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02 Equi PDF
02 Equi PDF
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Equilibrium equations, which set the externally applied loads equal to the sum of
the internal element forces at all joints, or node points, of a structural system, are
the most fundamental equations in structural analysis and design.
The exact
solution for a problem in solid mechanics requires that the differential equations of
equilibrium for all infinitesimal elements within the solid must be satisfied.
Equilibrium is a fundamental law of physics and cannot be violated within a "real"
structural system.
used to simulate the behavior of a real structure, also satisfies these basic
equilibrium equations.
It is important to note that within a finite element, which is based on a formal
displacement formulation, the differential stress-equilibrium equations are not
always satisfied.
identically satisfied at all node points (joints). The computer program user, who
does not understand the approximations used to develop a finite element, can
obtain results that are in significant error if the element mesh is not sufficiently fine
in areas of stress concentration [1].
2-2
2.2
1 12 13
+
+
+ 1 = 0
x1 x 2 x3
1 12
+
+ 13,3 + 1 = 0
x1 x 2
(2.1)
31 32 3
+
+
+ 1 = 0
x1 x 2 x 3
The body force, i , is per unit of volume in the i-direction and represents
gravitational forces or pore pressure gradients. Since ij = ji the infinitesimal
element is automatically in rotational equilibrium. Of course, for this equation to
be valid for large displacements it must be satisfied in the deformed position and
all stresses must be defined as force per unit of deformed area.
2.3
2-3
Fx = 0
Mx = 0
Fy = 0
My = 0
Fz = 0
Mz = 0
(2.2)
For two dimensional structures only three of these equations need be satisfied.
2.4
COMPATIBILITY REQUIREMENTS
For continuous solids we have defined strains as displacements per unit length. In
order to calculate absolute displacements at a point we must integrate the strains
with respect to a fixed boundary condition. This integration can be conducted over
many different paths. A solution is compatible if the displacement at all points is
not a function of the path. Therefore, a displacement compatible solution involves
the existence of a uniquely defined displacement field.
In the analysis of a structural system of discrete elements, all elements connected to
a joint, or node point, must have the same absolute displacement. If the node
displacements are given, all element deformations can be calculated from the basic
equations of geometry. In a displacement based finite element analysis, node
displacement compatibility is satisfied. However, it is not necessary that the
2-4
displacements along the sides of the elements are compatible if the element passes
the "patch test".
A finite element passes the patch test "if a group (or patch) of elements, of arbitrary
shape, is subjected to node displacements associated with constant strain; and, the
results of a finite element analysis of the patch of elements yield constant strain".
In the case of plate bending elements, the application of a constant curvature
displacement pattern at the nodes must produce constant curvature within a patch
of elements. If an element does not pass the patch test it may not converge to the
exact solution. Also, in the case of a coarse mesh, elements that do not pass the
patch test may produce results with significant errors.
2.5
STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT EQUATIONS
If the small displacement fields u1 , u 2 and u 3 are specified, assumed or
calculated, the consistent strains can be calculated directly from the following wellknown strain-displacement equations [2]:
1 =
u1
x1
(2.3a)
2 =
u 2
x 2
(2.3b)
3 =
u 3
x3
(2.3c)
12 =
u1 u 2
+
x 2 x1
(2.3d)
13 =
u1 u3
+
x3 x1
(2.3e)
23 =
u2 u3
+
x3 x2
(2.3f)
2.6
2-5
DEFINITION OF ROTATION
A unique rotation at a point in a real structure does not exist. A rotation of a
horizontal line may be different from the rotation of a vertical line. However, in
many theoretical books on continuum mechanics the following mathematical
equations are used to define rotation of the three axes:
1 u1 u 2
2 x 2 x1
(2.4a)
1 u1 u 3
2 x3 x1
(2.4b)
1 u 2 u 3
2 x3 x 2
(2.4c)
It is of interest to note that this definition of rotation is the average rotation of two
normal lines. It is important to recognize that these definitions are not the same as
used in beam theory when shearing deformations are included. When beam
sections are connected the absolute rotation of the end sections must be equal.
2.7
2-6
n, un(s,n)
s, us(s,n)
E,G
E,G
n =n
(2.5a)
ns = ns
(2.5b)
Since the displacement, u s and u s , must be equal and continuous at the interface
s = s
(2.5c)
Since the material properties, that relate stress to strain, are not equal for the two
materials it can be concluded that
s s
(2.5d)
n n
(2.5e)
ns ns
(2.5f)
For a three dimensional material interface, on a s-t surface, it is apparent that the
following 12 equilibrium and compatibility equations exist:
2-7
n =n
n n
(2.6a)
s s
s = s
(2.6b)
t t
t = t
(2.6c)
ns = ns
ns ns
(2.6d)
nt = nt
nt nt
(2.6e)
st st
st = st
(2.6f)
These 12 equations cannot be derived because they are fundamental physical laws
of equilibrium and compatibility. It is important to note that if a stress is
continuous the corresponding strain, derivative of the displacement, is
discontinuous. Also, if a stress is discontinuous the corresponding strain, derivative
of the displacement, is continuous.
