Foundation of Calculus

July 15, 2009

Abstract
Lecture 1 : We learn the foundation of calculus using denition
approach  Any concept will be dened and then later if required will

be paralleled with a physical interpretation  We rst understand what

is there in coordinate geometry for us  dene slope of two points and
extend that denition to understand the slope of a line  see how slope
keeps changing as the line orientation keeps changing  dene function and
then dene what is domain & range of a function  plotting of function
graphs 
Lecture 2 : Physical interpretation of derivative in terms of whatever
we learnt till now
Physical interpretation of limits with 4 examples  dene limits 
limits formulae  examples
Lecture 3 : Derivatives  denition of derivative  derivative of some
examples from using denition  formulae & its usage  lots of interesting

problems
Lecture 4 : Integration  Physical interpreation of integration  integration vs derivative (mathematically speaking)  problems (circle area,
circumference, volume of cylinder, sphere )  numerical problems  formulae & Use

Denition approach of learning new topics

Denition approach is what we will use here. We won't really try to physically locate what the denitions are saying but rather will except them as
starting blocks to start understanding of further development of the topic. Calculus can be best understood using physics. We can have some examples from
physics but we will solve lot of problems that are mathematical and are going
to use the denition and validate that.

CONTENTS

Contents
I Lecture I

1 Cartesian coordinate system

1.1

Plotting points

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Dene slope for two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Slope of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Slopes of line

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Functions

2.1

Examples of a functions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Finding values of function in

y = f (x)

2.3

Functions and their graphs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

Domain and range of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

form

. . . . . . . . . . . .

II Lecture 2

8
8

11

3 Examples of what is a Limit?

11

3.1

Polygon becomes circle

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

3.2

Bucket is full or overowing?[5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

3.3

Rotating a marble tied to a cord

13

3.4

A numerical example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

3.5

Denition of Limit

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.6

Formulae of limits

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.7

Worked out problems in limits

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.8

Practise Problems in Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

III Lecture 3

19

4 Derivatives

19

4.1

Derivatives of other functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

4.2

Understanding the Derivative denition geometrically[1] . . . . .

23

4.3

Rate of change

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.4

Function & its examples in Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.5

Instantaneous rate of change[3]

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4.6

Chain Rule and friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

4.7

Composition of functions

4.8

Derivative of a composite function

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27
28

IV Lecture 4

30

5 Integration

30

5.1

Dierentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

5.2

Indenite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

5.3

Denite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

5.3.1

31

Way to evaluate Denite Integrals

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS
5.4

Methods of Solving Integrals

5.4.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

Method of substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

Part I

Lecture I
We start are understanding dening the coordinate space. And further will use
this to understand functions and physical implications of function, derivative
and integration.

Cartesian coordinate system

Denition.

Cartesian coordinate system:

A system of two perpendicular axes, x & y axis as in the adjoining gure.

A sign convention is laid on the axes. Part of x-axis right of y-axis is positive
x axis and left is negative x-axis. Similarly above x-axis, y axis is positive and
below is negative. This convention is laid to uniquely locate a point in space.

Denition.

Point in Coordinate space :

Any point in the space is denoted as

&

(a, b) where a is called the x coordinate

is called the y coordinate. Now x-coordinate is the distance of the point

from y axis & y-coordinate is the distance of the point from x axis. See in the
above gure.

1.1 Plotting points

Example.

Plot the following points

(1,2), (2,0),(0,3),(-1,2),(-1,-1)

To plot the point

(1, 2)

we rst move x-coordinate value along x axis (i.e. 1

) and then move y-coordinate value parellel to y-axis (i.e. 2 )

1.2 Dene slope for two points

1.2 Dene slope for two points

Denition.
If

Slope (m) of line joining two points

P (x1 , y1 )

&

Q (x2 , y2 )

then slope of line joining these two points is

dened as

m=

Example.

y2 y1
x2 x1

Find the slope of the line joining the pair of points

(1, 2)

(2, 3)

&

(1, 2)

&

(3, 1)

(4, 0)

&

10, 0)

(2, 3)

&

(2, 10)

Solution

Slope of

(1, 2)

Slope of

(1, 2)

Slope of

(4, 0)

&

10, 0)

Slope of

(2, 3)

&

(2, 10)

(2, 3)

&

&

is

32
=1
21

(3, 1)

is

is

1 2
3
=
3 (1)
4

00
=0
4 10

is

10 3
= U ndef ined
22

. Means the line joining

these two points is parellel to y-axis

1.3 Slope of a line

Denition.

Slope of a line

(x1 , y1 )
y
y2 y1
=
x
x2 x1

Take any two points

dened as

&

(x2 , y2 )

on the line the slope of the line is

Informally dened as : rate of change of y with respect to corresponding

change in x

1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

Observe one important point here

Slope of line =

Example.

y2 y1
= tan
x2 x1

Find the slope of the following lines

1.

