| aa he Birth of Christie aS DYNASTY WITH A NEW EPILOGUE Air JAMES D. TABOR rovocative. .. . Takes the search for the historical Jesus to a bold . . . new level.” —JAYTOLSON, US. News & World ReportThe JESUS DYNASTY The Hidden History of Jesus, His Royal Family, and the Birth of Christianity JAMES D. TABOR SIMON @ SCHUSTER PAPERBACKS New York Lovdor Toronto Sydneya Le SIMON & SCHUSTER PAPERBACKS Rockefeller Center 1230 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10020 Copyright © 2006 by James D. Tabor Epilogue copyright © 2007 by James D. Tabor All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. For information address Simon & Schuster Subsidiary Rights Department, 1230 Avenue of the Americas. Fiese Simon & Schuster trade paperback edition April 2007 SIMON & SCHUSTER PAPERBACKS and colophon are registered trademarks of Simon & Schuster, Inc. For information about special discounts for bulk purchases, please contact Simon & Schuster Special Sales at 1-800-456-6798 or business@simonandschuster.com. Designed by Ruth Lee Mui Maps by Paul Pugliese Manufactured in the United States of America woo9 8 7 6 5 4 3 27 The Library of Congress has cataloged the hardcover edition as follows: Tabor, James D. The Jesus dynasty : the hidden history of Jesus, his royal family, and che birth of Christianity / James D. Tabor Poem. Includes bibliographical references (p. _) and index. 1 Jesus Christ Royal office. 2. Jesus Christ Genealogy. 3. Jews—Kings and rulers 4, Christianity—Origin. 1.Tidle. BT270.T33 2006 32.9—de22 2006042311 ISBN-13: 978-0-7432-8723-4 ISBN-10: 0-7432-8723-1 ISBN-13: 978-0-7432-8724-1 (Pbk.) ISBN-to: —0-7432-8724-x (Pbk.)Contents Preface: Discovering the Jesus Dynasty I Introduction: A Tale of Two Tombs 6 Part One: In the Beginning Was the Family 1. A Virgin Shall Conceive 37 2, A Son of David? 48 3. An Unnamed Father of Jesus? 59 4. Children of a Different Father 73 Part Two: Growing Up Jewish in Galilee 5. The Lost Years 85 6. A Kingdom of this World 95 7. The Religion of Jesus the Jew 109 Part Three: A Great Revival and a Gathering Storn 8. Hearing the Voice 125 9. A Crucial Missing Year 138 10. Ushering in the Kingdom 153CONTENTS Part Four: Entering the Lion's Den 11. Herod Strikes a 12, Last Days in Jerusalem 187 13. The King Is Dead 208 14. Dead but Twice Buried 225 Part Five: Waiting for the Son of Man 15. Go to James the Just 243 16. The Challenge of Paul 259 17. The Legacy of the Jesus Dynasty 272 18. The End of the Age 284 Conclusion: Recovering Lost Treasures 305 Epilogue 319 ‘Timeline of Major Events and Figures 333 Notes 335 Acknowledgments 359 Index 361 Photo Credits 379Palestine 1 Herogian Fortress Mediterranean Sea Caesarea in the Time of Jesus Jevusilene be BATANAE Ciperiaunis ae fr Magdalag Serf = oe ° ° Sh Bisse Copyrighted materialJerusalem. in the Time of Jesus Chureh of the Holy Sepulehr Gabba Judgm Gonos Calvary S, Pool of Bethesda Antonia Tower Herod's Temple Mount: Court of Gentile Y \ a Tomb of \ Tapio. 0 \s00 1009 feer the Shroud \UTE Solomon's Portico: Temple | { Altemative \ _ Aes HighPriests | Pinnacle Mansion |= 2 e & is Lower City: Site of a n& | the Last Supper 2 Sext of Pilate ° Pool of = ‘Siloam \ ~ Bethanyso oe o POrTaF HLYON puessiy vaS NraNy Hoye. A ms png NFAIO DULNV LLY snsaf yo ou] oy) ur PPOM BEMoY ey.L \Copyrighted materialThe JESUS DYNASTYCopyrighted materialPreface DISCOVERING THE JESUS DYNASTY Ir is a rare book that is forty years in the making, In some sense this is the case with The Jesus Dynasty. Over forty years ago, as a teenager, I made my first visit to the Holy Land with my parents and my sister. Tr was that experience that set me on my own lifelong “quest for the historical Jesus.” This is the phrase scholars use to describe historical research over the past wo hundred years related to Jesus and the origins of early Christianity. What do we really know about Jesus and how do we know it? Forty years ago I had not even formulated the question with any sophistication. I knew nothing of archaeology, the Dead Sea Scrolls and other ancient texts, or historical research. But I had begun to read the Bible, particu- larly che New Testament, and had become fascinated with the figure of Jesus. On that Holy Land trip this interest began to develop into a more intense desire to know what could be known about him and to somehow touch that past. I vividly remember walking around the Old City of Jerusalem. The city was thick with tourists, all Christians, no Jews or Israelis. This was before the 1967 Six Day War when the Old City of east Jerusalem was still ruled by Jordan. We were shown around by one of the hundreds of2 PREFACE would-be resident guides who could be hired on the spot pressing upon anyone who looked like a tourist. We saw all the sites typically shown to Christian pilgrims—the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Mount of Olives, the Garden of Gethsemane, the Upper Room of the Last Supper, and the Dome of the Rock, where the ancient Jewish Temple once stood. On such a tour one enters dozens of churches, all built centuries after the time of Jesus but supposedly at the precise place where this or that event took place. Over the three days we were there I began to experience a growing sense of disappointment. | was having difficulty connecting, even in my imagination, 2oth-century Jerusalem with the city in the time of Jesus as described in the New Testament. Even if che names and places were the same, and correctly identified, what I saw before me were Turkish, Cru- sader, and Byzantine remains, with litele if anything from the 1st century ‘Ab. visible, Even the modern street level, I learned, was twelve to fifteen feet above that of Roman times. | had purchased a tourist guidebook en- titled Walking Where Jesus Walked, and somehow, in my naiveré, I wanted to do just that. We stayed in a small hotel on top of the Mount of Olives just to the cast of the Old City, About midnight, restless, I got out of bed, Bible in hand, and decided co walk to the Garden of Gethsemane at the foot of the mountain. The steep path down is now paved, but I could see bedrock cut or worn along the way on both sides, indicating this was the narrow road from ancient times. | imagined Jesus riding the donkey down that very path into the Old City, hailed by the crowds as Messiah, a week before he was crucified. In those days, ualike today, you could enter the Garden of Gethsemane at any hour, day or night, as the gate was al- ways open. Visitors were also allowed to walk among the centuries-old olive trees. I was the only one there that night, at that hour. My reading had convinced me that this was the spot where Jesus spent the last night of his life in prayer. For the first time on our tout, on that path and in the garden, I fele that I was able to reach back and connect with the past that Tsought. I stayed chere for the longest time, crying co imagine it all. kepe thinking to myself—this is the place. It happened here. The“historian’ in me was awakening and I think a bit of the “archaeologist” as well. In someaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.PREFACE 5 likely, hidden. Properly understood, it changes everything we thought we knew about Jesus, his mission, and his message. Everyone has heard of Peter, Paul, and John—but the pivotal place of James, the beloved disci- ple and younger brother of Jesus, has been effectively blotted from Chris- tian memory. The Jesus Dynasty explores how and why Christians gradually lost the recognition that Jesus was part of a large family, the members of which exercised dynastic leadership among