. rSimit clamps prevent excessive vertical movement of the centralizers, from bore hole friction while running the casing.“Casing Equipmentand Practices Spring-bow Rigid Centralizers Wire Types RSS" Cable Type rocating Scratchers Float Collar Guide Shoe iqure 2-22 Placement of Centralizers and Scratchers Cement baskets (Figure 2-23) provide a simple way to pack off the annulus, while still allowing circulation and flow towards surface. A cement basket is constructed of several overlapping plastic or metal slats, often with steel reinforcement. When the basket is run in the hole, the slats fil the annular space, looking something Ike an upside-down umbrella, Cement baskets are most often used below stage collars, to prevent cement from falling through the lower density fluid below it. They may also be used at one or more points in a weak zone, to help support the cement.34 Casing and Cementation Figure 2-23 Casing Baskets 2.5.6 Liner Equipment Liner equipment includes: © Liner setting tools, to enable running of the liner to setting depth on the end of a string of drill pipe © Liner hangers, to enable suspension and tensioning of the liner during and after cementing. ‘The liner setting equipment and hanger best suited to the job depend on the weight of the liner string, clearance between liner and casing, whether or not the liner must be reciprocaied or Totated during cementing, and whether a tie-back string to surface may be added later. Liner setting and hanger assemblies include the following major components: Setting assembly — this may be hydraulically or mechanically operated. Hydraulic set hangers operate by variation of hydraulic fluid pressure, while mechanical-set hangers ‘operate by rotation or reciprocation. Mechanical-set devices (Figure 2-24a) incorporate a slip bow! which can be dsengaged MSm the hanger through a J-slot or 'dog-spring’ mechanism. A J-slot device consists of 2 lug projecting into a sit shaped ike the letter J’. The lug is usually mounted on the tool Ho Pirel while the slot is part of the slip assembly. Both manual and automatic devices Bre available: Figure 2-25 shows their operation. Hydraulic setting assemblies (Figure 2-24b) incorporate slips attached by shear pins- Increased hydraulic pressure moves a piston assembly to shear the pins and release the slips.Casing Equipment and Practices 35 ‘SMC (mechanical) SHE (nydrautic) alot werrotective Upper and Upper and Lower Slips Lower Slips Figure 2-24 Liner Hangers (Brown Oil Tool types) Fiqure 2-25 J-Slot Operation36 Casing and Cementation ‘Setting sleeve — this is a sub with threads cut to match the threads of the setting assembly, and enables the liner to be run to depth on the end of a string of drill pipe. Tie-back sleeve — this is screwed onto the top of the liner string and has a polished intemal surface to enable the running of future tieback liners or casing. Liner packers — these are separate tools (Figure 2-26) that screw into the top of the liner hanger, and provide the annular seal between the liner top and casing. Liner packers are Usually set by slacking off string weight, with special setting tools that operate the liner hanger at the same time. Combination liner hanger/packers also exist. Cup Seal System Seal Assemblies E Flapper Valve LL. ‘Asembly E i LUNSET9 POX GEOSERVIESTRANENG DEPT FEV. TIN Figure 2-26 Liner Setting Tool Packoff Assemblies (Brown Oil Tools types) 2.5.7 Tools for Remedial Cementing Remedial cementing tools generally consist of a range of packers and other isolating equipment, that enable precise placement of cement during plug back or ‘squeeze’ Saenenting operations. Some of these tools are for permanent use, while others are fetrievable of drilable. Remedial cementing tools include: ‘Squeeze packers - These tools isolate the upper parts of casing and wel head from pressures generated during cement ‘squeeze’ operations. They are available in drillable or retrievable types. Retrievable squeeze packers can be set and released repeatedly, and are mainly used in Operations such as testing and cementing of multiple pay zones. Retnevable packers areCasing Equipment and Practices 37 ‘available in both compression-set (Figure 2-27a) and tension-set (Figure 2-27b) types, wh compression-set preferred when there is enough vertical clearance for their greater leng} Compression-set packers are set by slightly lifting the tool, rotating one-quarter tum to the Tight, and setting Gown (slacking of stnng weight) 4 to 7 metric tons (about 10000 to 15000 Ibs). As the string is lowered, the rubber packer elements compress until they pack off against the casing. A J-slot mechanism (see Section 2.5.6) locks the tool in set position. In addition, most compression-set packers include hydraulically-activated holddown slips to resist upward forces generated by down hole pressure. Bypass valves provided on Some packers can be opened or closed without unseating the packer. The ability to circulate with the packer set provides better control of slurry placement. Tension-set Compression-set Upper Slips (hydraulically Opposing slips ‘Setting Mandret Packer 7 ments, Lower == siips (mechanically set) ‘Automatic Jeslot Figure 2-27 Retrievable Squeeze Packers Drillable squeeze packers, also known as cement retainers (Figure 2-28), can be set using wireline or tubing. They are usually made of cast iron, and are as compact as possible for minimum time spent drilling out. Wireline-set retainers include a slow-buming explosive charge, fired electrically, to shear the setting tool from the retainer. The wireline then reels in the setting tool. Tubing-set retainers use setting tools that shear free of the retainer when a certain amount of vertical tension is applied38 Casing and Cementation Y Y WSS Su i yy 1 i i 4 y / uy Al Fiqure 2-28 Drillable Squeeze Packer Bridge plugs — isolate casing below the zone to be cemented. They provide a solid eer gw and pressure in both vertical directions. Bridge plugs are availadle in both drilable and retrievable versions, setting via wireline or tubing. Retrievable bridge plugs can be set and released repeatedly, and are used for testing and Esmenting of multiple zones. Retrievable bridge plugs are sometimes used in conjunction with compression-set retrievable squeeze packers,. Certain retrievable bridge plugs, Should not be used with tension-set squeeze packers. Combined operation may prevent freeing of the tension-set packer, locking the entire assembly down hole. Cup-type retrievable bridge plugs (Figure 2-29a) are mainly used under low to moderate pressure conditions, They are mechanically simple, making them more economical than Packertype plugs, ‘Since the cups remain in contact with the casing at al times during Finning wear and swabbing effects are greater than for packer-type devices. Packer-type retrievable bridge plugs (Figure 2-29b) are durable and well-suited to deep- hole higrt pressure applications. ‘They are run on tubing, via a retrieving sieeve, and are generally set by rotating the tubing string to the right, while setting weight down on the Boal. Plug release occurs by pulling slightly upward on the tubing while rotating the string to the left. Retrieval s accomplished by lowering the retieving sleeve while circulating (to remove sand and debris from the top of the Pit ‘When the retrieving sleeve contacts the plug, the plug is ‘unseated by application of slight upward pull while rotating to the right.Casing Equipment and Practices cup Type Packer Type Fiehing Pp Neck Lower Cup Drag Springs: Figure 2-29 Retrievable Bridge Plugs Drillable bridge plugs provide temporary or permanent one-time sealing of the well bore. ‘They are most often used when plugging off depleted zones, or for abandonment of the hole. “The construction of a drillable bridge plug (Figure 2-30) is similar to that of a cement retainer. Drillable bridge plugs can be run on wireline or tubing. Some are designed to allow pressure to equalize above and below the tool before setting; this can be important if high-pressure conditions exist below the tool.40 Casing and Cementation Upper 7 slip Backup Packer Elements, Lower stip Figure 2-30 Drillable Bridge Plug 2.5.8 Casing Running Tools Casing usually can be run with standard dling equipment, but the job takes much less time if specialized make-up and running tools are available. Specialized casing service Companies usually supply the tongs, slips and other equipment needed; depending on (well location and client preference, the casing service may supply the running crew as well. Temporary modifications may be made to some of the rig equipment for a particular casing run. These include: « Restringing the drilling line - depending on the projected weight of the casing string, it may be necessary to increase ‘the number of lines strung between the grown block and traveling block (j.e. from 8 to 10). After the run, the number of lines is reduced, to decrease wear during the next driling phase. © Installation of heavy-duty elevators, tongs and slips (casing spider) ~ this equipment, usually power-operated (Figure 2-31) reduces the time needed to make up each casing connection and helps ensure the proper torque is applied to each threaded connection.Casing Equipment and Practices 41 Beliguide commer gommemrmeccet Rotary Table Sam ad Figure 2-34 Casing Running Tools Manual casing tongs and slips should be available in case of failure of the power ‘equipment. A special stabbing board may be needed to provide an area for the Demckman (or the casing crewman inthe derick) to stand while guiding each jon! into place. 2.6 Running Casing Care in the casing running process ensures that the string meets design parameters, improves the cement job, and reduces the chance of later failure. Some of the guidelines listed here have been adapted from the article "How to Run Casing and Drill Out", by M. Brouse, published in World Oil, Feb. 1, 1983.42 Casing and Cementation 2.6.1 Preparing for the Casing Job Note: Most of the procedures listed in this section are the responsibility of the Client Renvesentative; Geoservices personnel may be asked to assist, however. The ALS Engineer on duty must run the ALS casing tally, cement and surge/swab Envicetions. Supply copies of all reports generated to the Cllent representative and SPP lather interested parties approved by the client. 4. Casing should always be landed in an impermeable formation, 3 meters (about 10 feet) Or more from bottom. inspect samples and mud logging data to ensure that the appropriate impermeable formation exists at the proposed landing depth. 4. Tally the length (minus threads) of all joints of casing on the pipe rack. Count and number each joint while measuring the casing, . 2. Use a rabbit (casing drift gauge) to check intemal diameters of all casing joints. 3, Measure and inspect any stage and floating equipment used during the casing run. 4, Ifthe casing program requires more than one weight or grade of casing, determine the length of each weighvgrade necessary to Teach the setting depth, including shoe, collars End stage equipment. Select joint lengths that best satisfy the requirements for positioning of collars and stage equipment. 5, Pay special attention to the last (landing) joint, ensure that the collar of the preceding joint can be set below the casing head, while stil leaving adequate pipe (1-3 meters or & 10 feet) above the rotary table to allow connection of the cement head. 6. Identify all joints of casing by weight and thread type, and place them in the proper order for running into the hole. Set aside any unidentifiable joints. 7. For safety, make sure that the two topmost joints are the same weight (per length unit) or greater than any other joint in the string. 8, Normally, the engineering prognosis for the well lists all the required casing and Gementing equipment. Verify that the equipment is on location and in good condition. 9, Calculate time and strokes needed for displacement of cement sluny. Run ALS Gement application (see Section 3.10) to simulate cement displacement. 40. Determine theoretical weight of casing at 300 meter (or 1000 foot) intervals, allowing for buoyancy of the dling fluid. Remember to consider internal fluid if differential filup equipment is used. 44, Run ALS CasingRun program to generate casing tally (Figure 2-32a) and graph the Noition of hook load (Figure 2-32b) for the casing run. For instructions on running the ALS CasingRun and Cement applications, see the manual ALS Casing/Cementation ‘Applications (Order Code 084.ZA.280). 42. Run ALS Sg & Sw (Surge and Swab) program, to simulate pressures generated by pwe movement and determine maximum pipe running speeds. For instructions on running Biscrogram, see the manual ALS Hydraulics Applications (Order Code 054.2A.260).Casing Equipment and Practices 43 2.6.2 Pre-running Checks Note: The procedures listed here primarily are the responsibility of the Client Representative; Geoservices personnel may be asked to assist. 1. Ensure that the correct thread compound is available for use during the run. Do not use Grill pipe or drill collar dope on casing, 2, Make sure stage and floating equipment is ready for use; use thread locking compound fF tack-weld connections on ficating equipment and the two joints above. List continued on next page . . . Pretec) a. Entering Casing Tally Data Seep St SE iz z ae b, Casing Fill Plot Figure 2-32 ALS CasingRun Application44 Casing and Cementation Pre-running checks continued . . . 