Nucleus & Nuclear Radiation

AGEN-689
Advances in Food Engineering

Nuclear Structure

The nucleus of an atom of atomic

number Z and mass number A consist
of Z protons and N = A-Z neutrons
A gives the total # of nucleons (protons
and neutrons)
Nuclide: a species of atom
characterized by its nuclear constitution
(its value of Z and A (or N))

Unstable atoms are

radioactive: their nuclei
change or decay by
spitting out radiation, in
the form of particles or
electromagnetic waves.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element

can have different numbers
of neutrons; the different
possible versions of each
element are called isotopes.
For example, the most
common isotope of hydrogen
has no neutrons at all;
there's also a hydrogen
isotope called deuterium,
with one neutron, and
another, tritium, with two
neutrons
1H

1,

deuterium is
and tritium is 3H1

2H

1,

Hydrogen
(stable)

Deuterium
(stable)

Tritium
(radioactive)

Isotones

Nuclides having the same number of

neutrons
206

Pb82 and

204

Hg80

Lead and mercury are isotones with N = 124

Isobars

Nuclides that have the same As but

different Zs:
64

Ni28 and 64Zn30

Nickel and zinc are isobars with A = 64 and

but different Zs

Nuclear Mass & Biding Energy

Nuclear reactions can be either

exothermic (releasing energy) or

endothermic (requiring energy to take place)

Energies associated with nuclear changes are

usually in the MeV range 106 times greater
than energies associated with the valence
electrons involved in chemical reactions

Nuclear Mass & Biding Energy

Energies from exothermic nuclear

reactions comes from mass conversion
to energy
Mass loss = m then energy released,
E:

E = (m)c

Atomic mass units (amu) &

Energy (MeV)

By definition:

12C

atom has a mass of exactly 12 amu

Since its gram atomic weight is 12 g:

1
24
1 amu =
1
.
66
10
=

g
23
6.02 10
using Einstein relation with c = 3 1010 cm / s
1 amu = (1.66 10 24 )(3 1010 ) 2 = 1.49 103 erg
1.49 103 erg ( MeV )
1 amu =
= 931.48MeV
6
1.6 10 erg

Mass Defect

Is the difference between the atomic

mass (measured mass) sometimes
called isotopic mass, M, and the mass
number, A:

=MA

Mass Defect

Actually, the mass of a proton is 1.00728 amu; a neutron is

1.00866 amu; a electron is 0.0005485 amu.
The standard is that one atom of carbon 12, the isotope of
carbon with 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons, has a mass
of exactly 12 amu.
If you add up 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons, you get
more than 12 amu:

6(1.00728) + 6(1.00866) = 12.0956

The mass of 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 6 neutrons is 12.0956

amu, to be precise--but the mass of a carbon nucleus is less
than the sum of its parts.

Binding energy

The "binding energy" of a particular isotope is the

amount of energy released at its creation;
You can calculate it by finding the amount of mass
that "disappears" and using Einstein's equation.
The binding energy is also the amount of energy
you'd need to add to a nucleus to break it up into
protons and neutrons again; the larger the binding
energy, the more difficult that would be.

Binding Energy

For the Nuclide of

is:

24 the total mass in AMU

Na
11

11(1.00728) + 13(1.00866) + 11(0.00055) = 24.199

From appendix D, = -8.418 MeV = 0.0090371

AMU = M-A
So, M=24-0.0090371=23.991AMU
BE = 24.199-23.991 = 0.208AMU = 194 MeV
This is the total BE of the atom nucleons +
electrons
BE/nucleon = 194/24 = 8.08 MeV

Radioactivity

The property that some atomic species,

called radionuclides, have of
undergoing spontaneous nuclear
disintegration
All of the heaviest elements are
radioactive
209Bi
83 is the only stable nuclide with Z >
82

Radionuclide

May emit alpha or beta particles when

the ratio of neutrons or protons is
unfavorable for the state of stability
If after the emission of the particle, the
nuclide is still in an energetically
unstable state, it may emit gamma ray
Nuclear emissions have high kinetic
energy (MeV)

Unit of Radioactivity

Becquerel = 1 disintegration per

second
It measures only the rate of nuclear
transformation
It does not deal with kinetic energy
released in the process

Nucleus Decay

In nuclear decay, an
atomic nucleus can
split into smaller
nuclei.
A bunch of protons
and neutrons divide
into smaller bunches
of protons and
neutrons

Particle Decay

It refers to the
transformation of a
fundamental particle
into other
fundamental
particles.
The end products
are not pieces of the
starting particle, but
totally new particles.

Types of radiation

Alpha particles are helium nuclei (2 p, 2 n):

p n
n p

Beta particles are speedy electrons:

Gamma radiation is a high-energy photon:

Differences among Radiation

Can be distinguished by a
magnetic field
The positively-charged alpha
particles curve in one
direction,
The negatively-charged beta
particles curve in the
opposite direction,
The electrically-neutral
gamma radiation doesn't
curve at all.