his followers. This critical, alterna- tive, story, which survives even in our New Testament records and in bits and pieces of later Christian tradition, can be effectively recovered. A combination of recent archaeological discoveries and the surfacing of texts long forgotten has given us a new perspective from which to view the birth of Cheist religion not only offers us insights about the past, it also opens up whole anity. Understanding the otigins of this largest global new ways of seeing Christianity in our own day. We now have a sharper and more historically reliable understanding of Jesus as he was in his own time and place. THE AMERICAN COLONY HOTI, JERUSALEM JUNE 7, 2005Introduction A TALE OF TWO TOMBS Many of the great archaeological discoveries of our time have been accidental. It is as if there is some mysterious hidden axiom at work— what we most hope to discover we seldom find, and what we least expect can suddenly appear. This seems to be particularly true when it comes to the historical study of Jesus and the movement he founded, subsequently known as Christianity. One thinks of che appearance of che Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 from caves in the Judean desert, or the uncovering of the ist-century a.p. skeleton of a crucified man by a road-building crew in Jerusalem in 1968, or the chance discovery in 2000 of the tomb of the high priest Caiaphas, who presided over the trial of Jesus.’ When it comes to archaeology it seems that time and chance are equal partners with careful planning and method. A LATE NIGHT DISCOVERY IN JERUSALEM I learned this firsthand late one Wednesday afternoon on June 14, 2000, while hiking with five of my students in the Hinnom Valley, just south of the Old City of Jerusalem in an area known as Akeldama.’ We had been in Israel for two weeks excavating a newly discovered cave a few milesINTRODUCTION “ west of Jerusalem ata place called Subs, which has the earliest drawings related to John the Baptizer ever found. The University of North Car- olina at Charlotte, where Lam a professor, is the academic sponsor of the dig, Dr. Shimon Gibson and I are co-directors of the excavation. It had been an exciting trip, our second season at the“Cave of John the Baptist,” as we had come to call it. We had decided to do a bie of archaeological sightseeing as a break from a hard day of digging in che summer heat. The Hinnom Valley is an area chick with ancient rock-hewn tombs, just a stone's throw from the Arab village of Silwan. Many of the tombs are open, having been robbed and emptied centuries ago. But a significant number are still sealed and intact, covered with topsoil and preserved for the past two thousand years. On that late evening Gibson, who is an Israeli archaeologist, had offered to take us into some of the open tombs to give us an idea of what Jewish burial was like in the time of Jesus. None of us had the slightest inkling of the exciting discovery just ahead, or the stealth operation that was about to begin. | certainly had no idea thar we were about to stumble onto something that would relate to my lifelong research regarding the historical Jesus, and more specifically to the Jesus dynasty itself. We finished our tour of half a dozen tombs about 7 vat. It was beginning to get dark and we needed to head back to Jerusalem to the British School of Archaeology where we were staying so we could get some rest. As it turned out, none of us were to sleep at all that night. As we were making our way back to our cars, Jeff Poplin, one of my students, pointed down the hillside below where we had parked. The en- trance to a freshly opened tomb was visible in the setting sunlight. Moist soil was piled about the entrance and we could see fragments of broken ossuaries scattered all about. These were the stone bone boxes that Jews of the 1st century used to hold the bones of the deceased. As we ap- proached closer the rectangular entrance to the comb was clearly exposed, measuring about a square meter. We stuck our heads inside. Ie was pitch dark, but the damp musty smell of such a space, sealed from outside ait for thousands of years, filled our nostrils. Ic is not an unpleasant smell, but one like no other, and something one never forgets. ‘Tomb robberies in this area ate relatively rare—perhaps two or three8 INTRODUCTION occur over the span of a decade. The Israelis have a special armed unit re- sponsible for protecting antiquities, and the desecrating of an ancient tomb is a serious crime. Judging from the broken ossuaries at the en- trance and the fresh soil piled around, the tomb in front of us had most likely just been robbed the night before. Gibson alerted the Israeli authorities on his cell phone and with their permission he, his assistant Rafi Lewis, and a couple of my students went inside to survey the damage while che auther waited outside with the others, standing watch. It was rapidly growing ies were on their way. I dark. The tomb had more than one chamber or level. The group inside disappeared and after a while we could not hear them anymore. The [s- raelis took much longer to arrive than we expected. The minutes ticked by. After about twenty minutes, and hearing and seeing nothing, those of us outside began to wonder if we should go in and find the others. Suddenly we heard the excited shouting of Lee Hutchinson, another of my students, muffled at first, then more distinct, as he scrambled to- t Dr. Tabor! Dr. Gib- son has found something very important!” He was so excited he could hardly talk. With his head sticking our of the entrance and his body still inside, he told us that the tomb had three chambers or levels, and in the ward the upper chamber. He was yelling,“Dr. Taboi lowest chamber, in a burial niche carved into the wall, there were the re- mains of a skeleton with portions of its cloth burial shroud still intact. Gibson eventually surfaced and explained to us the remarkable impli- cations of this discovery: Jewish burial at the time of Jesus was carried out in two distinct stages—a primary and a secondary“burial.” First the body was washed and anointed with oils and spices and wrapped in a burial shroud. It was then placed on a stone shelf or in a niche known as a locu- lus carved into the bedrock wall of the tomb. The body was allowed to de- compose and desiccate for as long asa year. When mostly bones were left, the remains were gathered and placed into an ossuary or "bone box" ust- ally carved from limestone.’ Often the name of the deceased was carved or scratched on the side into the stone. Some ossuaries hold the bones of more than one individual, and some are inscribed with more than one name. These rectangular lidded boxes vary in size but typically they are 20 by 10 by 12 inches, long enough for the femur or thigh bone, and wide enough to hold the skull.INTRODUCTION 9 Photo with cutaway drawing of the Tomb of the Shroud Ossuaries were commonly used in Jewish burials in and around Jerusalem from about 30 B.c. to a.p. 70, a hundred-year period surround- ing the lifetime of Jesus. They regularly turn up through foiled tomb rob- beries, or accidentally as a result of construction projects. When a tomb has been so violated the archaeologists are called in on an emergency, or rescue, basis to record what they can. The artifacts, including the ossuar- ies, are cacalogued and stored, and the bones are promptly curned over to the Orthodox Jewish community for reburial. Thousands of ossuaries have been found in Israel, especially in the rock-hewn tombs outside Jerusalem. But finding a skeleton still laid out ina loculus and wrapped in its burial shroud was a first. For some reason the family of the deceased had not returned after the primary burial ro place their loved one more permanently in an ossuary. Organic materials, such as cloth, normally could not survive outside a desert area, and with Jerusalem in the mountains, with its damp winters and rainfall, such a find seemed unbelievable. The tomb had probably10 INTRODUCTION been undisturbed since the ist century a.p. Most of the tombs in this area of Akeldama dated to the time of Jesus, and only a few of them had. been opened or robbed over the centuries. We could see no evidence to think this one was any different from the others. However, Gibson did allow the possibility chat maybe this particular skeleton with the burial shroud had been placed there from a later period—pethaps from the Crusades. thus accounting for its preservation. There are cases where ancient tombs were reused in later periods. But Gibson was of the view chat we might well have stumbled across the only example of a ist- century burial shroud ever found. Only carbon-14 testing of the fabric could tell us for certain. The whole scene reminded me of the initial ex- amination of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At that time scholars found it hard to believe they could have survived for two thousand years. The Scrolls had been preserved in the dry heat of the Judean desert, but we were in the mountains of Jerusalem where the winter weather is rainy and damp. So we were quite prepared to accept a late medieval or Crusades date for the fabric. The Israelis arrived with supervisor Boaz Zissu of the Israel Antiqui- ties Authority: We spent the rest of the night removing and labeling every bit of the fragile remaining cloth. Boaz told us that thieves had initially opened this very tomb in 1998 bur that he and Amir Ganor, who is in charge of protecting tombs in the area, had been able to block it back up and prevent its total looting.’ No one at that time had noticed the shrouded skeletal remains in the lower chamber. Since my students were ta ined in archaeology they were allowed to participate. Gibson spent several hours bent over on his hands and knees, squeezed into the narrow loculus. The students photographed, labeled, and recorded each stage of the retrieval. We finished close to daybreak and our carefully packaged cargo was taken to the laboratory of the Israel Antiquities Authority at the Rockefeller Museum, just north of the Old City. Our ream returned to the States a few days later and a precious sam- ple of che cloth, hastily licensed for scientifi export, was shipped off to the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory at the University of Ari- zona in Tucson for carbon-14 dating. It was in this lab, back in 1988, thatINTRODUCTION rr the“Shroud of Turin” had been dated to a.0. 1300, demonstrating it to be a medieval forgery: As fate would have is, the scientist I contacted in Tuc- son, Dr. Douglas Donahue, was the individual who supervised the C-14 tests on the Turin shroud. I did not tell Donahue anything about the provenance of our sample—only that we knew it was not modern and we wanted it to be rushed if possible. As the days passed I found it hard to chink of anything else or to concentrate on my other work. Just after noon on August 9, Donahue reached me by phone at my office at the university. He had the results of the tests. His voice was matter-of-fact and subdued. He asked me if I was sitting down and as he began to read aloud his report I detected a hint of excitement. The Akeldama shroud had been scientifically dated to the first half of the 1st cen- tury 4.p.—precisely to the time of Jesus! Donahue faxed me a copy of his report and I sent it immediately to Gibson in Jerusalem. In his cover letter Donahue closed with an interest- ing observation:"Our friends from Shroud of Turin days would certainly have appreciated a result like this. I will be interested to know the ramifi- cations of this result.” At the time we had just begun to study the tomb and what remained of its contents. None of us could have imagined the far-reaching ramifications that would come to light. The tomb itself had been strewn with hundreds of fragments of broken ossuaries and scattered bones. Only one large heavy ossuary was left intact, but it had no inscription, What the tomb robbers typically do is remove only a few of the finest ossuaries, preferably some with clear or interesting inscriptions, so as not to flood the antiquities market where they hope to carry out clandestine illegal sales to collectors. They purposely break the rest and carry out only the pieces that have the inscriptions, since such fragments can be easily sold and draw little attention. Gibson put together an impressive team of experts to begin scientific analysis of the remains of the Tomb of the Shroud, including forensic anthropologists, textile experts, DNA specialists, paleobiologists, and epigraphers. The fragmented ossuaries had to be restored, the cloth of the shroud analyzed, and DNA and other biological tests done on the skeletal remains. In the end twenty ossuaries were restored and three of2 INTRODUCTION Broken ossuary fragments rom the Tomb of the Shroud them had inscriptions that had been missed by the thieves. The clearest one has the name “Maria’ or Mary written in Aramaic. A second one possibly is the name"Salome.” The DNA tests done on the various bone samples were quite success- ful, even after two thousand years. We were able to establish a network of sibling and maternal links between the individuals buried in the tomb. ‘Typically families and extended families used the same rock-hewn tomb over several generations. As for our shrouded individual, we were able to determine that“he” was indeed an adult male, probably of aristocratic birth, thar he suffered fiom leprosy (Hanson's disease), and, microbiolog- ical tests indicated, that he most likely died of tuberculosis. Gibson and I began to comb the ancient literature for evidence related to the use of burial shrouds and ossuaries among the Jews of Judea and Galilee in the Roman period. As it turns out, the references in the New ‘Testament to the shrouded burial of Jesus provide us with some of ourINTRODUCTION 13 Restored ossuaries from the Tomb of the Shroud most valuable evidence related to the Jewish customs in use in the early ist century a.p. in Jerusalem—the very time of our man of the shroud ‘After all, Jesus’ body was washed and wrapped in a two-picce linen shroud and laid out with spices on a stone shelf or slab in a rock-hewn The name “Mary” inscribed on a fragment from the Tomb of the Shroud14 INTRODUCTION family comb just outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem, Our man of the shroud must have been similarly prepared for burial. We had no reason to speculate that our tomb was in any way connected with the one in which Jesus was initially taken, but as Gibson once remarked to me, our "man of the shroud” lived and died in Jerusalem in the time of Jesus and as amember of the upper classes, very likely might have observed the fateful events of that Passover weekend when Jesus was crucified. The following year, in the surmmer of 2001, when I returned to Israel to continue our work at the “John the Baptist” cave, I still had the Tomb of the Shroud much on my mind. I began to make some discreet in- quiries in the Old City of Jerusalem among some trusted contacts I had made in the antiquities business. I was able to determine that the missing inscribed fragments from our ossuaries had made it onto the illegal mar- ket and