3. Inspect the spacing of all extemal equipment (centralizers, scratchers and basket) to ‘ensure compliance with the casing program. 4, Ensure that wear bushing has been removed from the well head prior to runring casing, especially on a floating rig. 2.6.3 Monitoring the Casing Running Process 4. Verify planned running procedure with the Client Representative. ‘A primary objective during the casing nuns to avoid any shock or impact that could result in Easing faire or eauced casing ‘ife. To proiong the life of the casing, the casing crew should: © Use extreme care when pulling the casing into the derrick over steel ramps, and by keeping thread protectors in place for all movements of casing prior to stabbing Stab male casing threads carefully Rotate each joint slowly just after stabbing, to ensure that threads engage properly ¢ Bring casing string to a complete stop before setting slips; this reduces shock loads ‘on the string and reduces the potential for slip crushing of the pipe body. 2. if weight of casing is such that additional lines have been strung in the traveling block. 2 ake sure that drawwork sensor and weight-on-hook indicator are properly calibrated for the new configuration. 3, Excessive running speed will result in surge/swab pressures that may cause kick or lost elation, ‘Observe instrument charts to ensure casing is run slowly (>25 seconds per joint). 4, If conventional float equipment is used, the casing running crew will break circulation Siter the first two or three joints have been run. If the casing string is long, it may be fecessary to break circulation at regular intervals while running the pipe. Venty that Greulation has been established and inform the running crew if pit levels or flow meters indicate loss of retums. 5, Monitor displacement of driling mud by casing. If conventional float equipment is used, displacement should equal casing steel volume plus intemal volume. If autor atic filup equipment is used, displacement volume will be some value greater than steel volume ne if no retums occur for five to eight consecutive joints, check the mud level in the Annulus to determine whether lost circulation has occurred. 6. if automatic fillup equipment is not in use or does not work property, ensure that casing £ fiied from the top, after each joint run (or after every 5 joints if conditions permit). 7. Observe the pick-up weight of the casing string after each connection. A sudden Weight increase may indicate sticking of the string. Monitor weight indications closely to Wrage that they do not exceed the maximum allowable tension and compression loads on the weakest part of the string.45. SECTION 3 -- CEMENTATION -- MATERIALS AND PRACTICES. 3.1 Introduction This section describes cement types and additives, cement job types, volume and hyydrauiies calculations, and the use of ALS for planning and monitoring of cement jobs. The primary objective in cementing is to efficiently mix and place a slurry that completely fills the void space to be cemented and bonds with the formation. The cement should set to the highest compressive strength possible under down hole temperature and pressure conditions. As stated in the General Introduction, oil field cementing jobs are broadly classified as: ‘© Primary cementing, performed to support and protect casing © Secondary cementing, performed as remedial action to solve hole or producing problems, or to plug hole sections. Section 3.6 describes primary cementing operations. Section 3.7 describes cement ‘squeeze operations. Section 3.7.7 describes plugging and abandonment operations. Well industry, but include variations in chemistry identified through a special classification system. Well cements usually use a number of additives to enhance their chemical and physical properties in the down hole environment. Cement for oil field use may be sold in bulk volumes, or as individual packages, but the standard unit of volume for dry cement is the sack. One sack measures 94 Ib (42.64 kg) in the USA; this equals one ft3 of cement. In Europe and elsewhere. "50 kg’ (actually slightly less, equaling 109 Ibs) are used. Dry cement and cement slurties are also measured in cubic feet (ft3), barrels (bbl) or cubic meters (m3), depending on the system of oil field units in use at a given location. Because of the mixture of unit values used in cementing, it is very helpful to have a complete set of tables listing materials requirements for different cement compositions and volumes. The Drilling Data Handbook, Sixth Edition (Paris: Editions Technip, 1991, pages 389-410) provides an excellent listing of this information. The mejor cementing service companies also publish pocket books containing similar data. 3.2 Cement Composition and Chemistry 3.2.1 Chemical Notation Used in Cementing Cement chemists use a special notation to represent the chemical formulae for various cement compounds. The table below lists the notation: c=Ca0 F=Fe203 N=Na0 P=P203 A=Ab03 M=MgO K=K,0 F 20 L=Li0z T=TiOz46 Casing and Cementation 1. Raw Materials Shale Limestone, or other UU 2. Crushing and Grinding “Pr FV 3. Storage and Testing of Ground Raw Materials pyrgdy 4. Blending 1 5. Convert to Cement Clinker in Kiln v 6. Clinker Grinding and Testing 1 7. Final Blending w/Gypsum y 8. Storage and Sales Figure 3-1 Manufacturing Portland Cement 3.2.2 Primary Components of Oil Well Cements i well cements must be carefully formulated to provide certain desirable properties ol wetnent composition chosen for a certain application must remain, pumpable for ‘to displace the cement from surface. On the other ‘adequate strength soon after displacement, to minimize . Each cement job must be designed so sds the pressure of formation fluid.Cementation — Materials and Practices 47 without fracturing formation. Finally, the cement must be stable under a wide range of temperature and pressure conditions. The primary ingredient used in nearly all oil well cement is so-called Portland cement, the same type used to make concrete. Slurries of Portland cement and water pump relatively easily, but harden readily in a fluid environment. By mixture with various additives, the density, setting time and temperature tolerance of Portland cement can be varied to suit a wide range of down hole conditions. Production of Portland cement requires materials which contain calcium carbonate (CaCO3), silica (SiO), alumina (Al203) and iron oxide (Fe203). Most commonly, limestone provides the calcium carbonate, while clay and iron ore provide the other components. In the cement-making process (Figure 3-1), the raw materials first pass through 2 grinding mill, then are blended in the appropriate proportions. The blended raw Materials are loaded into a kiln where, in several stages, the mixture is heated to 1500 © C (2700° F), then gradually cooled. ‘The process dries the mixture and liberates the carbon and oxygen from the raw materials. (On reaching maximum temperature, the raw materials partially fuse to form balls of cement clinker. After cooling and an aging period, 3 to 5% gypsum (CaSOz - 2H20) is mixed with the clinker. The gypsum retards the setting time (preventing an undesirable phenomenon known as flash set) and tends to increase the strength of set cement. The cement-gypsum mixture is ground to powder in steel ball mills, then stored under airtight conditions until needed. 3.2.3 The Cement Setting Process Cement hydrates very readily in the presence of water. The hydration reaction is exothermic, generating considerable heat. The hydration process (‘curing’) occurs ‘over an extended period. For oil field cements, the hydration process is rapid enough that operations can continue from a few hours to a day after mixing and displacing the cement, but the cement may not reach maximum strength for a year or more. Four crystalline compounds found in the clinker provide most of the hydration products that result in the rigid structure of the hydrated cement. These compounds are: 1. Tricalcium silicate ('C3S") 2. Dicalcium silicate ('C2S") 3. Tricalcium aluminate (‘C3A") 4, Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (‘CAF’). The silicate phases are the most abundant. Up to 70% of the total material may be C38, with C28 making up 20% or less of the total. The hydration products for both phases are formed as follows: 2C,$ + 6H ->C,S,H, +3CH (calcium silicate hydrate) 2C,S + 4H > C,S,H, +CH (calcium hydroxide, or ‘Porttandite’) The hydration products make up roughly the same proportions of the hardened cement as their parent compounds in non-hydratad cement.48 Casing and Cementation The calcium silicate hydrate (commonly known as ‘C-S-H gel’) may not have the exact Composition shown above: the C:S and H:S ratios are variable depending on the presence of additives, influence of temperature and other factors. C-S-H gel is Bonsidered the principal binding compound of the hardened cement. When water is added to unhydrated cement, the silicate phases exhibit a brief period ween hydration, followed by a period of low reactivity (if gypsum is presert) called ee uction period’ (Figure 3-2). The rheology of the cement slurry does not greatly Shange during the induction period. This provides the opportunity to pump oll field cea oe s to where they are needed: ie. down the hole to the zone to be cemented. ene the induction period, the rate of hydration quickly increases, with much of the process (and development of final strength) complete within the first 10 days of curing. 25°C "om 0a300504 0305 1 3 6 10 30 60 100 200800 1000 : % C28 eS : » +5 = LLL Har Cpamonar soe 3 + mw NOE Time (days) [Bl Hydration of 62S vs. Time Figure 3-2 Hydration of Silicate Phases Versus Time ly to the long-tern Strength of the cement. While the hydration of C3S is the primary component ifn the Rardoning of cement, many additional factors influence the process, including the presence of impurities and the amount of gypsum retarder present. ‘The aluminate phases aro much less abundant than the silicate phases. but have 2 significant influence on slurry rheology and early strength of the set cemert. NoCementation — Materials and Practices 49 induction period occurs, and thus hydration goes to completion more rapidly than for the silicate phases. For a complete discussion of the complex chemical processes that occur during cement hydration, see pages 2-5 to 2-17 of the book Well Cementing (Erik B. Nelson {ed.), Schlumberger Educational Services, Houston, Texas, USA,1990). 3.2.4 Volume Changes During the Setting Process The absolute densities of hydrated products in cement are greater than the densities of the initial reactants. This result in a net cement volume decrease during the curing process. The volume decrease can vary with cement composition; typical values are shown below: Volume Decrease (%) Versus Time for Portiand Cements 1 7 28 100 day days days days Neat Portland cement 28 48 6.0 6.9 Portland Cement w/o gypsum 2.6 6.3 75 7.6 While the absolute volume decreases, the bulk volume remains the same. Thus the internal porosity of the cement increases. Excessive porosity increase may affect the ability of the cement to prevent formation fluid migration. 20 Heat i =e —— Flow 1 ¥ (my 175 be ws 160 bh 85°C =a " HK 125 fH Ny ta 100 es Ho24 5 10 15 20 Hydration Time (hr) Figure 3-3 Effect of Temperature on Hydration of Cement (API Class G)50, Casing and Cementation 3.2.5 Effect of Temperature on the Setting Process Elevated hydration temperatures, as found in bore hole environments, reduce ceva retatal the hydration time of the cement (Figure 3-3). The durations of the (acco errand setting periods become shorter. After an extended curing period. induction arrrength tends to be less. This may result from formation of dense layers of C-S-H gel around the C2S surfaces, preventing complete hydration. 3.2.6 Flash Set and False Set Portland cement without gypsum reacts quickly when exposed to water, resulting in @ Posty stiffening, from initial C3A hydration, known as ‘flash set’ or ‘quick set” This (apid stiffening makes it much more difficult to mix a homogenous cement Surry and Pabsonts obvicus problems if the slurry must be pumped to another location (-e. Gown ereeeT bore), Addition of 3 to 5% gypsum inhibits C3A hydration, and in fact is the Source of the ‘induction period’ described in section 3.2.3. ‘The term ‘false set! refers to a noticeable stiffening of the slurry that can occur after ixing, if cert fhly soluble forms of calcium sulfate are present. False set is Teversible with vigorous agitation, but such agitation is not possible during most well Gamonting operations. Addition of a dispersant (see section 3.4.5 for examples) reduces this effect in cements inclined to false set. 3.2.7 Effects of Aging Exposure to the atmosphere, moisture or high temperature during storage degrades the performance of Portland cements. Degradation or aging effects include: © increased thickening time © reduced compressive strength © increased slurry viscosity. Increased relative humidity or temperature results in increased rate at which these processes occur. Severe cement aging problems are due more to conditions of long- term storage than to exposure ‘during transport to the well site. 3.2.8 Effects of Alkalis and Sulfates Sodium and potassium are the principal alkali elements found in Portland cement; their eemonce affects setting time and strength development, Some disagreement exists ‘on whether cement strength increases or decreases in the presence of these elements. The consensus seems to be that ‘excessive alkalis increase early ‘strength but reduce ongterm strength. Maintaining sodium and potassium oxides below 1% minimizes these effects. Formation waters often contain magnesium and sodium; these elements can react in rortous ways with cement components, most notably the aluminate phases. Sulfate Marios abe a problem at low to moderate down hole temperatures (less than 60° C ortyGo° F). Reaction products from sulfate attack result in @ net volume increase, Causing swelling of the cement. Some expansion is useful, helping improve the ‘bond Can Stoment and formation, but excessive expansion will result in cement cracking path corresponding loss of compressive strength, and possibly damaging tubulars.Cementation — Materials and Practices 51 Portland cements with low C3A content are resistant to sulfate attack. In addition, the addition of so-called ‘pozzolanic’ materials, such as fly ash, increases sulfate resistance. 