2x + 3y = 6

2.

x=2

3.

y=4

4.

xy =3

Solution
1. In

2x + 3y = 6, (3, 0)

the line hence Slope

2. In

x = 2, (2, 0)

line hence Slope

(0, 2) satisfy
20
=
= 23
03
&

the equation. i.e. these points lie on

(2, 1) saties the equation

10
=
= undef ined
22

&

(0, 4) & (1, 4) satises the equation i.e.

44
Slope =
=0
10

3. In y=4,
hence

4. In

i.e. these points lie on the

x y = 3, (3, 0)

(0, 3) satises
0 (3)
=
=1
30

&

the line hence Slope

these points lie on the line

the equation i.e. these points lie on

1.4 Slopes of line

1.4 Slopes of line

Denition.

Inclination of a line

Angle ( ) made by a line with positive x-axis such that

0<

Once we have dened the angle of inclination then we will see what is the
relation between increase in angle of inclination and slope.

[1]
Can you see that as the inclination of the line increases from 0 to going close
to right angle there is increase in slope.

0
0
0
0
{/ = 0 , 30 , 45 , 60 . . .} then corre1
sponding slopes = {m/m = 0, , 1,
3, . . .} since slope= tan
3
And the same thing happens corespondingly in the second quandrant
( 2 , ) as increases correspondingly sllope too increases.
For example, angle of inclination =

Fact.

Can you see the trend that is seen?

1. Slope of a line parellel to x axis is Zero

2. The slope of line increases as is moves away form positive x axis in anticlockwise sense towards y axis to reach a huge innite value.
3. At angle

/2

, the slope is undened.

4. Again it increases from positive y axis in counterclockwise direction towards negative x axis.

2 FUNCTIONS

Functions

Functions are expressions that exhibit the functioning of a particular thing. Like
a mixer grinder, weighing machine. etc.

Denition.

A function

y = f (x)
y.

is dened as a rule which for all values of

assignes a unique value of

So mathematically a function can be seen as

f :XY

as a mapping that

goes from set X to Y moreover the mapping can be one to one or many to one.

2.1 Examples of a functions

1. Linear function :

y = 2x + 3, 2x + 3y = 4,

y
x
+ =1
2
3

are equations of

lines in dierent forms. They are called linear as they are of degree one
in x & y.

2. Trigonometric function :

y = sin x, y = cos x, y = sin( x)

are all

trigonometric functions.

y = ax , y = 2x , y = ex are exponential functions.

variable
Note they are constant
kind of functions. Students often confuse
2
constant
them with x kind of functions which are variable
form.

3. Exponential function :

2.2 Finding values of function in y = f (x) form

Let us work on some examples of evaluating values of functions at particular
value of x.

x+1
1
1
then what is f (2), f ( ), f ( )
2
x
x1
2+1
f (2) =
=3
21
3
1
+1
= 21 = 3
f ( 12 ) = 21
2
2 1
1
+
1
1+x
f ( x1 ) = x1
=
= f (x)
1x
x 1

1. If

f (x) =

2.3 Functions and their graphs

Denition.

Graph

A graph is the collection of all points

(x, y)

that satisfy the equation of the

function.

Example 1.
Points

Let us plot the graph of the equation

(1, 5)

&

(0, 3)

y = 2x + 3

satify the equation and the equation is linear in x & y

2.4 Domain and range of a function

Example 2.

Plot the graph of the function given as

y = x2 + 1

Plotting points and getting a rough idea of the graph.

Points

(0, 1), (1, 2), (1, 2), (2, 5), (2, 5).

So we get a rough idea of the graph

and what remains is to get the graph smooth.

2.4 Domain and range of a function

Denition.

Domain (Df ):

All values that will be taken (input) by the function

y = f (x)

i.e. all values

of x that keeps the function well dened.

Denition.

Range (Rf ):

All values of y (output) that will be taken for all values of

i.e.

Rf = {y | y = f (x) such that x Df }

Example 3.
1.

2.

Domain and range of the following functions

1
x
Df = R {0}
Rf = R {0}

f (x) = x
Df : [0, )

Rf : [0, ) (since x
f (x) =

is positive root of x)

x Df

i.e.

y Rf

2 FUNCTIONS

10

3.

1
f (x) =
x

Df : (0, ) (since can take only positive values)

Rf : (0, ) (since the fraction cannot become zero!

and

is positive

root of x)
4.

5.

1
1 + x2
Df = R
Rf = (0, 1] ( use
f (x) =

f (x) =

the quadratic method to nd

Rf

1
1 + x2

Df : R
Rf : (0, 1]
6.

f (x) = sin x
Df : R since sine is welldened for any angle.
Rf : [1, 1] (since any angle given, sin x lies between 1

& 1)

11

Part II

Lecture 2
3

Examples of what is a Limit?

Instruction for this section : In the examples below, you might not understand
how few limits are used.

Go through them without worrying if you are not

following something. Going further you will understand what we did in these
examples.
Let us consider an example to understand what Limits is exactly.

3.1 Polygon becomes circle1

A circle of radius

is constructed. We can construct regular polygons inscribed

in that circle.

Now we can approximate the area of circle to be equal to area of a polygon

where number of sides is a very large number.
Suppose we have a polygon inscribed that has

sides.