could possibly be recovered. At one point the prineipal person with whom I was dealing asked me if there would be a“bonus’ payment if all the missing inscriptions were retrieved. I tried to be calm and matter of fact at this implied disclosure, excited to think that the stolen material from our shroud tomb might still be retrieved. On che other hand, I knew thae making payments for stolen goods is something we could not do. I simply replied chat we would discuss the matter farther when I could see the fragments. | felt it was important to stress the scientific aspects of our quest. After all, my university would now be responsible for publishing the academic study of the shroud tomb and we were not collectors wanting to get hold of some new artifacts. I got the distinet im- pression that if no one would be prosecuted some type of “exchange” could be worked out. To recover these inseribed fragments would have been invaluable to our study of the Tomb of the Shroud because we would be able to assemble the names of the deceased and match them by DNA with the slight residue of human remains that still clung to the in- sides of our restored ossuaries. Gibson and I were exploring how that might legally be done when the Intifada or Palestinian uprising reached such a level chat we felt it was too dangerous to carry out our plan. At one point thae summer, after a series of three bombings over one weekend, ‘we were told not even to go into the city of Jerusalem at all. We had set up our excavation at the “John the Baptizer” cave at Kibbutz Suba near the site, outside the dangerous areas.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.INTRODUCTION 17 scientifically. Golan agreed, and arrangements were made for experts at the Geological Survey of Israel in Jerusalem to examine it. Inscriptions on ossuaries can of course be forged, but modern cuts into ancient limestone will not contain the ancient patina that naturally coats the surface of the stone over time. In the meantime Shanks brought in several other expert paleographers to give their opinions on the au- chenticity of the script itself. The ossuary passed all che authenticity tests with flying colors.’The scientists concluded thae the patina inside the let- ters was ancient, adhering firmly co the stone, despite the fact that some- one had done a bit of cleaning of the inscription. No signs of the use of any modern tool or instrument were evident. The paleographers agreed with Lemaire's analysis that the script was authentic and wholly consis- tent with that of the rst century a.p. There seemed little doubr thar the ossuary once held the bones of “a’ James, son of “a” Joseph, with a brother named “Jesus,’ who had died and been buried in the rst century a.p. Shion Gibson’ drawing of the James Ossuary inscription Shanks was ready to go to press and he went into high gear. He knew that next to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls this was perhaps the most sensational archaeological find in modern times. He engaged the services of Emmy Award-winning producer Simcha Jacobovici to pro- duce a documentary for the Discovery Channel on the James Ossuary thar would air on Easter Sunday of 2003. He also worked out a deal to publish a co-authored book with biblical scholar Ben Witherington to coincide with the release of the film. The discovery was hailed in both the book and film as"the first archaeological link to Jesus and his family.”18 INTRODUCTION With Golan’s permission Shanks arranged a special exhibit for the os- suary at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto. It would open in late November 2002. The city of Toronto and the month of November were not accidental choices. Toronto was slated to be the host city for the an- nual meeting of thousands of biblical scholars, archaeologists, and aca- demics in the study of religion the weekend before Thanksgiving. The Society of Biblical Literature quickly arranged for a special session de- voted toa discussion of the authenticity and potential significance of the James Ossuary. The Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) had to approve the temporary export license bur at that point no one recognized the potentially explo- sive attention that the ossuary would generate. When the ossuary sud- denly made world headlines following Shanks’s press conference on October 21 in Washington, D.C, the Israeli authorities were taken com- pletely unawares and were duly embarrassed. But all the arrangements for the Toronto exhibit were already in place. The Israelis immediately initi- ated an investigation into the circumstances of Golan’s acquisition of the ossuary but they did allow it to leave the country. According to Israeli law, if Golan had acquired it after 1978, the ossuary would have been sold il- legally and subject to confiscation by the state. When the ossuary arrived in Toronto it had been cracked in transit and the scientific team at the Royal Ontario Museum took on the task of repairing it for the exhibit. One of the cracks ran through pare of the in- scription, allowing the scientific team at the museum to more closely ex- amine the way the letters were cut into the limestone. They agreed with the Israeli scientists that ancient patina was present in the letters, it was firmly adhering to the stone and consistent with the rest of the ossuary. Even before the Toronto gatherings, questions were being raised about the conclusions of Lemaire and Shanks. No one questioned the authen- ticity of the ossuary itself—it was clearly a genuine artifact from the time of Jesus. Some objected to any discussion of the ossuary at al since it was a‘black market” item lacking an archaeological context. Others had ar- gued chat the phrase“brother of Jesus” appeared to be written in a differ- ent hand than “James son of Joseph,” and might have been added by a forger. Still others maintained that even if genuine we would never beaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.20 INTRODUCTION ivis a forgery then I quit”* To date nota single qualified epigeapher ot pale- ographer has pointed out any evidence of forgery. In fact one member of the IAA committee who, against his better judgment, went along with the original vote now says he thinks the inscription is authentic. Other qualified experts have questioned the IAA geochemical tests on the patina. The IAA geologists have had to back down from their initially pro- posed theories as to how the allegedly fake patina was produced. One member of the [AA committee has said that she saw ancient patina in the last two letters of the inscription—the very part chat is supposed to be forged. The geologists from the Geological Survey of Israel who initially found the inscription to be authentic have not changed their position, nor has the scientific team at the Royal Ontario Museum that examined the ossuary after it was broken? The James Ossuary inscription is likely authentic. There is also reli- able circumstantial evidence that it was looted from our Tomb of the Shroud either when it was first robbed in 1998, or perhaps just before we discovered it looted a second time in June 2000. Was it possible that we had unknowingly stumbled upon the Jesus family tomb? ‘The main inconsistency in Oded Golan story has to do with when he acquired the ossuary. When the story first broke in October 2001 he told Shanks that he had had it for about fifteen years. He later gave a number of interviews in which he said he acquired it in the"mid-1970s" or about ewenty-five years earlier. That would put the date back before 1978, when it was legal to buy such