Alpha Decay
Some heavy isotopes decay
by spitting out alpha
particles.
These are actually helium 4
nuclei--clumps of two
neutrons and two protons
each.
A typical alpha decay looks
like this:
238U
234Th
4

92 =>
90 + He2

Alpha Decay

Heavy elements with Z>83

226
88

Ra Rn + He
222
86

4
2

Q = M Ra , N M Rn , N M He, N
Q = p D
parent

daughter

Use Appendix D to find these values

Energy Q

It is shared by the alpha particle and the recoil

(daughter) nucleus
Parent nucleus was at rest, so the momenta of
the 2 decay products must be equal and
opposite:

Alpha particle

mv = MV
Recoil nucleus
1 2 1
2
mv + MV = Q
2
2

E and EN
2 MQ
v =
m( m + M )
1 2
MQ
E = mv =
2
m+M
1
mQ
2
E N = MV =
2
m+M
E + E N = Q
2

Beta Decay-electron

Suppose an atom That's the case with tritium,

3H .
1
has too many
3H metamorphoses into helium

neutrons to be
3, it also gives off an electron-which has hardly any mass,
stable.
and is endowed with a
negative charge that exactly
In beta decay, a
cancels one proton.
nucleus
3H => 3He + 0e

1
2
-1
simultaneously emits

The nuclear reaction involved

an electron, or
in the beta decay of tritium by
giving the electron a "mass
negative beta
number"
of 0 and an "atomic
Note that the mass & charges
are concerved
number" of -1
particle It must be true in any nuclear
reaction!!

Beta Decay

A nucleus simultaneously emits an

electron, or negative beta particle and an
antineutrino

Beta decay

Beta decay can be seen as the decay

of one of the neutrons to a proton via
the weak interaction

Weak interaction diagram

Beta Decay

A nucleus simultaneously emits an

electron, or negative beta particle and an
antineutrino
60
27

60
Co 28
Ni + 10 + 00v

Q = M Co , N ( M Ni , N + m)
Q = M Co , N + 27 mCo ( M Ni , N + 28mNi ) m
Q = p D
Note that here we are neglecting the differences in atomic-electron
BEs

Energy Q

It is shared by the beta particle, antineutrino

and the recoil (daughter) nucleus
The nucleus, because of its large mass, receives
negligible energy

E + Ev = Q

These are initial kinetic energies of the electron

and antineutrino

Beta Decay-positron

Suppose an atom That's the case with beryllium

7Be - It decays to lithium
7,
4
has not enough
7--so a proton turns into a
neutrons to be
neutron
stable.

So a positron is emitted--a
particle that's just like an
In beta decay, a
electron except that it has
nucleus
opposite electric charge. In
simultaneously emits nuclear reactions, positrons
are written this way: 0e1
an positron, or
7Be => 7Li + 0e

positive
beta
particle
4
3
1
Note that the mass & charges are concerved
It must be true in any nuclear reaction!!

Positron Decay

A nucleus simultaneously emits a

positron, or positive beta particle and a
neutrino
22
11

Na 1022Ne+10 + 00v

Q = M Na , N M Ne , N m
Q = M Na , N + 11mNa ( M Ne , N + 10mNe ) 2m
Q + = p D + 2mc 2

Positron Decay

For positron emission to be possible:

The mass of the parent atom must be
greater than that of the daughter by at
least

p > D + 2mc

2mc = 1.022 MeV

2

Gamma-ray

After alpha or beta

decay, a nucleus is
often left in an excited
state--that is, with
some extra energy.
It then "calms down" by
releasing this energy in
the form of a very highfrequency photon, or
electromagnetic wave,
known as a gamma
ray.

Gamma Ray

One or more gamma rays can be emitted

from the excited states of a daughter nuclei
following radiation decay
Transition that results in gamma emission
leave Z and A unchanged and are called

isomeric
Nuclides (initial and final states) are called
isomers

Gamma Rays
137
55

0
0

Cs 137
Ba
+
+
56
0v
1

137
55Cs

Q = p D
Q = 86.9 + 88.0 = 1.1MeV

1.174
1.174
5%

From appendix:

Decay by this mode take places 5% of

time releasing 1.174 MeV
95% of the cases leaves the daughter
nuclei in an excited state with energy
1.174-0.512=0.662 MeV
A photon with this energy is shown with
137
85% frequency
56Ba
Internal conversion occurs in 9585=10% of the disintegration
Ba X-rays are emitted following the
inner-shell vacancies created in the atom
by internal conversion

0.512
95%
0.662

85%

Internal Conversion

Is the process in which the energy of an excited

nuclear state is transferred to an atomic electron, a K
or L shell electron, ejecting it from the atom
This process is not the same as emitting a gamma
ray which knocks an electron out of the atom
It is also not the same as beta decay, since the
emitted electron was previously one of the orbital
electrons, whereas the electron in beta decay is
produced by the decay of a neutron.

Internal Conversion Coefficient

The ratio of the

number of
conversion electrons
Ne to the number of
competing gamma
photons N for the
transition:

Ne
=
N

Kinetic Energy of Ejected

Atom

Ee is equal to the excitation energy E*

of the nucleus minus the binding
energy EB of the electron in its atomic
shell:

Ee = E * E B

Decay by Electron Capture

Some nuclei undergo a radioactive

transformation by capturing an electron from
the K shell and emitting a neutrino
The neutrino acquires the entire energy Q
released by the reaction
103
46

Pd + 10e10345m Rm+ 00v

Q = M Pd , N + m E B M m Rh , N
QEC = p D + EB
p D > EB

Decay by Electron Capture

An atom with too few

neutrons may gain one more
neutron by capturing one of
the negatively charged
electrons orbiting about the
nucleus.
This effectively cancels the
positive charge on one of the
protons, turning it into a
neutron.
An example of this kind of
radioactivity is the decay of
beryllium-7 to form lithium-7

Be7 + e- Li7