Area of the polygon is

1
2
A = n r2 sin
2
n
The end to this process of continuously increasing the number of sides of the
inscribed polygon is same as trying to nd the limit (english word meaning) of
this process. The process limit or end would be that the polygon has become a
circle.
So as

n ,

Area of polygon

Area of the circle.

lim Area of polygon = Area of Circle

This is written in notational form as

Area of Circle =
=

lim

lim

1 2
2
r n sin
2
n
r2 sin 2
n

= r2 lim

2
n

sin 2
n
2
n

[using lim

sin
= 1]

= r2 1
1 You

can view the animation of Polygon tending to a circle at TeachingMathematics

3 EXAMPLES OF WHAT IS A LIMIT?

12

lim sin = 1 [1]

0
So we are proving this now!
We used above

In the neighbourhood of

= 0.

We see that

QRP Area of sector QRPArea of QRK

sin 12 r2 12 r2 tan
sin tan
Assuming we are seeing for > 0 without loss of generality,
and idea will follow for < 0
1 sin cos
cos sin 1
sin
As 0 lim cos lim
1
Area of

1 2
2r

sin
0

lim

=1

similar steps

[U sing Sandwich theorem]

3.2 Bucket is full or overowing?[5]

Consider this example of lling a bucket with the following rule, Each hour
the bucket is lled by half the amount left empty.
started at the beginning the bucket is empty.

So when the process is

First hour half the bucket is

1
2

1
2
1
4

half lled ( ) , next hour we have half bucket left and hence we ll (

1
Third hour we have lled half of the left lled, So we have (
2

+
+

1
4 ).
1
8 ).

1/2
1
1
1
2 + 4 + 8 + = 11/2 = 1).
So this is another example of limit concept. Here the end state of this process

keep doing this process we get (

is that the bucket is always lled by half the amount left and that would never
allow the bucket to get full, but if the process is continued till innity the end
state would be lling the bucket.

And

3.3 Rotating a marble tied to a cord

13

3.3 Rotating a marble tied to a cord

A marble tied to a cord if rotated about the center.

So during this rotation if the marble rotates about the arc specied in the
adjoining diagram.

Now if the cord reaches the point

and the cord is cut

what do u think what would be the path of the marble. Think about this!
The marble would move along the tangent to its path at the point. So that
means it will move along the tangent to the path. To nd that path we need to

nd the tangent at that very point.

So tangent at point

other point to the right of

the right of
the point

i.e.

B1

can be approximated using the secant joining any

and point

towards

A.

Now we keep moving the point to

along the points

B2 , B3 , B4 , B5 ,

to reach

A.

So in limit notation we can write this as

as Bi A

i.e. lim Secant ABi = T angent at A

i

3.4 A numerical example

Consider this term
except

f (x) =

x2 1
x1 . Now this term is well dened at all

x R

x = 1.

We want to see what numerical value does

closer and closer to 1.

f (x)

takes as

x1

i.e. x goes

3 EXAMPLES OF WHAT IS A LIMIT?

14

But

can get closer and closer to 1 from two directions, one from left of 1

and other from right of 1.

x 1+
f (x) takes?
1.00001
2.00001
+
as x 1 then f (x) 2

As x approches to 1 from right of 1. what value does

x
f (x)

1.1
2.1

1.01
2.01

1.001
2.001

1.0001
2.0001

Can you make out what is happening

x 1
As x approaches to 1 from left of 1. What values does
x

0.9

0.99

0.999

0.9999

0.99999

f (x)

1.9

1.99

1.999

1.9999

1.99999

So you can see that here to the limit for

f (x)

Hence we conclude mathematically that

x2 1
=2
x2 x 1
lim

is 2.

f (x)

takes?

3.5 Denition of Limit

15

3.5 Denition of Limit

If
is

y = f (x)
l

is given and as

x a , f (x) l

then we say that the limit of

f (x)
Note :

Mathematically that is written as

here the equality in the

mathematical way of writing the

limit is not the usual equality.

lim f (x) = l

xa

It is just a representation that

f (x)

is getting closer to

goes closer to a.

Now let us put some thought on the denition of limit

x a, f (x) l, now x tending to a means x comes closer to a.

x will come closer to a from left of a and right of a.
For example, x 2 means x will take values 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, . . . from
left of 2 and 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001, . . .. from right of 2.
we say as

Since

lies on Real line

So the above denition,

lim f (x) exists

xa
actually means

LHL

RHL

lim f (x) exists

xa

lim f (x) exists

xa+

&
LHL = RHL = l

3.6 Formulae of limits

1.

2.