items. At one point he said he acquired it in 1967, just after the Six Day War, which would mean he had owned it for thirty-five years. But the rest of his story is consistent, He says that he bought ic from an Arab antiquities dealer in the Old City of Jerusalem who in turn said it came from the area of Silwan, an Arab village south of the Old City where the Kidron and Hinnom valleys meet. Oded Golan expanded upon his“Silwan’ in an informal social conver- sation with Rafi Lewis at Golan’s apartment in December 2002. (In June 2000, Rafi Lewis was Shimon Gibson's assistant and was with us the night we found our looted tomb.) Rafi had asked Golan whether“Silwan” included the Hinnom Valley and he replied yes, explaining that in fact the James Ossuary came from the Hinnom Valley. Of course Akeldama, in Hinnom, is the precise location of our Shroud tomb.”INTRODUCTION ar ‘According to Shimon Gibson, only two tombs were looted in the Hinnom Valley area in the 1990s. The first was not excavated and was te- sealed. There is no evidence that ossuaries were taken from that one. The second was our shroud tomb. Recall that my inquiries in the Old City shortly after we found the tomb indicated that the black market had been suddenly" flooded’ with new ossuary materials. ‘There is one ossuary in particular from our shroud tomb that caughe the attention of Gibson and me, It has a simple incised border running around the edges of the side panels that is precisely the style found on the James Ossuary, Ossuaries come in a wide variety of styles and decora- tions, and many have borders, but I have not seen another ossuary with that exact style of border. To geta firsthand look, Gibson and I recently visited the warehouse in Bet Shemesh where our ossuaries are stored ‘This particular one is smaller chan the James Ossuary; it was likely in- tended for a child, but judging from its similarity it may well have been made by the same stonecutter. As we locked through the vast rows of shelves holding the enormous os- suary collection of the State of Is- rael we saw no other examples matching these two. Tr scemed to us another piece of the puzzle. Ie makes sense that a single family might buy two ossuaries from the same artisan—and thus the styles would be matched. A Tomb of the Shroud ossuary that resembles the James Ossuary There is one way this macter might be settled. The James Os- suary had significant bone materials still in it when it was first shown to Hershel Shanks and the filmmaker Simcha Jacobovici. Simcha, an Or- thodox Jew, was quoted by the New Yorker as saying, “I looked in the box, there were still some bone fragments. 1 thought, Oh my gosh, if this is real, then Jesus’ DNA is theret"" Oded Golan later cleaned out these fragments before shipping the ossuary co Toronto, and at one point he showed a Time magazine reporter a Tupperware container that he said was fall of those bones. Presumably the Israelis who raided his apartment are in possession of those remains. Since we have already done extensiveae INTRODUCTION DNA tests on the skeletal remains of the inhabitants of our Tomb of the Shroud, why not test the bones from the James Ossuary to sce if there is any possible match of mitochondrial DNA? That would tell us whether the deceased of the James Ossuary had any sibling relations in the tomb, or perhaps that one of the females was his mother. Or we might come up with no match at all. It would be particularly interesting to look at the DNA sequence of the James Ossuary remains and our “Maria” or Mary from the shroud tomb, On November 17, 2003, Gibson and I made a formal request by letter to Shuka Dorfman, director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, that we be allowed to carry out such DNA tests on these skeletal fragments from the James Ossuary. Our thinking was that whether the inscription on the ossuaty is authentic or forged—and Dorfman is convinced it is forged— it is nonetheless of scientific value to determine where the ossuary itself originated. Given the circumstantial evidence that it might have come from our Tomb of the Shroud, a DNA match or the lack thereof could help advance our knowledge, no matter what position one might hold about the inscription itself Our request was promptly denied on the grounds that the bones in the ossuary had been added by Golan to camouflage the forgery and have no connection to the original, chus rendering any tests unnecessary. We know that is not the case. But doing DNA tests on the bones of a“James” and aMaria,” particularly if that James had a brocher named Jesus, means moving from the realm of science to that of theology. Our hope is that when the trial of Golan is completed and some of the emotions die down, we will still be able to pursue these scientific tests. But there is an- other intriguing side to this unfinished story. THE MYSTERY OF THE TALPIOT TOMB The “James Ossuary” story was not the first to generate worldwide headlines about ancient ossuaries and their possible relation to Jesus. Shortly before Easter in 1996 another dramatic story broke:“Jesus Family ‘Tomb Discovered.” It was reported that a tomb discovered back in 1980, but never brought to public attention, contained a significant dusceraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.26 INTRODUCTION being Jesus family [is] very close to zero.’ Motti Neiges, spokesperson for the Israel Antiquities Authority, agreed “that chances of these being the actual burials of the holy family are almost nil.”* But it was the“almost” that interested the producers. And everyone did seem to acknowledge that this particular cluster of names, among the hundreds of ossuaries catalogued, was unparalleled, however common the individual names might have been. Joe Zias, curator at the Rocke- feller Museum and perhaps as familiar with Jewish tombs in the area as anyone, seemed to be the only expert that thought the grouping might be statistically significant and at least deserved further investigation. He commented:"Had it not been found in a tomb I would have said 100 per- cent of what we are looking at are forgeries. But this came from a very good, undisturbed archaeological context. Te is not something that was invented,’ * The only way anything else could be done scientifically would be to carry out mitochondrial DNA tests on the bone samples to at least ascer- tain how the individuals buried there might be maternally related. Such tests, no matter what the results, could not “prove” that this particular Jesus was the one who became known as Christ, but they could show whether any of these individuals were offspring of cither of the two Marys, or hada sibling relationship to one another. If neither of the Marys turned out to be mother to this “Jesus/” it would at least eliminate the possibility that this was the mother and son of Christian faith. But one of the Marys could also be a sister. Since Joseph was such a commen male name we should not assume that the ossuary with the name Joseph’ was necessarily for the father of the one called“Jesus son of Joseph? He could easily be related in another way, or not at all. For example, Jesus of Nazareth also had a brother named Joseph. Neil Silberman once quoted David Flusser, the late and great profes- sor of ancient Judaism and early Christianity at Hebrew University, on this subjects Many years ago a man from the BBC came to me and he asked me if the Dead Sea Scrolls will harm Christianity. I said to himINTRODUCTION 27 that nothing can harm Christianity. The only thing which could be dangerous co Christianity would be to find a comb with the sarcophagus or ossuary of Jesus—still containing his bones. And then I said I surely hope that ie will not be found in the territory of the State of Israel.” ‘This is the stuff of which novels are made and there have been several published about “finding the bones of Jesus,’ but in the real world of ar- chaeology such things smack of sensationalism. Biblical scholar Father Jerome Murphy O'Connor of Jerusalem's Ecole Biblique commented that although there was no way to prove the ossuary inscribed “Jesus son of Joseph” had contained the bones of Christ, if such proof could be made “the consequences for the faith would be disastrous.’