3.2.9 Effects of Particle-Size Distribution The fineness (average sizes) of the cement particles determines the surface area available for hydration and thus controls the water-cement ratio necessary to produce a pumpable slurry. In addition, evidence exists that cements with narrow particle-size distributions develop higher compressive strength after setting. 3.3 API Cement Classification The American Petroleum Institute (API) has established a series of classes for well cements, listed as AP/ Standards 10A, "Specifications for Oil-well Cements and Cement Additives". These standards correspond to those of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The standards are mainly based on the depths and temperatures under which each kind of cement will set to an adequate compressive strength. The classes are additionally rated on the sulfate resistance of the cement (Low, Moderate or High). The classes run from A (most limited range of well conditions) to H (broadest range of well conditions). Table 3-1 below is a summary of API cements: Table 3-1 AP! Cement Classification Class | Depth Range, | Depth Range, Comments feat. meters A Surface - 6000 | Surface- 1830 | Used when special properties are not required; similar to ASTM Type | cement used in the construction industry 1830 | Used when conditions require moderate (MSR) to high (HSR) sulfate resistanc similar to ASTM Type I B ‘Surface - 6000 | Surfa 6000 | Surface - 1830 | Used when conditions require high early strength; available in LSR, MSR, and HSR types; similar to ASTM Type Ill D 6000- 10000 | 1830- 3050 | ‘Retarded Cement’, no longer in conmon use; for moderate temperatures and pressures; available in MSR and HSR types E 10000-14000 ] 3050- 4270 | ‘Retarded cement’, no longer in common use; for high temperatures and pressures; available in MSR and HSR types c Surfa FJ 1000 18000 | 3660 4880 Ul} | for use under extremly high temperature (F) 3660 - 4880 (J) | for use under extremely high temperature 12000 -16000 and pressure conditions; available in MSR W (F only) and HSR types GH Surface - 8000 2440 | Primary differences between Class G and (neat) (neat) H are surface grain and water requirements; both classes can cover a wide range of depths, temperatures and pressure with various combinations of accelerators and retarders; available in MSR and HSR types52 Casing and Cementation Classes G and H accept retarders, accelerators and other additives more readily than ase chypes. ‘This increased adaptability has made them the most common classes in current oil field use. Table 3-2 below lists the composition and properties of API cements: Table 3-2 Typical Composition and Desirable Properties of API Cements API Class ‘Compounds (percent) ‘Wagner Fineness em2/g A 53 24 8+ 8 1600 to 1800 B 47 32 5- 12 1600 to 1800 c 58 16 8 8 1800 to 2200 DE 26 54 2 12 1200 to 1500 [6x 50 30 5 12 1600 to 1800 Desirable Property How Achieved High early strength Increase C2S content, grind more finely Retardation Control C3$ and C3A content, grind more coarsely Low heat of hydration Limit C3S, C3A content Resistance to sulfate attack | Limit C3A content Outside the United States, locally-produced cements may use API or local Gesignations. Table 3-3 below lists some non-U.S. cement classifications and their closest API equivalents (if any): Table 3-3 Cement Classifications Used Outside the U. S. Abbreviation Type of Cement API Class oc Ordinary Portland cement RHC Rapid-hardening (or high-early- au c strength, or High-Initial-Strength HSC High-strength Portland cement UL c LHC Low-heat (or slow-hardening) uw B SRC Sulfate-resistant v = AECCementation — Materials and Practices. 53 3.4 Cement Additives Portland cement by itself (‘neat’) sets to adequate compressive strength only under a relatively narrow range of temperature and pressure conditions. In addition, weak or porous formations, corrosive formation fluids, the cementing of very long casing strings or hydraulics considerations may require special measures. For all of these conditions, cement additives are necessary. Cement additives can be classified in one or more of several groups: 1. Accelerators — reduce setting time, increase rate of development of compressive strength 2. Retarders — lengthen setting time 3. Extenders ~ reduce density of the cement slurry and/or decrease the amount of cement required for a given volume of set product 4. Weighting agents -- increase slurry density 5. Dispersants -- reduce slurry viscosity 6. Fluid-loss control agents — to control loss of the slurry fluids to formation 7. Lost circulation control agents ~ to prevent loss of whole cement slurry to very porous or fractured formation 8, Specialty materials. 3.4.1 Accelerators Accelerators are most often used to reduce thickening time for cement slurries placed opposite shallow, low temperature formations. Many different salts accelerate the setting of cement slurries when added at percentages less than 10-20% by weight of cement (BWOC). While chloride salts are most often used in well cements, carbonates, silicates, aluminates, nitrates and others provide accelerating action. Added in greater amounts, the action of some salts becomes neutral or changes to retardation. Table 3-4 is a summary of the characteristics of some accelerators. Table 3-4 Commonly-used Cement Accelerators Accelerator Amount used | Type of Cement How used (Bwoc) 2104 Any API Class Calcium Chioride (CaCl2) Dry or wwater Sodium Chioride (NaC), 31010 ‘Any API Class Dry or water Hemihydrates of gypsum 15105 ‘API Class A.B,C,G.H Dry only (plaster of Paris) Sodium Silicate (NazSiOz 11075 APICIassA.B.C.G.H_ | Dry or wiwater ‘Sea Water = ‘API Class A.B,C,D.G,H_| As mixing water54 Casing and Cementation “Tho most efficient and commonly-used accelerator is calcium chloride (CaCl). CaClz The mos Starder regardless of concentration, but best results seem to cdc ot acts 8s a tions of 2-4% BWOC. When CaClz concentrations exceed 6% BWOC, concentra unpredictable. Table 3-5 below demonstrates the effect of CaCl addition resis ising time, and on development of compressive strength after 24 hours: Table 3-5 Effect of CaCl2 on Thickening Time and Compressive ‘Strength of API Class ‘A’ Cement p eel Thickening Time (hrs:min) for simulated depth (feet) 1000 2000 6000 4:40 4:12 ‘Amount CaClz percent 2.0 1:55 1:43 4.0 0:50 0:52 —_— Amount ‘Compressive Strength (psi) at At pressure (psi) and CaCl, | atmospheric pressure and temp. of: | temperature (F) of percent 40° F 60°F 600/110 30 940 1930 2710 3680 2 415 2290 3980 4450 5025 4 400 2420 3980 4550 4540 sources Smith, DK. Gomenting, 1976, and Nelson, et al. Well Cementing, 1990 The primary accelerating actions of CaClz are to increase the permeability cf the C-S-H gel layer and promotes faster hydration of the C38 component. CaCl also has gel layer ar thor effects on the cement slurry, some of which may be undesirable. These effects include: # Changes to slurry rheology ~ addition of CaClz tends to enhance the thixotropy gel" 2s with drilling muds) of the slurry, reducing the chance of particle sedimentation during and after displacement. © Faster compressive strength development ~ addition of CaCl significantly pasrercos the development of compressive strength in the first few days after displacement. © Increased heat of hydration ~ the temperature increase during early hydration Gan be much greater than without addition of the accelerator. During Cementing of casing, the casing string will expand due to the rise in famperature. When the heat of hydration dissipates, the casing then shrinks, possibly resuiting in formation of a so-called ‘thermal microannulus’ © More shrinkage — some volumetric shrinkage almost always occurs during te Gementing process, but addition of CaClz can increase shrinkage by 10%-50%. hie may result in cement fracturing or formation of a microannulus that allow fluid communication between zones. © Reduced sulfate resistance — this is due to an increase in ultimate permeability Fen occurs in accelerated cement systems. C3A content, however is the primary controlling factor in sultate resistance. aCementation — Materials and Practices 55 Other accelerators show si Sodium chloride (NaCl) tends to accelerate the setting of cement when added at concentrations below 10% by weight of mix water (BWOW). From 10-18% BWOW, NaCl is more or less neutral, while above 18% BWOW, NaCl causes retardation. ‘Sea water, which contains up to 23000 ppm (2.3%) NaCl, is often used offshore as the slurry mix water; thus sea water/cement slurries are accelerated. Hemihydrate of gypsum, in the familiar form of plaster of Paris, is a powerft accelerator which can be added to cements at high percentages. Sodium silicate, normally used as an extender, has accelerating properties as weil. Certain organic accelerators exist, but are not generally used in well cementing. 3.4.2 Retarders Retarders are generally used to achieve a standard minimum thickening time (typically four hours) to enable pumping of slurry during a complex or high-volume cement job. Table 3-6 is a summary of retarder characteristics. Table 3-6 Commonly-Used Cement Retarders Usual Amount Used Lignins 0.1 to 1.0% Calcium Lignosulfonate 0.1 to 2.5% Carboxymethyl 0.1 to 1.5% hydroxyethyicellulose (CMHEC) Saturated Salt 14-16 Ib/sack of cement The retardation process is not well understood. The process probably involves a combination of four different actions: 1. Adsorbtion of the retarder onto the surfaces of hydration products, inhibiting contact with water 2. Adsorbtion of the retarder onto the nuclei of the hydration products, preventing further growth 3. Precipitation of calcium and other materials from the aqueous phase, creating an impermeable layer around cement grains Chelation of calcium ions by the retarder, preventing formation of nuclei for hydration. Lignosulfonates are the most commonly used retarding agents. They are effeczive in all classes of Portland cements, in concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 1.5% BWOC. Depending on their molecular structure, and the cement type, they are effective at temperatures up to about 122° C (250° F), When blended with sodium borate, lignosulfonates can be effective up to 315° C (600° F). Table 3-7 shows the effect of lignosulfonates on slurry thickening times at various percentages.56 Casing and Cementation Table 3-7 Retarding Effects of Lignosulfonates on API Class G or H Cements Retarder Thickening Time (hrs:min) for simulated depth (feet) percent 10000 12000 14000 0.0 1:26 1:09 1:00 [02 2:12 1:38 1:25 0.3 2:14 1:58 0.4 10 258 ‘Source: Nelson, et al. Well Cementing, 1880 ‘The mechanism of lignosulfonate retardation appears to be adsorbtion onto the C:SH gel layer, reducing permeability and thus slowing hydration. Lignosulfonates work best prlow-C5A cements. Hydration of C3A prevents lignosulfonate from reaching the Surfaces of C38 hydration products, reducing the efficiency of retardation. Other retarders include: © Citric acid, gluconate and gluccheptonate, which are hydroxycarboxylic acids ‘and act as powerful retarders; they are effective at concentrations between 0.1 ‘and 0.3% BWOC, and temperatures up to 150° C (300° F) © Saccharide compounds (sugars), such as sucrose and raffinose, rarely used in well cementing © Collulose polymers, notably carboxymethylhydroxyethylceliulose (fertunately ‘abbreviated CMHEC), again in concentrations from 0.1-0.3% and effective at ‘temperatures up to 120° C (250° F) @ Alkylene organophosphonates, used in concentrations from 0.1 to 0.8%, and at ‘temperatures up to 204° C (400° F). Less commonly used retarders, or other additives that exhibit retardation, include Various salts and acids, sodium chloride, and zinc and lead oxides. 3.4.3 Extenders Cement extenders achieve one or both of the following objectives: 1. Reduce slurry density ~ to reduce hydrostatic pressure of the slurry, preventing ost circulation and reducing the number of stages necessary to firish the cement job 2. increase slurry yield ~ to reduce cementing costs by decreasing the amount ‘cement required to produce a given volume of set product.Cementation — Materials and Practices 57 Three categories of extenders exis 1. Water extenders — these consist of clays or viscosifying agents that maintain a homogenous slurry and prevent formation of free water, to allow the addition of ‘excess water that reduces the cement requirement. 