3.

lim

x0

sin x
= 1, lim cos x = 1
x0
x

&

lim

x0

tan x
=1
x

lim (1 + x)1/x = e = lim (1 + x1 )x

x

x0

ax 1
= log a , a > 0
x0
x
lim

3.7 Worked out problems in limits

1.

x2 4
x2 x 2
lim

x2 4
x2 x 2
lim

=
=
=

(x 2)(x + 2)
x2
lim (x + 2)
(since here x 2 So x 2 6= 0)
lim

x2
x2

x 2 = x + 2 4 & x 2
(x + 2)(x 2)
0 =
4 (since x 2 is a f actor both numertor
x2
denominator)
Above method implicitly means this as

as

3 EXAMPLES OF WHAT IS A LIMIT?

16

2.

x2 4
x0 x 2
lim

Now observe in this problem the function is not undened at

x = 0.

So

the limit is same as the function value at that point. But why doesnt that
happen in the rst problem above?

lim

x0

3.

x2 4
04
=
x2
02
=
2

lim sin x1

x0
As x

here

sin

gets applied on it to oscillate it more and more often.

And hence it doesnt reach any point.

Check the gure hence the limits remains

4.

undened.

lim x sin x1

x0
As x

here though

sin x1

oscillates

term goes closer and closer to

zero. decreasing the osciallation and leading the total product to zero .
Hence the limit is Zero.

5. Find the limit of the following function at respective points

(a)

f (x) = |x|

at

x=0
(

Now we know that

the limit of

f (x) = |x| =

|x| at x = 0.

x
x

x0
.
x<0

Now we need to nd

This will be LHL and RHL and both should

be equal for the limit to exist. Remember the story of two villages
that were separated by a forest and a river passing through the center
of the village dividing the villages.

3.7 Worked out problems in limits

17

RHL =
=
=

LHL

=
=
=

lim |x|

x0+

lim x

x0+

lim |x|

x0

lim (x)

x0

Hence we see that both the RHL and LHL are equal hence we say
2

that the limit exists for this function at zero.

(b)

(
1
x0
f (x) =
1 x < 0
LHL

=
=
=

RHL =
=
=

at

x=1

lim f (x)

x1+

lim 1

(to the right of 1 f (x) = 1)

x1+

lim f (x)

x1

lim 1

(since f (x) = 1 f or x < 1)

x1

Since LHL=RHL hence the limits exist and is equal to 1.

But did you observe here we needed to nd the limit at the
To the left and right of
is

x=1

x = 1.

the function had the same value that

f (x) = 1.

Hence instead of nding LHL and RHL we could have just wrote

limit =
=

lim f (x)

x1

lim 1

x1

(since f (x) takes same value)

2 Now you might have a question as why we didn't try to solve the previous limit problem
as LHL and RHL but just worked out limit? This was purely done since in previous problem
the function denition was not changing on either side of the point of nding limit. But in
the present problem the function is dierent to the left and right of the point x = 0. In the
previous problem nding the LHL and RHL is same as nding the limits in general. But
actually limits is dened as

lim f (x) =

xa

lim f (x) =

xa+

lim f (x)

xa

3 EXAMPLES OF WHAT IS A LIMIT?

18

(
f (x) =

(c)

1
x0
1 x < 0

at

x=0

Now will we just nd limit here without trying to see what is the
RHL and LHL??
Here we have to nd the LHL and RHL separately and check if both
are equal. If both are equal then the function has limits at

x=0

or

else it doesnt have a limit.

RHL =

lim f (x)

x0+

lim 1

x0+

=
LHL

=
=

(since right of 0 f (x) = 1)

1
lim f (x)

x0

lim (1)

x0

(since lef t of 0 f (x) = 1)

= 1
And we see that

LHL 6= RHL

Hence the limits doesnt exist in this case.

3.8 Practise Problems in Limits

1.

2.

lim+

x0

lim

sin x
|x|

tan

(Solution : 1)

(Solution : 1)

3. Find the anwers to the following functions, given

sented in the adjoining gure
(a)

f (1)

Df : [0, 3]

and is repre-

19

(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f )
(g)

lim f (x)

x1+

lim f (x)

x1

lim f (x)

x1

lim f (x)

x2+

lim f (x)

x2

f (2)

Solutions- a:2,b:1,c:1,d:1,e:0,f:-1,g:0

Part III

Lecture 3
4

Derivatives

Denition.

Derivative of a function


dy 
dx x=a

y = f (x)

at a point

x=a

is dened as

f (x) f (a)
xa
f (a + h) f (a)
= lim
h0
h

lim

xa

Above we found derivative of the function at some particular point

What if we want to nd the derivative at any point

x?

We just replace

Simple right?

y = f (x)

So the derivative of a function


dy 
dx at

Example.

If

at any point

f (x + h) f (x)
h0
h

= lim
any x

f (x) = sin x, g(x) =

x+1
x1

then we have

is given as

x = a.
a by x!

Notation : If given y = f (x),

dy
d
=
g(x) = g 0 (x)
dx
dx

4 DERIVATIVES

20

t+1
t1

1.

f (t) = sin t, g(t) =

2.

f (t 1) = sin(t 1), g(t) =

3.

f (ex ) = sin(ex ), g(ex ) =

4.

f (ax2 + bx + c) = sin(ax2 + bx + c), g(ax2 + bx + c) =

5.

f (cos x) = sin(cos x), g(x) =

6.

f (h(x)) = sin(h(x)), g(x) =

Denition.

t1+1
t
=
t11
t2

ex + 1
ex 1
ax2 + bx + c + 1
ax2 + bx + c 1

cos x + 1
cos x 1
h(x) + 1
h(x) 1

Composite function

Given functions

y = f (x) & y = g(x) then composition of functions f g(x) =

f (g(x))

Example.