* ‘The Israelis are very sensitive to the Christian world and maintain of- ficial diplomatic relations with the Vatican. They are pleased to fill the role of the welcoming custodians for Christian tourism of the Holy Land. The last thing in which they want to be involved is some archaeo- logical find that would spark controversy or provoke Christian theologi- cal debates. A Jesus"family comb” would be problem enough, but one that contained an ossuary marked “Jesus son of Joseph” would surely place them in che most delicate situation imaginable. Although it is impossible to prove thar this particular tomb was re- lated to Jesus of Nazareth, what made the tomb remarkable was not only the grouping of the names, but the fact that these ossuaries came from a documented and controlled archaeological context. The tomb and its re- mains could be scientifically studied. Perhaps there was more to learn from a careful reexamination of all the evidence related to the tomb or maybe even froma further investigation of the site itself. After all, Joseph Gath, the original excavator, was dead, and the official report on the tomb had not yet been published. The media had reported, however, that an apartment building had been buile over the site of the tomb shortly after its excavation in 1980, obliterating the site and foreclosing any possibility of further direct inves- tigation. Until the official report on the tomb was published, there seemed to be little more to learn.28 INTRODUCTION Thad not the slightest inkling back in 1996 that this Talpiot tomb would become part of my own firsthand investigation in future years, nor how it might relate to my research on the Jesus dynasty. Shimon Gibson and I had not even met. Nearly a decade later, in early 2004, I learned that Gibson had assisted Gath in the excavation of this 1980 tomb and had done the official drawings for publication. Time and time again Shimon Gibson turns up as the right man at the right time, fortuitously linking discoveries that one would not suspect to be linked atall. Ray Bruce and his crew had been told that the ossuaries were “empty” of bones, indicating that the tomb had likely been robbed at an earlier time and the bones lost or scattered, We now know that this was not the case. According to the official report on the Talpiot tomb published in 1996 by Amos Kloner, these ossuaties definitely held bones.” By Israeli lav, all human remains from the tomb have to have been turned over to the Orthodox Jewish authorities for reburial, apparently precluding the possibility of DNA or any other kinds of scientific tests. I say ‘appar- The mysterious facade over the entrance to the Talpiot tombINTRODUCTION 29 ently’ because most ossuaries, even those in the Israeli state archive col- lection, still contain slighe residues of haman remains and fragments of bone material, Unless the ossuaries are scrubbed clean, which is not the normal practice, moder sophisticated DNA tests can yield evidence from the tiniest sample. Lasked Gibson about the Talpiot tomb on a visit to Israel in 2004. He recalled two very unusual things about that particular tomb in addition to the interesting cluster of family names. The front of the tomb had a strange decoration carved into the facade over the entrance—a circle with an inverted chevron symbol over it, No one seemed to know what it might mean or symbolize. Also there were three skulls placed curiously on the floor of the tomb, each directly in front of a loculus or shaft hold- ing ossuaties. Gibson pulled an old photo of the entrance to the tomb from his files. He also spread out in frone of me his detailed original drawing of the plan of the tomb. The skulls were clearly visible, included in his plan just as he had seen them. Curiously, in che official report on the tomb that Amos Kloner pub- lished in 1996, Gibson's drawing appears but with the skulls carefully air30 INTRODUCTION ided to do a bit of sleuthing. I think we brushed away. Gibson and I d might have been the first archaeolo- gists in history to go looking for an ancient tomb by going out knocking on doors. We went back to the neighbor- hood, to che very street, where the tomb had once been visible nearly twenty-five years earlier. An apart- ment complex had indeed been built on the site. We began asking around and to our surprise long-term resi- denes knew the location of an“apart- ment of the tomb.” Many thought that apartment was jinxed, and it had become the subject of local ghost stories. We knocked on the door and the present owner con- James Tabor standing over the firmed for us that there was a tomb ventilation pipes to the Talpiot tomb ander the floor of his apartment, just off the kitchen, where there was a raised porch area, Two ventilation vents marked the spot. The builders had constructed things so that the tomb had been preserved. The owner told us tha he had bought the place at a good price, despite the stories, and he was not a believer in such superstitions. Over the next year Gibson and I gathered every bit of published infor- mation about the Talpiot tomb. In 2005 we examined the original excava- tion files in the Israeli archives because Gibson had been the surveyor on the original team. We read the unpublished handwritten notes of Gath, the deceased excavator. As we looked through the Talpiot file we learned that two tombs had been found in the area, in close proximity to each other. One had been sealed up and left unexcavated. The other was the tomb Gibson had drawn—the one with the unusual cluster of names. Whether they might be related we had no idea, but chat possibility didINTRODUCTION Br occur to us, We wete not sure which of the two tombs was under the apartment. The only way to know would be to try and drop a robot cam- era down the ventilation pipes to see whether the tomb had been exca- vated or not. It was not clear that we would find anything of importance if we ever did go back into the excavated tomb, but our interest was piqued. The strange insignia on the front of the tomb, the skulls that had been ceremonially placed in front of the ossuaries, and che interesting cluscer of names all begged for an explanation. We decided to drive out to Bet Shemesh just outside Jerusalem to take a look at the Talpiot ossuaries firsthand, They are now stored, along with hundreds of other archaeclogical artifacts, in the new warehouse buile there by the Israel Antiquities Authority. There one sees shelf after shelf, floor to ceiling, of neatly stacked and stored materials, all carefully catalogued and labeled. Most of the ossuaries in the State of Israel collee- tion are housed there. There was one major surprise. THE MISSING OSSUARY Shimon Gibson's original drawing of the excavation of the Talpiot tomb clearly shows a total of ten ossuaries. In the official publication of the ex- cavation Amos Kloner also confirms that ten ossuaries were recovered and retained by the Israel Antiquities Authority. Kloner carefully goes through them