2. Low-density aggregates — these materials have specific gravities less than that of Portland cement (3.15 SG) 3. Gaseous extenders - These consist of nitrogen or air, injected into the slurry to produce a foamed cement of especially low density. Table 3-8 lists some common extenders and the range of slurry densities pos: each. Table 3-8 Commonly-Used Extenders (not all extenders described in text are shown) Extender Slurry Density Range Benefits ppg sg Bentonite 11.5-15 | 1.37-1.8 | Improves fluid-loss control Sodium Silicate | 11.1-14.8 | 1.33-1.74 | Good for mixing w/sea water; only low percentages required Fly Ash ozzolan) | 13-14.1 | 1.56-1.69 | Resists corrosive fluids; increases compressive strength Diatomaceous Earth} 11.0-15 1.32-1.8 | performs similarly to bentonite (pozzolan) without increasing slurry viscosity; reases compressive strength 1.02-1.8 | Good compressive strength thermal stability and insulation Foamed Cement 6-15 0.72-1.8 | Good strength and low permeability Microspheres Water extenders include the follo a: Bentonite (water extender) ~- this familiar drilling fluid additive, also known as gel, is the most common water extender in well site use. Bentonite is added to the slurry in concentrations up to 20% BWOC. Above 6% bentonite, addition of @ dispersant is necessary to reduce slurry viscosity and gel strength. API recommendations state that 5.3% additional water should be added for each 1% bentonite, but the specific cement to be used should be tested for optimum water content. Cement slurry contains high concentrations of Ca2+ ions, which tend to inhibit bentonite hydration; thus bentonite used as an extender should be prehydrated in mix water before slurry mixing. Table 3-9 shows the effact of bentonite addition on slurry volume.58 Casing and Cementation Table 3-9 Effect of Bentonite Addition on Class G Cement ee Bentonite Class G cement wi44% water percent Water (gal/sx) | Slurry Density (ppg) | _ Yield (ft3/sx) ° 4.97 15.8 114 2 6.17 15.0 1.31 4 7.36 14.4 1.48 6 8.56 13.9 1.65 8 9.76 13.5 1.82 10 10.95 13.1 1.99 12 12.15 12.7 2.16 16 14.55 12.3 2.51 20 16.94 11.9 2.85 ‘Source: Nelson, et al. Well Cementing, 1980 ‘Sodium silicate (water extender) ~ NaSiOz reacts with lime in the cement, oF with calcium chloride, to produce calcium silicate gel, which greatly increases Slurry viscosity. This in turn allows use of greater amounts of mix water Sithout free-water problems. NaSiO2 is highly efficient but has an accelerating effect, which can interfere with action of other additives. NaSiO2 may be dry-blended with the cement, (0.2 to 3.0% BWOC), or blended Tiquid form with the mix water (0.2 to 0.6 gal/sk). If CaCl2 is to be added, this must be done prior to addition of the sodium silicate. Pozzolans (water extender) ~ these are siliceous and/or aluminious materials finich, when finely divided and in the presence of moisture, react with calcium hydroxide (a hydration product of cement) to provide additional set product. TWGs pozzolans not only extend, but increase the compressive strength of, set Goment, So-called fly ash and diatomaceous earth are two examples of pozzolans. Fly ashes are the residue from burning of pulverized coal, for example steam peal burned in power plants. Fly ashes consist finely-divided particles of Siiea/alumina glass, with some iron oxide, lime alkalis, magnesia and several Sther materials. Compositions of fly ashes vary considerably depending on the type of coal and the efficiency of the burning process. ASTM specifications describe three types of fly ashes: WV (not generally used as a well cement Gdditive), F (most commonly used) and C (less commonly used). Type F Portland cement/fly ash systems usually require the addition of 2 to 4% bentonite to prevent development of free water. Diatomaceous earth is composed of the siliceous skeletons of fresh-water or seawater diatoms. ‘The material provides extending properties much like those St bentonite, but with less effect on slurry viscosity. One disadvantage is that diatomaceous earth costs much more per volume than bentonite ‘The most common notation used for the mixing of pozzolan cement is based on the ‘euivelent sack’. A 94Ib. sack of cement has an absolute volume of 3.59 gallons. An equivalent sack is thus the weight of pozzolan plus cement that ee aeCementation — Materials and Practices 59 increases the mix volume by 3.59 gal. Different types of pozzolans have different densities, and thus different equivalent sack weights. Mixtures based ‘on equivalent sacks are designated by a ratio (for example, 35:65, with the first number indicating 0.35 of an equivalent sack of pozzolan and 0.65 of a sack of cement). When pozzolans are used in the slurry, quantities of other additives (except salt) must be calculated on the basis of the equivalent sack of pozzolan plus Portland cement. Salt addition is always based on the volume of mix water. Various forms of finely divided silicas Certain companies provide pre-blended various trade names. also used in pozzolanic cements. ht-weight pozzolanic cements under Expanded perfite (low density aggregate) ~ perlite is crushed volcanic glass that expands when heated to near the point of fusion. 2 to 4% bentonite is added to the cement/perlite slurry to prevent segregation of the perlite particles. Perlite/cement slurries can achieve densities as low as 1.44 SG (12 ppg). Expanded perlite contains both open and closed pore spaces. Under hydrostatic pressure, the open pores fill with water, while some of the closed pores spaces are crushed under the weight of the slurry. The result is that the perlite becomes more dense as depth increases. This requires that mix water amounts be increased depending on depth of slurry placement. Cementing company handbooks publish mix water requirements for different densities of expanded perlite/cement slurries. Gilsonite/powdered coal (low density aggregates) -- gilsonite, with a spacific gravity of 1.07, is an asphaltic mineral primarily found in Colorado and Utah, U.S.A. In cement slurries, it not only reduces density but serves as an effective lost circulation agent. Gilsonite requires little water addition, thus provides a light weight product with higher compressive strength than cements with other ‘extenders. Gilsonite has a relatively low melting point, and should not be used in wells with bottom hole temperatures greater than 149° C (300° F). Powdered coal, with an SG of 1.3, provides most of the performance of gilsonite at a lower cost and over a greater range of temperatures. Microspheres (low density aggregates) - these are small-diameter, ceramic or glass, gas-filled beads with specific gravities ranging from 0.4 to 0.7, allowing the mixing of very low-density slurries with adequate compressive strength. Ceramic microspheres are the most common variety used for well cements. Glass microspheres are lighter, but are much more expensive than the ceramic variety. Mixing the slurry requires special care; microspheres should always be dry-blended with the cement, to avoid inconsistent slurry densities. Standard grades of glass microspheres can withstand pressures up to 352 kgf/cm2 (5000 psi), while special grades can withstand pressures up to 703 kgf/cm? (10000 psi). Ceramic microspheres should not be used when hydrostatic pressures exceed 316 kgf/cm? (4500 psi). Calculations for addition of microspheres require consideration of partial collapse under pressure. Figure 3-4 shows the concentration of ceramic microspheres required for slurries of different densities, and predicted changes in slurry density with increasing pressure.60 Casing and Cementation Stumy Densty ope) eo on 2 BoM Ceramic ceramic Microspheres 160 160 Microspheres (% Bwoc) Obiek) +00] ‘00 7 # ° 0 comma aes ‘Surry Specific Gravity Concentration of Microspheres for Different Slurry Densities sn se Density 14 a Sb 130 128] 120 a8 tax 110) 408} — 100) 8 +t "0600 #000 1500 2000 2600 3000 3500 4000 4500 Pressure (ps) Densities of Microsphere/cement Slurries vs. Pressure ‘Aner Nelson, otal, Wall Comening, 1900 Figure 3-4 Ceramic Microsphere/cement Slurry CharacteristicsCementation — Materials and Practices 61 ‘Nitrogen (gaseous extender) — addition of gaseous nitrogen produces extremely low-density foamed cement, with densities down to SG 0.84 (7.0 ppg). The system requires special cement composition to ensure a homogenous nitrogen/cement slurry. The book Weil Cementing (Houston: Schlumberger Educational Services, 1990) includes a chapter on operations using foamed cements. 3.4.4 Weighting Agents ‘Cementing in deep, high pressure holes requires a high-density slurry. A high-density cement additive should have: 1. Low water requirements 2. Little or no reduction of cement compressive strength 3. Uniform particle size from batch to batch 4. Compatibility with mix water, cement and other additives. ‘When pressure conditions only require a small increase in slurry density, it is possible to reduce the amount of mix water. This technique requires addition of a dispersant to promote more complete hydration. Table 3-10 below is a summary of cement. weighting additives: Table 3-10 Cement Weighting Materials Material ‘Amount Used, | Density (ppg) Density (SG) percent (BWOC) Hematite 4-104 42.6 5.1 lmenite 5-100 37.6 4.5 Barite 10-108 35.3 4.23 Sand 5:25 21.7 2.6 Salt 5-16 18.0 2.16 Cement 0.05-1.75 16.5 2.0 widispersants and reduced water Hematite is the material most often used, because it provides the highest slurry density while fulfilling the physical requirements listed above. Table 3-11 compares mixing requirements and physical properties of weighted slurries, for different weighting agents. Figure 3-5 displays similar information in graphic form.62. Casing and Cementation Table 3-11 ing Requirements for Various Weighted Slurries, Class D or E Cement Quantities Required Lbs/sk of cement ‘Slurry Weight (ppg)_|_ Hematite Himenite 16.2 = _ 17.0 12 22 28 12 17.5 20 37 51 21 18.0 28 55 79 31 18.5 37 76 _ 19.0 47 108 - Physical Properties | Hematite Ottawa Sand Water Requirements, 3 22 ° 19 percent (BWOW) Effective SG w/water 4.49 2.67 2.65 3.57 ‘Absolute volume of 0.0275 0.0548 0.0456 0.04 additive + water (galb) Stury 200 T —T 105 | Hemet: H2032% 190 | Bwoo limenite: H2038% 185 Bwoc 180 Bare: 178 M% H20+ 479 (0.024 gal H Of bartte 0.5% dlapersant BWOC 165 160 155 o 2 «0 oo #0 1 Concentration of Weighting Agent (BWOC) ‘Aver Nano ot a Wel Camaing, 1990, Figure 3-5 Cement Density Increase With Various Weighting AgentsCementation — Materials and Practices 63 3.4.5 Dispersants Cement slurries contain up to 70% solids, with complex rheological behavior. The theological behavior of a specific slurry depends on the surface electrical charges of the solids particles, and on the ionic content of the mix water and additives. Dispersants adjust the surface charges of the solids particles to improve the slurry theology, which in most cases means reducing slurry viscosity (Figure 3-6). Relational Viscoummeta Readings (Clee G Cement (18.8 pp); 120° F TC) se ‘Srese (al 50 veadea) al oy ‘ | Dispersed 10 3 100 785 ‘Sheer Rate (RPA) pt came 28 Figure 3-6 Comparison of Neat and Dispersed Cement Slurries Table 3-12 below lists properties of dispersants: Table 3-12 Dispersants for Cement Slurries ‘Name of Material ‘Amount Used Properties (percent BWOC) Blended polymers 0.3100.5 Reduces viscosity with little effect on thickening time Works at temperatures up to 300° F (149°C) Compatible with all slurries except where salt is present Long-chain polymers 0.5to 1.5 (upto 4if | As for blended polymers ‘cement contains NaCl) Lignins, Lignosulfonate 11015 Inexpensive Act as retarders, especially at low temperatures Sodium chloride 130 15, Inexpensive Depending on concentration, may ac as retarder or accelerator64 Casing and Cementation The dispersion process may generate unwanted side effect Generation of free water ~ \f the cement particles are not completely dispersed, they fay form a flocculated structure, in which the particles support each other through Tlattrostatic forces. ‘The weight of the flocculated particles is transmitted to the glectrostat Gang structural deformation and squeezing water out of the lower layers. bottom. cmaultcan be formation of a layer of water at the top of the slurry. ‘Sedimentation ~ \n a fully-dispersed slurry, the cement particles a°6 free to move and, secirriee force of gravity, to settle out of solution. While complete. sedimentation eee not occur with well cements, a density gradient may be established thet reduces slurry homogeneity and causes setting problems. Dispersants work best only over a very narrow range of concentrations, which may be Gifteuit to control. Too little dispersant and excessive free water May. be generated; citictuch end sedimentation occurs. The addition of so-called *anti-sottling agents’ too much fro operating range of the dispersant. Anti-settling agents include bentonite, hydrosoluble polymers (such as hydroxyethicellulose), sea water ‘and silicates. 