Given

Problem.

Find the derivative of the function

f (x) = sin x & g(x) = ex then

f g(x) = f (g(x)) = sin(g(x)) = sin(ex ) &
g f (x) = g(f (x)) = ef (x) = esin x

dy
dx

nd

f g(x)

=
=

lim

=
=

h0

That means the derivative of

f (x) = x

is

d
(x) = 1
dx

We know the derivative is slope of the tangent at a point

means slope of the tangent to

Problem.

g f (x)

y = f (x) = x

f (x + h) f (x)
h0
h
x+hx
lim
h0
h
h
lim
h0 h
lim 1

&

f (x) = x

at any point is

Find the derivative of the function

x.

Now derivative

y = f (x) = x2 .

Here in the problem they have not asked at which point of x we want to nd
the derivative means they want us to nd the derivative at any point
use the above denition.

x.

Let us

21

dy
dx

f (x + h) f (x)
h
2
(x + h) x2
lim
h0
h
2xh + h2
lim
h0
h
2x + h
lim
(since h 0, hence h 6= 0)
h0
1
2x

lim

h0

=
=
=
=

Problem.

Find the derivative of

f (x) = xn

where

nN

Again using the denition of derivative

dy
dx

f (x + h) f (x)
h
(x + h)n xn
= lim
h0
h
h(nxn1 + c1 xn2 h + c2 xn3 h2 + . . . + hn1 )
= lim
h0
h
n1
= nx
=

lim

h0

Hence we can write

d 2
(x ) = 2x
dx
d 3
(x ) = 3x2
dx
d 4
(x ) = 4x3
dx

d n
(x ) = nxn1 .
dx

. So we have ended up nding general formula for derivative of

functions of the form

Problem.

Now we can nd any of these

variableconstant

Find the derivative of

f (x) = 2

This is a constant function.

dy
dx

f (x + h) f (x)
h
22
= lim
h0
h
= 0
=

lim

h0

Can you see that derivative of a constant function is coming out to be zero.
That means derivative of any function

Problem.

Prove the relation

f (x) = c

is

Zero.

d
d
(k f (x)) = k (f (x)) where k
dx
dx

is a constant.

What we mean here is a constant can come out of the derivative operator.
By denition,

4 DERIVATIVES

22

d
(k f (x))
dx

=
=
=
=

Theorem.

k f (x + h) k f (x)
h
f (x + h) f (x)
lim k
h0
h
f (x + h) f (x)
k lim
h0
h
d
k
(f (x))
dx
lim

h0

Derivative of Addition/Subtraction of functions is equal to addi-

tion/subtraction of their derivatives

df (x) dg(x) 3
d
(f (x) g(x)) =
+
dx
dx
dx

d
df (x)
dg(x)
(f (x) g(x)) = f (x)
+ g(x)
dx
dx
dx

dx

  g df f dg
f
= dx 2 dx
g
g

3 To nd the derivative of f (x) with respect to x is also called as dierentiating f (x) with
respect to x

4.1 Derivatives of other functions

23

4.1 Derivatives of other functions

We have seen
1.

d n
(x ) = nxn1
dx
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

2.

d
1
(loge x) =
dx
x
(a)

3.

d
(k) = 0
dx
d
(x) = x11 = x0 = 1
dx
d 2
(x ) = 2x21 = 2x
dx
d 1
(x ) = x11 = x2
dx

d
d
loga e
d
(loga x) =
(loge x loga e) = loga e
(loge x) =
dx
dx
dx
x
d
d
(k f (x)) = k
(f (x)) )
we used here :
dx
dx

( note

d x
(a ) = ax loge a
dx
(a)

d x
(e ) = ex (note this is the function whose derivative is the function
dx
itself )

4. Trigonometric functions

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f )

d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = sin x
dx
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
d
(cot x) = cosec2 x
dx
d
(sec x) = sec x cosec x
dx
d
(cosec x) = cosec x cot x
dx

4.2 Understanding the Derivative denition geometrically[1]

Given a function

y = f (x).

Let the curve of this function be as in the adjoining

gure. Let us see what this term means geometrically

f (x + h) f (x)
f (x + h) f (x)
=
h
(x + h) (x)

4 DERIVATIVES

24

Let us locate this term in the gure.

y
f (x + h) f (x)
=
is the slope of the
x
h
where is the angle made by the secant with

tan =
A & B,

secant joining the points

positive x axis.

And the by the denition of the derivative as

h 0 means point B will tend

B A.

That means geometrically the

to come closer and closer to point A i.e.

secant joining A & B will become tangent at A. Thats Beautiful! isn't it!
Yes this the geometrical interpretations we are interested in nding the tan-

y = f (x)

gent to the curve

and this is a very strong method.