one by one in his report and describes them in detail as to size, decoration, and inscriptions. When he comes to the last, the tenth, he offers a single-word description: plain. Nothing more. Apparently he had nothing in his files regarding this tenth ossuary other than its dimen- sions: 60 by 26 by 3o centimeters. With each description he includes a photo of the ossuay under discussion—all except the tenth. Since Kloner was not the original excavator he is merely writing up his report based on the notes of the now-deceased Gath. But the official catalogue of ossuaries in the State of Israel collection, published by Rahmani in 1994, also includes just nine ossuaries from this comb, And yet we know thac che cench was definicely given a catalogue number by the IAA: 80.509. ‘As we arrived at the Bet Shemesh warehouse the curator told us32 INTRODUCTION even before we were taken to the area where the Talpiot ossuaries were shelved that there was a minor problem—one ossuary was missing. LAA 80.509, number ten in Kloner's report, was nowhere to be found. It had disappeared. T have no idea what to make of this. In the vast collection of antiqui- ties now held by the State of Israel things do get misplaced. But no one seems to have any explanation for chis particular case and as far as [ know we were che first to recognize the problem and inquire about it. Since the Talpiot comb contained ten ossuaties, three with no inscrip- tions, but six with such an interesting cluster of names, one would surely like to confirm somehow whether the single-word description of “plain” is all that can be said of the missing tenth ossuary. If it could be located and it did have a name inscribed, it would be of the greatest interest to see what that name might be. Just recently I noticed that the dimensions of the missing tenth os- suary are precisely the same, to the centimeter, as those of the James Ossuary: Is it remotely possible that Oded Golan did acquire his ossuary many years ago—maybe not in the“mid-’7os" as he now says, but not that dis- long thereafter—in 1980 or thereabouts, when the Talpiot tomb w: covered? Was that tenth ossuaty stolen after it was catalogued but before the excavation of the tomb was completed? Gibson did recall chat when he arrived to do his drawings, some days after the excavation began, some but not all the ossuaries were in place. Several had been moved to facili- tate the excavation work. He drew them in their original locations as the director of the excavation, Joseph Gath, indicated. Gibson told me that he is not sure ifall cen were on site at that time or not. The Tomb of the Shroud remains an important discovery regardless of whether it can be associated with the James Ossuary or not. As a Jew- ish family tomb of the period, with the only example ever found ofa Ist- century burial shroud, it offers us a precious glimpse into the Jewish v PI gimp’ J burial customs and the use of rock-hewn tombs from the time of J Both the Tomb of the Shroud and the Talpiot tomb serve to connect us co the past, and to the historical reality of the Jesus family, cogecher in death as in life, and all the more so if new evidence emerges connecting either of these ewo tombs to Jesus.INTRODUCTION 33 In late 2005 and throughout 2006, as our investigations continued, new critical evidence related to the Talpiot tomb came to light. It now appears demonstrable that the ‘Talpiot tomb, uncovered by accident in 1980, is indeed the Jesus family tomb. In that tomb lay the ossuary, with bone fragments still intact, inscribed with the name’Jesus son of Joseph.” The news of the Jesus family tomb has made headlines around the world, making this ar once the single most important and controversial archaeo- logical discovery ever. In a new epilogue to this edition of the book, I relate the details of this astounding new development and offer my own evaluation of the evidence.Copyrighted materialPart One IN THE BEGINNING WAS THE FAMILYaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.A VIRGIN SHALL CONCEIVE ‘Whuen I think of Mary the mother of Jesus I think of the forgotten city of Sepphoris. According to tradition Mary was the firstborn daugh- ter of an older couple named Joachim and Anna who lived there.’ Few today have heard of Sepphoris. It is not mentioned in the New Testa- ment. Until fairly recently it was not even included on those maps of the Holy Land found in the back of many Bibles. It had become a lost city to us—until very recently. I first took my students to excavate at Sepphoris in the summer of 1996. We returned in 1999 and 2000 to participate in two more seasons of excavations. We joined one of the teams, led by Professor James Strange of the University of South Florida, who had begun digging there in 1983. After more than two decades of excavations by several teams of archaeol- ogists, not even one-tenth of the ancient Roman city has been exposed. ‘Yet enough has been done to begin to offer us a glimpse of the splendor of the place in the time of Mary and her son Jesus. When Jesus was growing up in Nazareth, Sepphoris was the domi- nant city of the entire region. Buile on a hill rising four hundred feet above the flat plain below, ic is still visible from miles around. Jesus’ well- known saying that acity set on a hill cannot be hid” surely came to him38 THE JESUS DYNASTY gtowing up in Nazareth and looking north at the gleaming city of Sep- phoris four miles away. It could not be missed. Nazareth was hardly any- thing. Nestled in the hills, just to the southeast by a spring, the toral population was probably not more than 200. It was one of dozens of small villages that dotted the plain around the huge and impressive capi- tal city. ‘Today things are reversed. Nazareth is the largest Arab city in Israel witha population of over 60,000, half Christian, half Muslim. Ie literally fills the hills and valleys around its center with impressive suburbs and magnificent churches. Christian tours invariably include it as a major stop on their itinerary. Sepphoris is merely a bare hill dotted with ancient ruins in the distance. Every day at our excavations we would sit on the southern slopes of che ruins of Sepphoris and ear our lunch, gazing across the valley at the bustling city of Nazareth gleaming in the late morning sun. We tried to imagine how different things must have been in Jesus day, with the prominence of the two locations reversed. Though living in a small village, Jesus grew up just outside the urban capital of Galilee. The implications of this geographical fact are enormous as we seek to historically recapture hidden or forgotten aspects of the early life of Jesus. The ruins of Sepphoris viewed from Nazareth todayimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing 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have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Index Please nore: numbers in italics refer to picure captions, Aaron, 56-58, 125,145, 286 Messiah of, see Priestly Messiah: Abraham, 49, 52, 56,15, 265, 315, Acts of the Apostles, 121, 140, 150, 203,268, 283, 315, 34517, 351n8, 34201 brothers of Jesus in, 76, 91 history of early Christianity in,237, 240, 245, 247,249-54 Judas the Galilean in, 103 Peter in, 289 Paul as dominance figure in, 247-49, 25% 259-62, 269,270,273 ‘Acts of Plats, 62, 227 Adam, 46,52,278 Acnon, 128 Africanus, Julius, 52-53, 3429 Agrippina, 203 Ahab, 128,188 Ahaz, King, 46 Ahmad, Ghulam, 35429 Ahmadiyya Movement, 35479 Albinus, 284, 285 Alphaeus, 328 Alexander the Great, 60,156,257 Alexandrium, 98 Alphaeus, see Clophas Amos the Prophet, 155 Ananias, 262 Andrew