3.4.6 Fluid-Loss Control Agents Cement slurries can lose water to porous formations, as. do drilling muds. Failure to corre this fluid loss can result in failure of the cement job. Fluid loss should be less {han 50 mi/30 minutes to maintain adequate slurry performance. Fluid loss across @ porous formation deposits a filter cake of cement solids on the Formation surface. Addition of certain fluid-loss control agents promotes ot ‘enhances poner esition of filter cake, reducing the rate of fiuid loss. Table 3-13 below lists the properties of common fiuid-loss control agents: Table 3-13 Fluid-loss Control Agents for Cement Slurries ‘Additive Type Recommended | Cement Type | How Added Dosage (% BWOC) Bentonite (widispersant) | 12to16,with | APiclasses | Batch mixed 0.7 to 1.0 AGH dispersant Latex additives 7.0 gavsk | AllAPi classes | Dry mixed or wimixing water Cellulose polymers 03t01.0 | AllAPiclasses | Dry mixed (HEC/CMHEC) ‘Synthetic polymers Variable NA Dry mixed ‘Two types of specific fluid-loss control agents exist: most often used, because of effectiveness and low Particulate materials ~ bentonite lay reduce fluid loss by lodging between the large cost. Tiny platelets of bentoni cement particles. Other particulate materials used for fluid-loss control include carbonate powder and Pine Splastic resins. Well cementing contractors can also supply specially-blended tear opments. Latices are suspensions of very small spherical polymer particles, CSCementation — Materials and Practices 65 suspended in an emulsion. As with bentonite, the polymer particles lodge between the larger cement solids to reduce filter cake permeability. Water-soluble polymers ~ these materials, mainly cellulosic polymers, reduce fluid loss by simultaneously decreasing filter cake permeability and increasing the viscosity of the water phase of the slurry. Cellulosic polymers used as fluid-control agents include hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) and carboxymethylhydroxyethyicellulose (CMHEC). These materials can be costly, and they operate efficiently over a narrow temperature range. Both materials are efficient retarders (see Section 3.4.2), thus excessive use may result in over-retardation of the slurry, especially at down hole temperatures less than 150° F (65° C). On the other hand, the HEC and CMHEC lose efficiency at temperatures above 200° F (93° C). In addition to these materials, a wide range of synthetic polymers can act as fluid loss control agents, These materials are discussed in detail in the book Well Cementing (E. Nelson, ed., Schlumberger Educational Services, Houston, 1990, pp 3-28 to 3-30). 3.4.7 Lost Circulation Additives Lost circulation (via induced formation fracturing) is a major concern during planning of the cement job, since most well cements have densities greater than the mud densities used during drilling. Lost circulation may also occur when cementing is performed in zones of vuggy or cavernous porosity. Lost circulation during cementing almost always requires remedial (squeeze) cementing after losses have been controlled. Control of lost circulation during cementing is a three-stage process: 1. reduce slurry density if possible 2, Add bridging or plugging additives 3. If necessary, use additives to produce ‘flash setting’ or thixotropic cements. Bridging materials used in cementation are generally the same as those used with drilling fluids; that is, any non-reactive, heat-resistant material that can be added in powdered, granular, flaked or fibrous form. Flash-setting cements use large proportions of bentonite or gypsum to decrease the cement setting time, with the objective of achieving set cement before too much of the slurry has leaked away into formation. An obvious danger is that the cement may set before the slurry has been fully displaced. Thixotropic cements use special additives to achieve gel properties similar to those of Bingham-type drilling fluids, but exaggerated so that the fluid exhibits a very high gel strength at rest. The slurry is thin and fluid during mixing and displacement (under shear stress), but quickly develops a rigid gel structure if circulation stops. A truly thixotropic slurry can be returned to the fluid state if shear stress is again applied, although the gel strength and yield point tend to rise each time flow is stopped and restarted.66 Casing and Cementation Table 3-14 below compares lost circulation materials, flash-setting ‘and thixotropic, cements: Table 3-14 Lost Circulation Control Type of Control Material Nature of Particles Granular Gilsonite Graded Perlite Expanded Walnut Shells Graded Coal Graded Lamellated Cellophane Flaked Fibrous Nylon Short-fibered_} Cement Properties ase ‘Semisolid/Flash-setting | Gypsum cement - ‘Cements Bentonite Cement Cement + sodium silicate Thixotropic cements Calcium Sulfate - Aluminum sulfate/Iron sulfate 3.4.8 Other Cement Additives Mud Decontaminants ~ \f cement slurry and drilling mud become intermixed, the Md Oooo troadlly be contaminated by reaction with most common driting fluid cement can Contamination is most likely to occur in oper-hole plugging or saucers additives 4 jobs, where itis dificult to maintain separate ‘slugs’ ol Stry and drilling coreg oon to the slurry of a 60:40 mixture of paraformaldehyde and sodium eee nate (1% BWOC) helps neutralize active mud additives. Strength Enhancers -~ Cement loses compressive strength a¢ temperature increases; Strengt?, Ge c (230° F) this loss of strength can be critical. The addition of 30-40% {BWOC) of silica flour will help restore the lost compressive strength. Addition of, Root) or requires increased water volume (40% water by weight of silica flour). To Srovide protection against shock loads, the slurry can be mixed with 0.125 to 0.5% Pio sus materials, such as nylon, or with particulated rubber- Radioactive tracers ~ The addition of radioactive lodine or iridium (which have half- Paeeeat from 8 to 74 days) enable the identification of cement tops oF slurries: displaced during remedial cementing operations. In many cave the use of fernperature surveys or cement bond logs are effective, less hazardous replacements for the use of radioactive tracers. Corrosion Inhibitors ~ \f some drilling fluid will be left in an uncemented portion of the oresehind casing, it may be necessary to add @ 36% solution of hydrazine (an Sxygen scavenger) to the mud pumped ahead of the coment. Use of hydrazine oxy aegs special handling to avoid contaminating the cement slurry.Cementation — Materials and Practices 67 3.5 CEMENT MIXING AND PUMPING EQUIPMENT Figure 3-7 summarizes the preparation of a cement slury. At the location, the cementing contractor (Halliburton, Dowell-Schlumberger or another company) usually provides all the ‘surface equipment needed to perform any kind of primary or secondary cementing. The jobs may be pre-defined by the well plan (cementing of casing, plugs for hole lugging back for a sidetrack, cement ‘abandonment) or done on an as-needed basis g ‘squeezes to control lost circulation). Typically, the equipment package provided by the contractor includes: © Storage tanks for bulk products, and/or storage containers for sacked products ‘© A skid- or trailer-mounted cementing unit, incorporating a mixer, manifold, one- or two-section slurry tank (for measurement and transfer of produced slury), one or more plunger-type cement pumps, diesel or electric power supply and control equipment ‘* Modular piping and connecting hardware, to allow a variety of connection options between cement unit and rig circulating system, as required by the type of cement job. Sections 3.5.1-3.5.3 treat each component (and the individual parts of the cementing unit) separately; Section 3.5.4 then shows how they all work together. Central Storage Well Site Storage Mixing +>] Sz —- rene pi | xy |"7 | stom |p| camer sury_ | Puss eee es Pec b L™ | Figure 3-7 Typical Oil Well Cement Mixing ProcessCasing and Cementation Truck Mounted Dobvery to Surge Tark Pressure Mode) ava OR OEOSERVCES TRANNO DET REY, EE Figure 3-8 Pressurized Cement Bulk TanksCementation — Materials and Practices 69 3.5.1 Raw Materials Storage and Blending As already discussed in this manual, a typical oil well cement slurry is made of the following raw materials: © Portland cement Fresh water (or salt water) Dry cement additives Liquid cement additives (often solutions in water of one or more dry additives). Raw cement and dry additives are often blended at a central location before shiprent to the well site. The bulk cement is stored in pneumatic or atmospheric silos, with the additives usually stored in bags. Depending on the location, transfer of raw cement between bulk silos and the blending tank may be through pneumatic or mechanical means. An air dryer may be required in humid climates. At the central location, the raw cement and additives are combined in a blending tank of 40-20 ton capacity. Mixing is accomplished by blowing the cement and additives into the fone compressed air. A weight Sensor built into the tank monitors the amounts nded. If settling problems are likely to occur due to density or particle-size differences, it may be better to mix the raw cement and dry additives at the well site. ‘Any mixing requiring water must usually be done at the well site, thus mix water must be transported to the well site if no adequate local supply is available. Cement or cement/dry additive blend can be delivered to location in bulk or by the ‘sack. Sack cement is available in '50 kg’ metric or 94 Ib US sacks. Also available are so-called ig. bags’ of 1 to 1.5 metric tons. Whenever possible, however, the cement or cement/dry adiitive blend is delivered to the well site in bulk; by truck (onshore), boat (offshore) or some combination of road, rail or water transport. In some areas,only sack cement is available; locations accessible only by helicopter require sack cement (or ‘big bags’) due to the limited load capacity of the helicopter. At the well site, the materials used for cementing must be stored in bulk and protected from contamination. Smaller, skid-mounted versions of the pneumatic or atmospheric tanks used at the central storage facilty, provide well site storage of the cement of ‘cement/dry additive blend (Figure 3-8). ‘For land locations with road access, the storage tanks are mounted on a truck trailer and arranged to fit within standard highway clearances. Offshore, due to space limitations, the storage tanks are usually mounted on boat or barge adjacent to the drilling platform. The major cementing companies also ‘own special cementing vessels that are complete, sea-going cementing plants. Pneumatic tanks can be operated in horizontal or vertical positions. Air at about 3 bars (44 psi) pressure moves the powdered material through the tank. The system requires an air compressor and surge tank, usually an integral part ofthe tank alle or package. ‘The tanks can also be operated in atmospheric mode if desired.70 Casing and Cementation Additive Metering Tanks To Additive Storage Water Mixing Water Figure 3-9 Displacement Tank System With Additive Metering ‘the cement tends to separate into ‘slugs if it must travel more than about 7 metre (23 Fes ceraconeumatic system. The ‘slugs’ flow in pulses down the ancter line to the mixing feet) in 2 Fag in uneven mixing. A surge tank just before the mixer Helps CATS sree yy fow of cement, controls the venting of pressurized al nto he ‘atmosphere, and Slows continuous operation when switching from one storage tank to another during mixing. ‘Atmospheric tanks must be operated in a vertical position. The lars isaiee? compressed Am oerreseure (0.2 bars or about 3 ps) to fluidize the powdered material. Atmospheric tanks can be simply ‘constructed of sheet metal, ‘due to the low intemal pressures used. Mix water is usually stored in closed tanks rented from a special service Comey Water Mix wales 'S eomplisned not by use of flawmeters, but by altemately TG and displacing water trough a pair of splacement tank, Msing of igud adaltves ‘with water may be Yt eer nie storage tanks (when less than 3% BWOW is required) oF via a liquid done gir syctem combined with the displacement tanks (Figure 3-8) 3.8.2 Cement Mixing ‘The standard system for mixing well cement slurries is the Jet mixet- As shown in 3 toa. Jet mixers for cementing are available in both non-recirculating or recircul a. det mixers 10" Shows both systems. Recirculating systems. while slightly more ‘more thorough mixing and better slurry consistency.Cementation — Materials and Practices 71 ‘A conventional jet mixer consists of a hopper for addition of dry cement and additives Sacked or in bulk), a mixing bowl, a discharge gooseneck, and a slurry tank. sssentially the same type of system is used for mixing of driling fluids with dry additives Maximum production rate for his system is just ever ¥ metic ton (2200 Ibs)/minute of lurry. ‘Two or three jets inject a high pressure stream of water into the bow. The jets are chosen according to the operating needs for slurry production rate, pressure and type of material to be mixed. Dry cement enters the bow! from the hopper, the pressure drop across the bottom of the hopper helps pull the dry material into the water stream. During passage throught the gooseneck, turbulent flow thoroughly mixes the dry cement particles with the water. To control the density of the resulting slurry, a bypass system allows additional mix