Example.

I have a ladder of length

L = 5m

inclined on a wall.

Now if the

ladder has no friction with the wall and ground and if it starts sliding under
gravity then

1. What is the displacement of base with oor when the the base with the
wall at

4m

height has displaced with

0.1m?

2. What is the velocity of the base with wall when the velocity of the base
with wall is

Solution :

3m/sec

and at a distance of

4m

from the ground?

From the diagram,

x2 + y 2 = l 2
2
2
2
Also, (x + x) + (y y) = l
2
2
Solving both equations we get (x) + (y) + 2xx 2yy = 0
Now we need the instanteneous velocities of both the bases. To nd that we

need to get

lim

t0

x
t

&

lim

t0

y
t

4 Note one thing, in the geometrical interpretation of derivative above point B A that
is B goes closer and closer to A. But can never reach the point A since if the point B reaches
point A the secant will dissapear instead of determining the tangent. Hence we utilize limit
since the secant if continuously goes near and near to tangent that means the nal limit of
the nearing process is the nal tangent at point A. Interesting hmmm..

4.3 Rate of change

25

t has elapsed and we are still making

t 0. That means even the displacement x & y
2
2
are going closer to zero too. So (x) & (y) are becoming more smaller and
can be neglected at t 0.
Obviously, if we say, very small time

it closer to zero by doing

Hence we have,

xx yy = 0
x when we know y = 4, x = 3 & y = 0.1
yy
= 0.133m towards right ( positive signies along
x =
x

1. We need to nd

positive x

axis)

x
y
x
y
=0
t
t
y
= vy
t

2. From the above equation,

x
= vx &
t
So we have xvx = yvy
Given, vy = 3m/sec & y = 4m x = 3m
as

t 0

&

vx = 4m/sec

Now we see the solution of this problem using derivatives

From geometry we get

x2 + y 2 = L2

Dierentiating with respect to time

we get

d
d 2
d 2
(x ) + (y 2 ) =
(L )
dt
dt
dt
dx
dy
2x
+ 2y
= 0 (Since Derivative of constant = 0)
dt
dt
xvx + yvy = 0

4.3 Rate of change

If

y = f (x) then
x.

rate of change in

with respect to change in corresponding

change in

Rate of change is dened as

y
x

Similarly,
In physics we need to monitor what is change in displacement
is a change in time
i.e.

t.

when there

Since displacment is dened as a function of time.

x = f (t)

x
x2 x1
f (t2 ) f (t1 )
=
=
t
t2 t1
t2 t1
f (t2 ) f (t1 )
dx
lim Average V elocity = lim
=
= v
t2 t1
t2 t1
dt
velocity at time t1
Average velocity

= Instantaneous

4.4 Function & its examples in Physics

Let us see some examples of how functions exist in physics.
1. A person drives his car in a straight line such that he starts from a point
A and movesx a distance of 2m in every one second.

That means in

4 DERIVATIVES

26

seconds will travel

travel

2t

metres. So the function relating the time taken

distance is given by

to

x =
or x(t)

2t
2t

So what is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time, between

t=1

and

t = 2.

We know that rate of change of displacement is

2.

x2 x1
42
x
=
=
=
t
t2 t1
21

In physics, rate of change of diplacement is termed as velocity.

Hence the average velocity is

2.

What if we want to nd the instateneous velocity at

need to get the secant at

t=1

t = 1.

For that we

which is a tangent. And we know that the

tangent is the derivative. So the velocity at

t=1

is

dx
d
= (2t) = 2
dt
dt

2. A particle starts moving from a starting point A such that velocity at

every point is given by

v = 2t3

where

is the time taken. Then how is

acceleration related to velocity and time taken.

v = 2t3
The rate of change of velocity is termed in physics as acceleration i.e.

a=

dv
.
dt

Dierentiating we get,

a=

dv
d
d
= (2t3 ) = 2 (t3 ) = 2 3t2 = 6t2
dt
dt
dt

4.5 Instantaneous rate of change[3]

Now we know that average rate of change in the function
as

y
x

y = f (x) is represented

and to get the instantaneous rate we use the limit of average

lim

x0

y
x

5 Since x can be expressed in terms of variable t. Second notation describes that. We have
see if a function f is expresses in terms of x then we write it as y = f (x).

4.6 Chain Rule and friends

27

Similarly,
Instantaneous Velocity

lim Average V elocity

x
= lim
t0 t
f (t2 ) f (t1 )
= lim
t0
t2 t1
dx
=
dt
x = f (t)
dv
v
=
= lim
t0 t
dt

where Displacement is a function of time i.e.

Instantaneous Acceleration

4.6 Chain Rule and friends

If

is a function of

and

is a function of

then

dy dt
dy
=

dx
dt dx
From chain rule we can nd the derivative of composite functions
In

y = f (g(x))

let

t = g(x)

&

y = f (t)

Dierentiating,

dt
= g 0 (x)
dx
dy
= f 0 (t)
y = f (t)
dt
t = g(x)

Using Chain rule

dy
dx

dy dt

dt dx
0
= f (t) g 0 (x)


d
d
d

f (g(x)) =
(f (t))
g(x)
dx
dt
dx
t=g(x)
=

Parametric form
If we have

y = (t)

and

x = (t)

two functions which both depend on

t.