The continuity of displacements between elements and at material interfaces is
defined as C0 displacement fields. Elements with continuities of the derivatives of
the displacements are defined by C1 continuous elements. It is apparent that
elements with C1 displacement compatibility cannot be used at material interfaces.
2.8
F + F
=0
(2.7a)
F + F
=0
(2.7b)
F + F
=0
(2.7c)
2-8
Each node on the interface between elements has a unique set of displacements;
therefore, compatibility at the interface is satisfied at a finite number of points. As
the finite element mesh is refined the element stresses and strains approach the
equilibrium and compatibility requirements given by Equations (2.6). Therefore,
each element in the structure may have different material properties.
2.9
2-9
R6, u6
R5, u5
f
, d
, d
f , d
5
5
f , d
3
3
R2, u2
f , d
1
1
R1, u1
R4, u4
f
f
R3, u3
, d
, d
R7 , u7
0
0
0
0
0 f1
R1 1.0 0.6
R 0
0.8
0
0
0
0
0 f 2
2
R3 1.0
0
0
0
0
0 f3
0.6
0
0
0 f 4
1.0
0.8 1.0
R4 = 0
R5 0
0.6
0
0
0
0 f5
1.0
0.8
1.0
0
0
0
0 f6
R6 0
R 0
1.0 f 7
0
0
0
0
0
7
(2.8)
Or, symbolically
R = Af
(2.9)
2-10
unknown element forces and seven joint equilibrium equations; therefore, the
above set of equations can be solved directly for any number of joint load
conditions. If the structure had one additional diagonal member there would be
eight unknown member forces and a direct solution would not be possible because
the structure would be statically indeterminate.
The major purpose of this
example is to express the well-known traditional method of analysis (method of
joints) in matrix notation.
v3
v4
Initial Position
Ly
v2
Deformed Position
v1
2-11
The axial deformation of the element can be expressed as the sum of the axial
deformations, due to the four displacements at the two ends of the element. The
total axial deformation, written in matrix form, is
L
d = x
L
Ly
L
Lx
L
v1
L y v 2
L v3
v 4
(2.10)
Application of Equation (2.10) to all members of the truss, shown in Figure 2.3,
yields the following matrix equation:
0
1.0
0
0
0
0 u1
d1 1.0
d 0.6 0.8
0
0
0.6 0.8
0 u 2
2
d 3 0
0
0
0
1.0
0 u 3
1.0
0
0
0
0 u 4
1.0 0
d 4 = 0
d 5 0
0
0
0
0 u 5
0.6 0.8
0
0
0
0
0 u 6
1.0
d 6 0
d 0
0
0
0
0
0 1.0 u 7
7
(2.11)
Or, symbolically
d=Bu
(2.12)
2-12
f =kd
or, d = k 1 f
(2.13)
The element stiffness matrix k is diagonal, for this truss structure, where the
Ai Ei
and all other terms are zero. The element flexibility
Li
Li
. It
matrix is the inverse of the stiffness matrix where the diagonal terms are
Ai Ei
diagonal terms are k ii =
is important to note that the element stiffness and flexibility matrices are only a
function of the mechanical properties of the elements.
2.
3.
All traditional methods of structural analysis use these basic equations. However,
prior to the availability of inexpensive digital computers, which can solve over 100
equations in less than one second, many special techniques were developed to
minimize the number of hand calculations. Therefore, at this point in time, there is
little value to summarize these methods in this book on the static and dynamic
analysis of structures.
2-13
R=Ku
(2.14)
The global stiffness matrix K is given by one of the following matrix equations:
K = A k B , or, K = A k A T , or, K = B T k B
(2.15)
f = k B u , or, f = k A T u
(2.16)
2.14 SUMMARY
Internal member forces and stresses must be in equilibrium with the applied loads
and displacements. All real structures satisfy this fundamental law of physics.
Hence, our computer models must satisfy the same law.
2-14
Computer
programs that average node stresses at material interfaces produce plot stress
contours that are continuous; however, the results will not converge and significant
errors can be introduced by this approximation.
Compatibility conditions, which require that all elements attached to a rigid joint
have the same displacement, are fundamental requirements in structural analysis
and can be physically understood. Satisfying displacement compatibility involves
the use of simple equations of geometry. However, the compatibility equations
have many forms and most engineering students and many practicing engineers can
have difficulty in understanding the displacement compatibility requirement. Some
of the reasons we have difficulty in the enforcement of the compatibility equations
are the following:
1. The displacements that exist in most linear structural systems are small
compared to the dimensions of the structure.
Therefore,
2-15
approximate methods, which satisfy statics, may produce more realistic results
for the purpose of design.
5. In addition, engineering students are not normally required to take a course in
geometry; whereas, all students take a course in statics. Hence, there has not
been an emphasis on the application of the equations of geometry.
The relaxation of the displacement compatibility requirement has been justified for
hand calculation in order to minimize computational time. Also, if one must make
a choice between satisfying the equations of statics or the equations of geometry, in
general, we should satisfy the equations of statics for the reasons previously stated.
However, due to the existence of inexpensive powerful computers and efficient
modern computer programs it is not necessary to approximate the compatibility
requirements. For many structures, such approximations can produce significant
errors in the force distribution in the structure in addition to incorrect
displacements.
2.15 REFERENCES
1.
2.
2-16