water to be injected at an adjustable rate, downstream of the bowl. Siury (to “Mx Water ‘4. Conventional Jet Mixer Dry Comert Googerack Pipe oneat ~ Jen. ate ~~ Ps cory | eer Jets 4 \Retwn Mex Water b, Recirculating Jet Mixer Figure 3-10 Jet-type Cement Mixers72 Casing and Cementation Conventional jet mixers can be operated at so-called ‘low or ‘high’ pressures, with the low- Pressure method preferred due to the lower horsepower requirement. At low pressure (12-14 bars, or 175-200 psi), the system can pump mix water with a centrifugal pump. High pressures (60-80 bars or 880-1180 psi) require heavier-duty plunger pumps of the type used to inject the cement (described in the next section). In either case, pumps are usually part of a skid- or truck-mounted package that includes all of the ecuipment for mixing, injecting and monitoring the slurry. Dry Cement Coment Metering Vale Moc Water Water Metering fl] [I [Recircutatea VaNve Siury Figure 3-11 Non-jet Recirculating Mixer ‘A recirculating jet mixing system is similar, but contains the following additional equipment (Figure 3-10b): © A remotely-controlled sliding gate at the bottom of the hopper, the width of the gate ‘opening controls the slurry density © A centrifugal pump and recirculating line downstream of the slurry tank, to feed the cement injection pumps and divert part of the produced slurry back to a recirculation jet at the bow! © Additional water injection ahead of the recirculating jet.Cementation — Materials and Practices 73 ‘Maximum production rate for this system is about 2 metric tons (4400 Ibs)/minute. Non-jet recirculating mixers are also available (Figure 3-11); these systems are used when very precise control of slurry density and chemical properties are necessary. Non-jet recirculating mixers share these features: ‘© A sophisticated metering system to precisely control the amounts of dry material and water added ‘© A slury tank partitioned into two sections; flow over the partition helps release trapped air in the slurry © A bottom-mounted centrifugal pump to feed slurry to the injection pumps and Fecirculate some of the slurry back through the slury tank © A means of mixing water and cement before the mix contacts recirculated slurry. Water is injected into the mixer at a constant rate; to control slurry density, the metering system allows adjustment of the cement delivery rate. Usually the cement is added directly from a pressurized tank, without the need for a surge tank. Common to all mixers, but not shown in the illustrations (for clarity) are certain accessories, including: © Paddle-type stirers, to maintain slurry homogeneity © Circulation manifold. 3.5.3 Cement Pumps A cement unit usually includes two cementing pumps; one is used during each cementing operation, with the other held in reserve in case of a breakdown. The cement unit ump 1s generally used to inject slurry produced by the mixer into the hole; the rig pumps may then be used to displace the slurry to hole bottom. In multiple, cement-type pumps are used in a wide variety of production and workover operations. Due to their compact size, cement- type pumps work as the main fluid-circulating pumps on heli-portable land rigs. While small, these pumps are very rugged, and are routinely used to pump a wide variety of abrasive fluids, such as those used in fracturing and gravel-packing (enhanced recovery) jobs. Nearly all cementing units use single-acting triplex plunger pumps, which resemble miniature versions of rig drilling fluid pumps and operate in the same fashion. Depending ‘on make and model, cement pump stroke length varies from 12.5-25 cm (5 to 10 in.), while liner diameter can vary from 7.6-15.2 cm (3-6 in.). Pump efficiency while pumping water is 95-98%, and efficiency while pumping slurry is typically 85-90%. ‘Output horsepower ranges from 200 to 500 HP. Maximum flow rate in cementing ‘operations is limited by the size of the surface lines, and ranges up to about 1270 liters/minute (8 bbl/minute). Maximum pump pressure in cementing operations (except for ‘cement squeezes) is typically 70 bars (about 1000 psi), although in rig service cement- type pumps routinely operate at 138-172 bars (2000 to 2500 psi; pressures during ‘squeeze or fracturing operations may be considerably higher. Onshore a diesel-mechanical drive, integral to the cementing unit, drives the pumps; offshore a directly-coupled DC electric motor, with current provided by the rig generators, powers the cementing pumps.74 Casing and Cementation Hopper Control —_(Stowed for Console Transport) ‘Cement Pump General Layout of Truck-mounted Unit and Mixer Cement or Blend From & ge Maieg SH9° (adjacent to Uni) Mix Water 4 Siury ‘Stury Tank #1 Tank #2 x x} >t X Slurry Slurry To Rig Crt et oe To Rig Circ. oo Gcement cement GJ a Drain | Pump #1 5 ex Drain Avaliable Available ‘Schematic of Cementing Unit Systems Figure 3-12 The Cementing UnitCementation - Materials and Practices 75 3.5.4 The Cementing Unit ‘The cementing unit combines, in one portable package, the individual components described in Sections 3.5.1-3.5.3. Figure 3-12 illustrates a typical truck-mounted unit and shows the general arrangement of the cementing system. Depending on the job and the type of access to the location, the cementing unit may be: © Truck-mounted — suitable for most land drilling operations, and configured for on- road, off-road or desert-type travel © Traller-mounted — for the same usage as a truck-mounted unit, but more versatile and allows the loading of more equipment on one chassis © Skid-mounted — used mainly for offshore rigs and cementing vessels, and sometimes for isolated land operations ‘© Hell-portable — basically a lightweight skid-mounted unit that can be broken down into smaller components for transport by helicopter. Critical components, such as the pumps and control hardware, are duplicated to reduce the chance of total failure during a cementing operation. The cementing company usually provides the necessary hardware to reach from the cementing unit to the circulating system connections, and to the cement head on the drill fioor. The piping consists of high pressure steel tubing with hammer union threaded connections, known as ‘chicksans’ (a trade name used by one of the pipe manufacturers). The system includes both straight pipes and articulated sections, that can be rotated as necessary to run the pipe around comers or vertically. 3.6 PRIMARY CEMENTING Primary cementing consists of placing a cement slurry in the annular space between casing and bore hole. Primary cementing provides a sealing effect that prevents migration of formation fluids from one zone to another, and thus reduces problems caused by pressure communication between zones. The slurry also helps hold the casing in position luring later operations, and reduces corrosion from exposure of he casing to formation luids. The general procedure for each primary cementing job is defined as part of the Well Plan; refinements or adjustments are made as necessary prior to cementing. Casing type and formation conditions dictate the cement placement technique (or combination of techniques): 4, Stab-in 2. Top-up' 3. Single-stage 4, Regular two- or three-stage 5. Continuous two- or three-stage 6. Regular liner cementing 7. Tie-back liner cementing.76 Casing and Cementation Primary cementing procedures are the same regardless of the length or diameter of the casing string, although variations in detail exist, as described in Sections 3.6.1-3.6.8, The general procedure for planning and executing a primary cementing operetion is: 1. Determine bottom hole temperature and pressure 2. Calculate annular volume to be cemented, based on caliper log results if available 3. Calculate excess cement needed to account for losses to open hole; some primary camenting jobs require 50-150% excess 4. After running casing, circulate the annulus volume to remove any gas entrained in mud 5. (Optional) Pump desired amount of preflush fluid into hole 6. If cementing plugs are to be used, stop circulation and load plugs 7. Release bottom plug just before the start of cementing 8, Pump spacer fluid into hole just ahead of cement 9. Mix cement slumy according to requirements for density and additives, and pump into hole using cement pump 10, After mixing and pumping required amount of slurry, release top plug 14. Displace cement to casing annulus using rig pumps 12, During and just after displacement, reciprocate (slowly lit and lower) and/or rotate casing several times, to distribute cement and break up trapped pocke's of drilling fluid 13, Wait on Cement (WOC) to allow development of compressive strength, for a period depending on cement composition and bottom hole conditions (usually from 2-24 hours). 14, Evaluate the cement job through pressure testing and/or wireline logs (described in Section 3.8) The slurries selected use the best combination of density and additive content to satisfy these conditions, at (of course) the lowest cost. Frequently, the well conditions requi that the cement for a single-stage job be mixed in two separate batches (so-called /ead and tail sluries), each with different properties. For example, the lead slurry may be of lower density than the tail, o avoid fracturing formation. The tail slurry, on the other hand, may require a greater amount of fluid-loss additives, due to its placement opposite a porous reservoir zone. Each batch of slurry may be preceded or followed by a spacer fluid, to avoid intermixing and deterioration of the desired properties. Multi-stage cement jobs can be even more complex, with lead and tail slurry batches for each separate stage of cementing. For a more detailed treatment of slurry design problems, see Appendix 2, ‘Cementing Calculations’.Cementation — Materials and Practices 7 3.6.1 Operational Features. Cement Calculations — normally a caliper log is run to determine average hole size. ‘The actual slurry volume used is the calculated annular volume, plus an ‘excess’ based on area practice. Typically the excess is 50% of the calipered volume, although for washout- prone areas, the excess may be as much as 150% (or more) of the estimated volume. ‘Annular volumes are difficult to determine in large-diameter Surface holes; generaly ‘cement is pumped into surface casing until retums appear at surface. Temperature — knowledge of the Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature (BHCT) is vital for determination of the time available for pumping the slurry. BHCT may be determined from electric logging measurements, MWD values of estimated from mud retum flow temperatures. Proflushing — prefshes are used as spacers ahead of the cement job, to prevent slut contamination by drilling fluid, and to aid in stripping wall cake from the hole to improve the cement bond, Plain water is an effective preflush in holes drilled with water-based muds; various additives can be used to enhance mud thinning or provide abrasive action that helps remove wall cake. Table 3-15 describes the characteristics of various spacers. Table 3-15 Preflush Fluids Preflush Type Function Recommended | Flow Type for Best Volume Results Dispersants (acid- Thins mud sufficient to obtain phosphate 90-150 m (approx. emulsions for water- 300-500 ft) of based mud, or annular fil diesel for oil-based Thinned cement | Abrasive actionto | 4.8-7.9 m3 (30-50 Turbulent slurry (neat cement | scourmud cake | bbl) of slurry; 50 to with excess water) from hole wall 150 sacks cement Guar or HEC added | Increases viscosity | sufficient to obtain Plug/Laminar to water or cement of flush 90-150 m of annular fill After Smith, D. K Cementing (SPE Monograph), 1976 Contact time and flow rate — contact time is the period that a cement slury takes to pass a given point in the annulus. Under conditions of turbulent flow (preferred for most primary cementing operations), a contact time of ten minutes or longer provides adequate mud removal for the cement to bond properly with the hole wall Wiper plugs — wiper plugs should be used for most primary cementing jobs, to provide positive separation of slury from other circulating fluids, and to wipe the interior of the casing ahead of and behind the slury. A bottom plug should NOT be used when large amounts of lost-circulation material must be circulated with the slurry. Quality control — operating personnel test the cement and additives prior to mixing, to ensure consistent properties; after mixing, the samples of the slurry are monitored at surface to confirm estimated setting times. A consistometer may be employed to veri development of compressive strength. During mixing and displacement, the driling (an« Geoservicas) personnel monitor pumping and static pressures, flow ratss, volume of giling fluid displaced by the cement, and presence or absence of gas inthe circulating Wuids,78 and Cementation Casing reciprocation — vertical or rotational movement of the casing improves cament job quality, by breaking up trapped mud pockets and increasing the effectiveness of wall ‘scratching accessories intended to remove mud filter cake. 3.6.2 Influence of Casing Type Conductor Pipe - The conductor pipe protects shallow aquifers from contamination by driling fluids, prevents washout of unconsolidated near-surface formations, and guides the bit and dil string in subsequent surface-hole driling. Depending on