Then

dy dx

dx dt
dy
dx

=
=

dy
(using chain rule)
dt
dy/dt
dx/dt

4.7 Composition of functions

Denition.

If

f (x)

&

g(x)

are functions of

then composition of

&

dened as

(f g)(x) = f (g(x))
This can be generalised as

(f g h s)(x) = f (g(h( s(x) )))

are

4 DERIVATIVES

28

Example.

A general non-mathematical example of composite function.

Rotation of fan (r) depends on the current passing into the fan (c), mathematically can be written

r = f (c)

And the ux of air (a) made to move by the fan on rotation (r), mathematically can be written

a = g(r)
current(c) rotation(r) air f lux(a)

This composite function

This same example can be converted to parametric form

Rotation of fan (r) depends on current(c) i.e.

r = f (c)

Also air ux(a) coming from the fan depends on the current(c) i.e.

Example.

Given

f (x) = sin x

&

g(x) = x2

then

(f g)(x)

&

a = g(c)

(g f )(x)

Solution :

(f g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 ) = sin(x2 )

(g f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(sin x) = (sin x)2 = sin2 x

Example.

Given

f (x)

&

g(x)

as in the above example nd

(f g f g)(x)

(f g f g)(x)

= f (g(f (g(x))))
= f (g(f (x2 )))
= f (g(sin x2 ))
= f (sin2 x2 )
=

Problem.
1. If
2. If

sin(sin2 x2 )

Practice problems

f (x) = x2 & g(x) = x then nd f g & g f

f (x) = 1 + x2 & g(x) = x2 1 then nd f g

&

gf

4.8 Derivative of a composite function

If

y = (f g)(x)

is a composite of functions of
0

f (x)

&

g(x)

then

(f g) (x) = f (g(x)) g (x)

d(f g)
df (g(x) dg
=

dx
dx
dx
y = f (x), x = g(t)
y = f (g(t)) same as com-

This is same as chain rule,

If

y = f (x)

&

x = g(t)

then

posite. right!

dy
dy dx
=

dt
dx dt

Example.

If the displacement

x(t)

2t2 + 1

Instanteneous Velocity is

d
d
(x(t)) = (2t2 + 1) = 4t
dt
dt
d
d
a(t) = (v(t)) = (4t) = 4
dt
dt

v(t) =

Instanteneous Acceleration is

is given as a function of time

as

x(t) =

4.8 Derivative of a composite function

Rate of change of Velocity with respect to displacement

4/4t =

1
t

29

dv
dv dx
=
/
=
dx
dt dt

5 INTEGRATION

30

Part IV

Lecture 4
5

Integration

5.1 Dierentials
Let us rst understand what do we mean by dierentials

lim x and is denoted as dx

x0
So a dierential dx is a small dynamic change in

Dierential of

of

is

is

Example.

(Remember dierential

See the following worked examples of dierentials

1. Dierential of

2. Dierential of

f (x)

is

d(f (x)) = f (x)dx

3. Dierential of

sin x

is

d(sin x) = cos x dx

4. Dierential of

sin x2 is d(sin x2 ) = cos x2 2x dx

5. Dierential of

f (g(x))

is

dy
0

is

produced by dierenting

f (x)

d(f (g(x))) = f (g(x)) g (x)dx

This can be seen in a dierent way, dierential of

d(x) = dx)

f (x)

is

d(f (x))

this can be

with respect to the independent variable here i.e.

df (x)
d
0
0
f (x) =
= f (x) d(f (x)) = f (x) dx
dx
dx

5.2 Indenite Integration

Denition.

It is dened as reverse operation of Dierentiation.

Also called

Anti-derivative.

Notation:

f (x)dx

: read as integral of

f (x)

dx which means we are trying to nd

that function whose derivative with respect to x is

for example:

sin x dx = cos x

f (x)

: means derivative of

cos x

1.

d n+1
xn+1
(x
) = (n + 1) xn xn dx =
where n 6= 1
dx
n+1

2.

d x
ax
(a ) = ax loge a ax dx =
dx
loge a

3.

d
1
(loge x) =
dx
x

4.

d x
(e ) = ex ex dx = ex
dx

1
x dx

5. Trigonometric functions

= loge x

is

sin x

5.3 Denite Integration

(a)
(b)
(c)

31

d
(sin x) = cos x cos x dx = sin x
dx

d
(cos x) = sin x sin x dx = cos x
dx

d
(tan x) = sec2 x sec2 x dx = tan x
dx

5.3 Denite Integration

Denition.
b

It is the area under the curve

y = f (x)

from x varying from

to

(see the diagram)

Notation :
x=b

f (x)

: read as integral of

f (x)

from

x=a

to

x = b.

x=a

Example.

y = f (x) and want to nd the

x = a (point A) and x = b (point B) along x-axis. And
along y-axis its bounded by y = f (x) and x-axis. This is represented by denite
b
integral
f (x) dx
We see here if we have a function

area bounded between

a
We can nd this area under the curve (as its called) using approximation.
We cover the area with rectangles and keep on increasing the number of such
rectangles (just as we worked out to approximate the area of circle with area
of n-gon). And then we nd limit of this process which turns out to be denite
integral stated above.
In the gure below, we have shown some stages of increasing the number
of rectangles between

x=a

&

x = b.