location, the conductor pipe may be driven in place, or run as a conventional casing string. If run as a conventional casing, a simple guide shoe is welded to the end of the conductor string, Due to the short length of the string, the annular volume is relatively small (if major washout has not occurred). The cement job consists of rigging a swedge at the top of the string, then pumping cement down the casing until cement retums are observed at ‘surface. If lost circulation prevents cement retum to surface (a common occurrence), a grouting or top-up’ job (Section 3.6.4) must be done to ensure adequate cementing of the top of the casing string. Surface casing — Like the conductor pipe, the surface casing protects surface aquifers from contamination, and prevents excessive washout of unconsolidated surface formations. Surface casing also supports the blow-out preventer (BOP) stack and must be able to resist pressures from kicks or flow of shallow gas, thus a good-quality cement job is critical. ‘A major problem in cementing surface casing is obtaining the required annular height of the cement (usually to surface) when the slurry hydrostatic pressure may exceed the fracturation pressure of shallow formations. In such cases, the Operator may choose a ‘special low-density or foamed slurry. Otherwise, the cement job requires two or more stages to successfully bridge across lost circulation or washed-out zones. Due to large casing and annulus sizes, turbulent flow may be difficult to achieve; therefore the cement may be displaced under plug flow instead. Intermediate casing — One or more intermediate strings may be necessary to seal off weak zones, to control incompetent formations, protect the bore hole in deviated sections, and to seal off high-pressure zones. Intermediate casings, due to smaller diameter, also Provide more efficient protection against high intemal pressures than surface strings. Gementing the intermediate string(s) can be done in a single stage, but multi-stage jobs ‘are more often used. A very long column of cement slurry may exert a hydrostatic. pressure greater than the formation can withstand. Production Casing — The production string isolates the wellbore from undesirable fluids in the producing formation, and from other sections of the well bore. The production string also protects tubing and downhole production tools. Production casing may be set through the reservoir zone and later perforated, (cased- hole completion) or terminate just above the reservoir zone (open-hole completion). Cased-hole completion is by far the most popular method, due to the greater degree of Production control. Key aspects of the production casing cement job are: * Hydrostatic overbalance — preflushes, spacers and the cement slury itself must be of sufficient density to maintain well control and avoid entrainment of gas or other formation fluids © Fluid-loss contro! — good fluid-loss control reduces the chance of formation damage and ensures against premature dehydration of the slurry © High compressive strength — this is essential to withstand perforation forces, and to ensure long-term production without leakage along the casing/wall bere annulus. —_—.].WwCementation — Materials and Practices 79. 3.6.3 Stab-in Cementing This method is often used for the cementing of shallow, large-diameter strings. The cement is pumped down hole through drill pipe. instead of through the much larger intemal volume of the casing. The main benefit is that volume to displace cement need not be calculated; cement is mixed and pumped until retums are seen at surface. The volume needed to displace the cement out of the drill pipe is negligable at shallow depths. Another benefits thatthe need fr large-diameter swedges or cement head is liminated. Releasing Flapper Slurry Releasing Valve Injection Displacement Stinger Figure 3-13 Stab-in Cementing (through drill pipe)80 Casing and Cementation ‘The casing is made up with a special stab-in float shoe that contains a receptacle for drill ipe (Figure 3-13). After the casing is run, drill pipe with a stab-in stinger made up on the m end, is run in the hole to a point just above the stab-in float shoe. The drilling crew establishes circulation with driling fluid and checks to make sure returns occur from the annulus between dri pipe and casing. Circulation is then stopped and the stinger is stabbed into the float shoe; when pumping is restarted retums should be seen from the casing/bore hole annulus. When mud retums are visible at surface cementing begins, ‘and continues until uncontaminated cement retums to surface. if cement retums do not ‘occur, may be necessary to re-cement, or perform a grouting operation (see next section). 3.6.4 "Top-up' Cementing ‘Top-up' cementing, or grouting, is something of a remedial process, used mainly when lost circulation occurs during primary cementing of a shallow-hole casing string. the process uses a small-diameter tubing string (typically 1 7/8 in or 5 cm), run down the annulus between casing and well bore (Figure 3-14). After establishing circulation with water or driling fluid, cementing takes place through the tubing, and continues until Tetums are seen from the casing/well bore annulus. After cementing, the tubing is flushed with water or driling fluid and pulled back to surface. In cases of severe losses, it may be necessary to repeat the process several times before the casing is adequately cemented. Tubing (run down casinghole annulus) Drilling Fluid EERE sturry Figure 3-14 ‘Top-up' CementingCementation — Materials and Practices at 3.6.5 Single-stage Cementing Single-stage cementing follows the procedure outlined at the start of Section 3.6. Figure 3-48 illustrates the process, Although the the term ‘single-stage’ means that the entire cement volume is pumped and displaced in a single step, two batches of cement (lead and tail slurries), each with slightly different densities and additives, may make up different parts of the cement column. After running the casing, the drilling crew attaches the cement head, then circulates drilling fluid down through the casing and up the casing/bore hole annulus.’ Either a single-plug or double-plug cement head may be used; both the top and bottom plugs can actually be loaded into a single-plug head, but circulation must stop for plug loading. The circulation stoppage allows mud gel strength to build up, which may prevent adequate mud removal dung the cement job, and subjects the well ore to higher pressures when cculaion restarts. If a double-plug cement head is used, the crew loads the plugs prior to circulation, allowing cementation to immediately follow the circulation period. Circulating w/ Pumping Displacement Displacement After Drilling Fluid Spacer/Slurry Displacement + Plug Release Pin In © Plug Release Pin Out Figure 3-15 Single-stage Cementing82 Casing and Cementation ‘The chance of cement contamination is minimized when the pumping sequence Bottom plug — Spacer ~ Slurry or: Preflush ~ Bottom plug — Spacer — Slurry or: Preflush ~ Bottom plug — Slurry. Once the slury has been pumped into the hole (perhaps with a following spacer), the crew releases the top plug. This process should only take a few moments; any delay (greater than five minutes) in restarting circulation may result in unacceptably high pump pressures to overcome the gel strength of the slurry. After release of the top plug, displacement begins (usually using the rig pumps); if turbulent flow is desired, the pump rate will be the maximum allowable for surface and annular pressures. In most cases, the slurry density is higher than the drilling fluid density; thus the slurry begins to move downhole before displacement begins (the ‘U-tube’ effect). ‘The slurry will continue to move on its own until hydrostatic pressures in the casing and annulus equalize. The importance of this effect is that if plug flow is desired, the pump rate must be limited for part of the displacement period to account for 'U-tube' fluid movement. Displacement continues until the top plug reaches the float collar, the pressure increase that should occur is known as ‘bumping the plug’. Some Operators prefer to reduce Pump rate near the end of displacement, to prevent excessive pressure build-up when the plug bumps. The plug may not bump if leakage occurs past the wiper fins of the plug. After displacement, the surface pressure is bled off, and the wellhead is opened to test the function of the float equipment. If retums occur, the float valve has failed: some of the displaced mud must then be pumped back into the casing, and pressure held until the ‘cement gels enough to become immobile, Casing pressure must then be released while compressive strength develops; pressure held on the well bore during this period may result in development of a microannulus and failure of the cement job. 3.6.6 Two- and Three-stage Cementing Any of the following conditions may require stage cementing: * Formations unable to withstand the hydrostatic pressure of a long cement column ‘© Cementation of an upper zone using uncontaminated slurry with characteristics different from the slurry used further down hole © Cementation of widely spaced intervals in a long casing string ‘© Cementation of a long annular space containing one or more poorly-plugged lost Circulation zones. Three commonly-used methods exist for stage cementing: © Regular two-stage cementing; each stage is a separate operation ‘© Continuous two-stage cementing; both stages are cemented in a single operation © Three-stage cementing; each stage is cemented in a separate operation.Cementation — Materials and Practices 83. ‘Regular two-stage cementing — As with single-stage cementing, a float shoe (or guide shoe and float collar) are run in the casing string, to enable closure of the casing to fluid backflow. In addition, two-stage cementing requires: 4. A stage cementing collar, which includes cementing ports that can be opened or closed by movement of a pressure-operated sieeve 2. A rubber seal-off plate, that fits in the top of the float collar 3. A first-stage plug, to provide a positive indication of the end of first-stage displacement 4, An opening bomb to open the stage collar ports, to be dropped at the end of first- stage displacement 5. A closing plug, to close the stage collar at the end of second-stage displacement. End of End of Prior to First-Stage Second-Stage Cement Job © Drilling Fluid Slurry (centralizers and spacer fluids not shown) Figure 3-16 Regular Two-stage Cementing84 Casing and Cementation ‘Stage cementing requires careful calculation of the annular volume to be filed with cement; normally the top of the first-stage cement column does not reach the level of the stage collar. If the slurry does reach the collar, it will be necessary to circulate drilling or ‘spacer fluids through the stage coliar to clean up the annulus. Figure 3-16 shows the sequence of events during a two-stage cementation. The first- stage slurry and spacer fluids are mixed and pumped as for a single-stage cement job. After mixing, the first-stage plug is dropped behind the cement slury and the cement displaced. During displacement, the plug passes through the opening in the stage collar and continues down the casing Until it comes to rest in the float collar, The seal between the plug and the rubber seal-off plate provides a positive indication of the enc of first- stage displacement. End of End of First-Stage Second-Stage Second-Stage Cement Job Displacement Displacement Displacement Finished Drilling Fluid Slurry (centralizers and spacer fluids not shown) Figure 3-17 Continuous Two-stage CementingCementation — Materials and Practices 85 After displacement of the first stage, the opening bomb is dropped, and falls under the force of gravity to the stage collar. After the bomb seats in the stage collar, surface pressure of 80-100 bars (approx. 1200-1500 psi) is apy to the casing. The pressure shears a set of retaining pins in the stage collar, allowing an inner sleeve to slide downward and expose the cementing ports. After the well is circulated to clean up the annulus and condition the drilling fluid, mixing and pumping of the second-stage slumy and spacers takes place. After slurry mang. the closing plug is dropped and the slurry displaced to the stage collar. Application of 100 bars (approx. 1500 psi) above the displacment pressure seats the plug, closing the stage collar ports. Continuous two-stage cementing — This method is used when hole conditions are such that the delay in operations while waiting for the opening bomb to seat in the stage collar may result in hole problems or failure of the cement job. Figure 3-17 shows the process. In this case a bypass collars inserted just above the fioat collar to prevent a shut off of flow when the first-stage plug lands. ‘The use of the bypass collar means that the cementing crew must calculate the displacement volume extremely carefully to avoid ‘overdisplacing the first-stage slurry. The first stage proceeds with the mixing and pumping of the first-stage slurry; a wiser plug is dropped behind the slurry to separate the slurry from the displacement fluid. A volume of spacer fluid or drilling mud, sized to the casing displacement between the stage collar and shoe, is then pumped info the casing. A stage collar opening plug (Instead of the ‘pening bomb) is dropped immediately behind the displacement fluid. Qnea the opening plug has been cropped, second stage mixing and pumping begins. The stage collar closing plug is inserted behind the slurry. Displacement of the slurry seats the ‘opening plug on the stage collar, opening the ports. When the closing plug arrives at the stage collar, application of 100 bars (approx. 