Here

n = 4, 7, 12, 26, 60,

nally.

5.3.1 Way to evaluate Denite Integrals

This is called the Fundamental Law

the limits case

5 INTEGRATION

32

d
F (x) = f (x) then f (x) dx = F (x)
dx
x=b

b
Hence
f (x) dx = F (x)|a = F (b) F (a)
x=a

Example.

Evaluate

x2 dx

We know

x2 dx =

x3
+c
3
2
2

x dx

=
=

2
x3 
3 1
23
13

3
3
7/3

Example. Find the area of the circle with radius R using integration
Method I
Area of the circle is integration of all small circles concentric with the given
circle (as shown in the gure)
We take a random such small thickness circle at a variable distance

from

the center.

Now the area of the thin ring of

from center

dx

thickness at a distance of

Now we collect all such thin rings which are at a distance of

6 dx =

(random)

= 2r dr
zero(0)

to

lim x so dx is an every decreasing and shrinking quantity. Hence the limit of

x0
the approximation gets us the integration to give the right answer.

5.3 Denite Integration

33

from the center. And that is done with integration

r=R

A =

2rdr
r=0
R

2 rdr|0
R
r2 
= 2 
2
 02

R
0
= 2

2
2
=

R2

Method II
Now we make the small element in a dierent sense. See the gure

To nd the area of the circle we are collecting all small sectors of angle
For that we collect all small sectors lying at an angle
where

d.

from positive x-axis

= 0 to 2.
=2

1 2
R d
2

=0

1 2
R
2

=2

d
=0

2
1 2 2 
R
2
2 0

1 2 4 2
0
R (
)
2
2
2
= R2
=

Method III
Here in this third type of solution, the strip is parellel to y-axis with
thickness and at a distance of

(variable) from y-axis.

dx

5 INTEGRATION

34

Area of the thin strip

= 2 R2 x2 dx

Area of the circle is by collecting all such strips from

x=R

Area of circle

x = R

to

x=R

p
R2 x2 dx

x=R

x=R
R2
xp 2
x 
R x2 +
sin1 ( )
2
2
R x=R

R2
R2
sin1 (1)) (0 +
sin1 (1))}
2
2
R2

= 2 ( ( ))
2 2
2
= R2
=

Example.

2{(0 +

Derive Kinematical Equations

v = u + at, s = ut + 12 at2 , v 2 =

u + 2as
In the kinemetical equations, acceleration is assumed to be constant.

dv
a=
= constant = a
dt
dv

= a dv = adt (Note
dt

: this is the dierential form)

Integrating,

dv =

adt

v|vu

= at|t0
v u = at
i.e. v = u + at
ds
Now v =
= u + at ds = udt + atdt
dt
s
t
t
Integrating,
ds = udt + atdt
0

s|s0 = ut|t0 + 21 at2 |t0

s = ut + 12 at2

5.4 Methods of Solving Integrals

35

dv
=a
dt
dv ds
dv
=a
v = a vdv = ads
ds dt
ds
v
s
vdv = ads

Finally,

u2
v2

= as v 2 u2 = 2as
2
2

Example.

Find the Volume of a sphere.

Let us take a small shell at a random distance

The thickness of this shell is

dr.

from center of the sphere.

So volume taken by the shell is

Hence volume of the sphere of radius

R=

4r dr = 4

R
0

4 3
R
3

4rdr.

R
r3 
r dr = 4  =
3 0
2

5.4 Methods of Solving Integrals

5.4.1 Method of substitution
This is most widely exployed method of integration while solving problems. Here
we substitute a part of the integrand such that the integral problems becomes
a simple integral problem that we might have solved earlier.
Let us learn this with examples

Example.

log x
x dx

We Observe that some part of the integrand,

transform the problem to a much simpler problem.

1
dx
d
(log x) = d(log x) =
dx
x
x
Let t = log x dt = log x dx

t2
log2 x
Problem becomes,
tdt =
+c
+c
2
2
We see

log x
x

can be substituted to

Index
Cartesian coordinate system, 4
Domain of a function, 9
Examples of limits, 11
function, 8
Inclination of a line, 7
Polygon becomes circle, 11
range of a function, 9
Slope of a line, 5

36

REFERENCES

References
[1] Thomas & Finney - Calculus & Analytical Geometry 6ed.
[2] I A Maron - Problems in One Variable Calculus
[3] Piskunov - Dierential & Integral Calculus
[4] Richard Goldberg - Methods of Real Analysis
[5] Bartle & Sherbert - Introduction to Real Analysis

37