1500 psi) above the displacement pressure closes the ports, and the cement job is complete. Three-stage cementing — This method is used for very long casing strings, or when the Operator is highly concemed about the possibility of lost circulation, gas channelling or ‘eventual casing corrosion. The system is the same as for a regular two-stage cement job, except that an extra stage collar and set of plugs are used. The openings in the stage collars must be sized so that the the opening bomb and closing plug of the second-stage collar can pass through the third-stage collar without interference, 3.6.7 Liner Cementing A liner (as deserbed in Section 2.2.4) is a casing string that does not extend tothe well head. Applications for liners include: 1. Production liner — run from the last casing shoe to total depth, with an overlap of 60-120 m (approx. 200-400 ft) 2. Drilling or intermediate liner — used to isolate overpressure zones, lost circulation zones, or incompetent formations 3. Tie-back liners — extending upward from an existing liner, tie-back liners are used to repair damaged/corroded casing, or to protect against potential casing wear/corrosion problems. A liner string is made up joint-by-joint at surface, as with a conventional casing string. The liner is run to the landing point suspended from drill pipe on a special liner setting tool that allows the drill pipe to detach easily. The liner also requires a liner hanger so that. the overlapping casing supports the weight of the liner string after landing.86 Casing and Cementation Liner cementing is one of the most critical camenting operations, for the following reasons: ‘© The small annular space may result in inadequate distribution of the cement © The cement must be displaced through drill pipe; if the displacement volumes are incorrectly calculated, part of the drill string may be filled with cement © Fear of damage to liner or dril string may prevent the cementing crew from reciprocating or rotating the liner after displacement, again resulting in poor distribution of cement. Not all liners are cemented in place. If the liner is to be cemented, the string is made up with float equipment (or a Yanding collar without an intemal valve) and centralzers. Centralizers are especially critical because of the typically small clearance between liner and open hole; the centralizers prevent possible differential sticking, and center the liner to allow cement to flow all around the annulus. Existing Casing Pressure Seal Hollow Wiper Plug Hanger Slips Landing Collar Float Shoe Figure 3-18 Liner Setting and Hanger AssembliesCementatic Figure 3-18 shows a typical arrangement of liner, setting tool and liner hanger just cementing. The liner hanger contains a hollow-cored wiper plug, held in place by s pins; this plug, mated with a smaller plug pumped down from surface, follows the s| and wipes the liner clean. The first step is to run the liner to the desired depth. The crew circulates driling fluid to condition the hole and clean up the liner and annulus. After circulation, the liner hanger is set. The seal assembly of the liner setting tool is long enough that the drill string can be lifted slightly without breaking the seal between liner and drill string. Thus after setting the hanger, the drill string and setting tool are lifted slightly to verify separation from the liner. Figure 3-19 shows the sequence of events during a typical liner cementing job. The ‘cementing crew installs a liner cementing head and manifold on the topmost joint of drill pipe. A ‘pump-down’ type displacement plug, sized to fit the opening in the liner setting tool wiper plug, is installed between the inlets of the cementing head. The crew then mixes and pumps a spacer or pre-flush fluid, followed by the cement slurry. A bottom plug cannot be used between the spacer and slurry. Mixipump _ Start of Displacement End of Reverse Displacement Circulation Slurry Displacement Continues Figure 3-19 Regular Liner Cementing88 Casing and Cementation ‘When displacement begins, the pump-down plug is released from the cement head and follows the slurry down to the liner hanger. The plug passes through the liner setting tool, fits into the hole in the setting tool wiper plug, and latches in place. Application of 83 bars (1200 psi) over the displacement surface pressure shears the pins holding the setting tool wiper plug in place, and the combined pair of plugs moves down the liner behind the slurry. When the combined plugs reach the float or landing collar, the surface pressure rises (bumping the plugs), indicating the end of displacement. After releasing pressure and monitoring for retums (indicating failure of the float equipment), the cementing crew pul the sting tool ree of the ine. The crew may choose to reverse-circulate out any excess cement remaining around the top of the liner. If the liner section to be cemented is very long, the crew may choose to perform a staged cement job. In this case the second stage is performed as a cement squeeze, with the squeeze slurry injected into the annulus at the top of the liner. A packer mustbe added at the bottom of the drill string to seal off the well bore for the squeeze stage. Figure 3-20 shows the process. End of Squeeze First stage Figure 3-20 Staged Cementing of a Long Liner SectionCementation — Materials and Practices 89 Tie-back liner cementing takes uses the same techniques as for regular liner cementing, but additional down hole tools are necessary to enable running and landing of the liner. These tools include: © Tie-back sealing nipple — this tool is run at the bottom of the tie-back liner section, and contains several sealing elements © Tie-back sieeve — this is installed on the top of the existing liner hanger, and contains a tapered, polished intemal surface that serves as a receptacle for the elements of the tieback sealing nipple. je-back liners can be cemented either of two ways: 4. By landing the tie-back liner on the existing liner section, then cementing through a special stage collar installed near the bottom of the tieback section 2. By running the tie-back liner to a point just above the existing liner, displacing cement into the annular space, then landing the tie-back liner before the cement gels. 3.6.8 Primary Cementing Offshore Primary cementing from a floating offshore rig may use any of the techniques already described, The primary difference in the casing running process is in the use of dril pipe for the section from well head to surface, when landing the casing and cementing. This system requires a subsea running mandrel and plug container, the use of a launching ball and launching dart to release the plugs from surface, and changes in the configuration of the plugs themselves. Figure 2-21 in Section 2.5.4 shows a typical equipment configuration for offshore cementing. Briefly, the surface-mounted cementing head contains a launching ball for remote release of the bottom plug, and a launching dart to seal and release the hollow top plug. The plugs, mounted in the subsea cementing mandrel, are held in place by shear pins. The top and bottom plugs are hollow: the bottom plug, however, contains a tray to catch the launching ball. Spacer or preflush fluid can, if desired, be pumped down through the lugs prior to cementing, The jaunching bal is released jst before pumping af the slur. he ball falls under force of gravity, passes through the hollow-cored top plug, and iodges in the ball catcher in the bottom plug. A pressure increase of 7-19 bars (100-275 psi) shears the lower plug retaining pins and the cement is pumped down hole, with the bottom plug ahead of it. Just before displacement, the lauching dart is released and pumped down the drill pipe. The launching dart lodges in the top plug, sealing off the hollow core, and the resulting pressure increase shears the top plug retaining pins. Displacement then continues until the top plug 'bumps' on the float collar or float shoe.90 3.7 SECONDARY CEMENTING ‘Secondary or remedial cementing may be performed for any of the following reasons: ‘© To repair a primary cementing job that failed due to channeling, loss to formation or inadequate cement volume displaced © To isolate zones of water production in a hydrocarbon reservoir, or to alter the gas- oil ratio (GOR) by isolating gas zones in the reservoir © To repair leaks in corroded or damaged casing strings © To plug and abandon a non-productive zone, or to plug the bore hole itself. So-called ‘squeeze’ cementing is the most popular technique for remedial cementing. A ‘cement squeeze is the process of forcing a slury, under pressure, into the zene to be cemented. The placing of cement plugs is essentially a squeeze technique, although simpler since the cement does not have to bridge over a formation. ‘Two general methods exist for squeeze cementing: © Low-pressure squeeze — currently the method preferred by most Operators, in which squeeze pressure is kept below formation fracture pressure © High-pressure squeeze ~ the squeeze pressure exceeds the formation fracture gradient. In either case, the squeeze pressures must not exceed the casing burst pressure (minus safety factor). Structure of Squeezed Zone Influence of Fluid Loss Rate Structure after 45 min. squeeze Fluid Loss Rate £800 m0 min. 150 mLI30 min. {50 mLSO min, 15 mL£0 min, seem mens em Differential Pressure 1000 psi Figure 3-21 Squeeze Cementing PrinciplesCementation — Materials and Practices ot Within this classification, techniques for squeeze pumping and placement include: © ‘Running squeeze’ pumping technique © ‘Hesitation squeeze’ pumping technique © ‘Bradenhead' placement technique © "Squeeze packer/cement retainer’ placement technique. The injection of the cement slurry under pressure is the key when using a squeeze to repair casing or isolate formations. If the cement squeeze contacts a permeable formation, the solid particles filter out at the formation face, while filtrate from the aqueous phase of the slurry enters the formation pores (Figure 3-21). The filter cake, made up of partially dehydrated cement, has a high initial permeability. As more cement parties Gather, the filter cake thickens and permeability decreases. If the fluid-loss rate is well Matched to formation permeability, eventually a small node of dehydrated cement forms at the bore hole wall. An inverse relationship exists between formation permeability and the fluid loss rate required for a successful squeeze. If formation permeability is low, a slurry with a low fluid loss rate will take excessively long to dehydrate. Conversely, use of high fluid-loss slurry where formation permeability is also high results in the hole becoming choked with filter cake, bridging off zones that otherwise would have accepted cement. The differential pressure used for the squeeze also has an effect; the higher the differential pressure, the greater the fluid loss. ‘Two final variables exist when repairing existing cement jobs or closing perforations. First, are the openings to be squeezed large enough to admit the fluid? Microannuli or cracks that permit the flow of gas, may be too small for liquids. In such cases, a high-pressure squeeze that fractures the formation (and cement sheath) is necessary. Secondly. are the perforations or openings free of obstructions? This may be difficult to determine prior to the squeeze. If the openings are freshly made, they may be clogged with debris and require washing before the squeeze job. Neat cement slurries feature fiuid-loss rates of 600 to 2500 cc/30 minutes ~ far toc high to allow a successful squeeze in most formations. The slurry requires addition of fluid-loss control agents, and/or dispersants; generally fluid-loss values of 25 to 100 cc/30 min at a differential pressure of 70 bars (approx. 1000 psi) are acceptable. The amount of cement needed for a squeeze depends on the length of the interval to be cemented and the squeeze method used. Low-pressure squeezes need only enough cement to build a filter cake; typically the slurry volume is 780-2380 | (5-15 bbl) A high- pressure squeeze, on the other hand, may need as much as 16 m3 (approx. 100 bbl.) ‘egardless of the injection method, the amount of cement used should not exceec the capacity of the run-in string (Smith, 1987, as reported in Well Cementing). Excess cement remaining after the squeeze is removed from the cementing string by reverse circulation. 3.7.1 Low-pressure Squeeze The low-pressure method has the advantages of requiring relatively small amounts of slurry, and, according to many cementing authorities, the highest rate of success. The bottom hole squeeze pressure used should be as high as possible while stil remaining below the fracture pressure of the weakest exposed formation. The designer of the cement job should use a safety factor (for example, 35 bars or approx. 500 psi) to ensure that fracturing does not occur. In addition, perforations or channels to be squeezed must be clear of obstructions.