the Apostle, 141,142,149, 160, 163, 175, 238,250, 252, 261 Anna, 30, 41, 46, 52, 33701 438010 Annas, 210-15, 216, 223, 260, 284,287, 35405 Annas II, 210,284-85, 287 Antipas, see Herod Antipas Ancipater, 96, 101 Anti-Semitism, Christian, 10, 216 “Apartment with the comb,” 322 Apocalypse, 126,143, 144 “Little; 299 ‘Apoceyphal” gospels, 43 Apostles, sce Twelve Apostles “Apostles' Creed,” sqou2a Apostolic Constitutions, 29% Archelaus, 40, 98,102-3 Aceras TV, King of Nabatea, 173 Arizona, University of, Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory at, to“ Ark of the Covenant, 95, 35313 Armenian Christians, 225, 3535, 354m2 Arminius, 3387 Arthur, King, 86 Axcents of James, The, 257, 355m Ascetic dualism, 74 Associated Press (AP), 15,23, 33612 Assyrians, 46,163 361362 INDEX Athronges, 10% Augustus Caesar, 39, 60, 69, 88, 96-95, 102-5, 154,173,177, 292-93, 33807 Babylonian captivity, 144 Babylonians, 51,143 Bad Kreuznach, 66-67 Baptism, 127, 141, 149-52, 151 Essene practices of, 133 of Jesus, 52, 129,135,138, 139 142, 1495159, 309, 34601, 34871 Bar Kochba, Simon, 120, 302 Barabbas, 215,217 Bartholomew the Apostle, 163, 250 Bathshebs, 50, 53,179 Benjamin (leader of Jesus’ movement), 291 Benjamin, tribe of, 163, 259, Bethlehem, a4, 88, 330717 Bible, 100, 14001 Christian, sce New Testament Jewish, see Hebrew Bibl English eranslacions of 146, 35414 Biblical Archacology Review, 15,16 Blake, William, 34704 Bodmer papyrus, 337"1 Boaz, 50 Bordeaux Pilgrim, 354n6 Branchites, $5,133 Brendel, Baruk, 24, 336015 Britain, Jesus in, 86 British Broadcasting Company (BBC), 23,28 British School of Archaeology, 2 Brice. Rap 23-24.28 Brutus, 96 Bryennios, Father, 204 Buber, Marcin, 314 Burnt offerings, 87 Byzantines, 130 Caesarea, 98, 99, 105-7, 342m10 Caesarea Philippi, 176-83, 186, 187, 190 shrine near, 177 Caisphas. 6,210, 21,213, 215, 216,223,288, 3535 ossuary of, 213, 306 Caligula, 293 Calvin, John, 47 Cameron, James, 319 Cana, 105, 141 154, 160 Capernaum, 107, 141-42, 160-61, 161, 350mg Cassius, 96 Cave of John the Baptise, 7, 14, 129-35, 150-52 Celsus, 64, 86, 91, 34406, 10, 35803, Cephas, see Peter the Apostle “Christian baptians) 149 Cheistianiey, 5 57,144, 163, 306-8 alienation between Judaism and, 109 artand iconography of, 247, a37m1 ascetic dualism in, 74 and discovery of Dead Sea Scrolls, 26-27 divinity of Jesus in, 43,135,139-41, 262-65, 273-74, 279, 306, 314 Bbionite, 303 Eucharist in, 200, 202-5, 282 and fulfillment of prophecies, Islam and, 315-16 288 legacy of Jesus dynasty for, 272-83, 286, 301,312,315 marginalization of John the Baptizer in, 135-38, 140,150, 179-Bo, 306 “meek and lowly” Jesus in, 148 of Paul, 246, 249, 261-75, 279,300 307 Pharisees and.i2_ resurrection of Christ in, 23, 228, 230-33, 237,239,243 Romans converted t0,225 (see also Gentiles, Paul's mission to) and texts of Hebrew Prophets, 126 virginity dogma in, 59,73-75, 46-47, 75: 338n15, 325m6, 327724 Christians anti-Semitism of, 10INDEX 363 Jewish, 206, 255-58, 266, 285 Jewish polemics against, 86 Jews blamed for crvcifixion by, 209, 215-16, 285 Lord's Prayer of 137 persecution of Jews by, 314 pilgrimages to Suba cave by, 132 Roman persecution of, 293 see also Christianity Chronicles, 53 Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 2.24, 224, 25 Church of the Tomb of the Virgin (Church of the Assumption), a38m0, Chez, 101 Circumeision, Jewish ritual of 88, 109, 16, 253, 267-60 Chudius, 284,293 Clement of Alexandria, 931,257 Cleopas, 346011 Cleopatra, 39, 96 Clermont-Ganneau, Charles, 69 Clophas, 79-8, 91, 164, 289, 261, 308, 328 Colossians, 270 Colosseum, 297 Coniah, see Jechoniah Constantine, Emperos, 235, 303, 3381110 Constantinople, Council of 34503 Coponius, 103 Coptic Christians, 225,234 Corinthians, 143, 200,202, 231, 262, 264, 260,290 Cornelius, 4417 Cotanch, Kaitlyn, 33512 Council of Twelve, see Twelve Apostles Crucifixion, 180, 218-20, 219, 226-27 of Jesus, 4, 14: 76, 86, 104, 105, 107, 20, 209, 216-18, 220, 220-22, 226-27, 230, 234, 248-49, 251, 260, 262, 283 Crusades, 30,132,198, 33701 CTV, 23 Cyrus, 156 Daniel, 143, 144,147, 156, 166, 211-12, 245, 282, 298,299, 300-301 “Seventy Weeks” prophecy of, 143,144, 299 David, King, 4, 48, 58,100, 15,158, 201, 221, 245, 35405 and Bathsheba, 50, 53, Throne of, 46,48 Davidic lineage, 48-58, 103, 133, 191, 212, 290, jor Herodian lack of, 39-40, 49, 88, 89,97, 98,210 of James, 244, 252/280, 299, 310 of Jesus, 51-52) 117) 148, 15-4, 157, 159) 190) 191, 2441247, 279- 80, 28, 3411 sana of Joseph, 49-35 of Mary, 52-56, 165, 386 of Simon, 291 Davidie Messiah (or King), 57-38, 19, 134, 145; 147-49, 155-57, 163,298, 34m"2, jaznat Bar Kochba as, 302 crucifixion of, 179, 80,220,223 60, 166, 180, Jests as; 4,146, 148,154 15 190, 191, 211-12, 214, 217, 220,223,244, 247)279-80, 282, 283, 307, 309, 339917, sau Pauls views on, 279-80 Day of Atonement, 95 Dead Sea Sevalls, 2,3, 4.26 55, 3-15, 120, 127,159,163, 201, 300, 34473. 356014 cave of, 113 Community Rute, 127, 146-47, 252, 343016 Damascus Document, 199, 35104 discovery of, 6,104.17. 143, 191, 3364, j4anut final age of wickedness in, 157 Isaiah in, m4, 114 languages of, 13, 278 ‘Messianie Apocalypse, 72 Testament of Levi, 147 Thanksgiving Hymns, 158-59, 182364. INDEX Dead Sea Scrolls (cont.) ‘Two Messiahs in, 57-58 see also Teacher of Righteousness Deissmann, Adolf, 65-66 Deuteronomy, 76 Diaspora, 290 Didache, 204~5, 280-82, 291, 3, 312, 315, 316 Discovery Channel, 17 DNA testing, 141214, 21-22,26,28, 305 Dominus Flevie sanctuary, 236 Dome of the Rock,2 Domitian, 40,261, 301 Donahue, Douglas, Dorfinan, Shuka,2z Deusilla, 293 Dualism, 74, 265 Easter, 243 Eastern Orthodox Church, 235 Ebionites, 303, 316 Ecole Biblique ( Jerusalem), 27 Egyps, 88 Exodus from, 163 gods of 203 Jesus in, 86 ElGreco, 246 Eliskim, 290 Eliezer ben Hyreanus, 04 Elijah, 128, 159, 178, 179, 188, 265, 300 Elizabech, 44,36, 381 15% 3480 Empedocles, 60 England, Jesus in, 86 Enoch, 278 Epaphrodicus, 261 Epicureans, 18 Epiphanius, 64, 75, 286, 287, 290-92, 299, 345n6 Essenes, 117-21, 133, 144, 191, 239, 300, saan John the Baptizer and, 127-28 ‘Two Messiahs of, 57, 19, 146-48, 203, see also Qumran community 3s2n7 Bucharist, 200, 202-5, 28 Paulls teaching of, 264 Eusebius of Caesarea, 231, 259, 273, 285, 289-91, 299, 301, 303, 34275, 34504 Eusebius Hieronymus, see Jerome Eve, 343017 Even Bohan, 34914 Exodus, 56, 58, 163 Bzra,144 Festus, 284 Plavian dynasty, 301 Flasser, David, 26-27 Franciscans, 236 Gabriel, 45 Galatians, 251-53, 262, 265-68, 270, 280, 200, 243018, ass Galbs, 204 Galilean fishing boat, 176 Gamuliel, 260 Gannett newspapers, 23, 336712 Ganox, Amir, 10 Garden Tomb, 225 Gath, Joseph, 24,27, 28; 30, 3% 321, 337022 Gematria, 3585 Genesis, 74,202, 254, 343917 Genna, Bab, 321 Gentiles, 182,283 in Messianic Movement, 253-54; 266-68 Paul’s mission 0, 248-51, 262,267 69 righteous, 16, 254 Geological Survey of Israel, 12.20 Gessius Florus, 293 Gethsemane, Garden of, 2,139, 202,207, 208,227, 316 Gibson, Shimon, 2, 8,40, 1, 14,17, 20-22, 28-31, 129, 130, 150, 321, 322, 337122 Golan, Oded, 15-22, 32, 321 Golden Rule, 119,281 Golgotha, 218, 224, 225,227 Gordon's Calvary, 225, 226INDEX Gospel of Peter, 237-38,243-44 Gospel ofthe Hebrews, 206, 258 Gospel of Thomas, 43, 63, 86, 255-56, 256, 258, a7 32 Gospels, 24, 85, 89, 107, 115, 164, 181, 199, 202, 234 258,281 as biographies of Jesus, 85 Greek, 34 illegitimacy of Jesus in, 62-63 Levirate marriage in, 76 miracles in, 192 Pharisees in, 120 sightings of Jesus in, 230-32 Synoptic, 42-45, 34801 tax collectors in, 105 trial af Jesus in, 15-16 also John: Luke; Mark; Matthew Great Isaiah Scroll, 114 Greco-Roman mythology, 45; 45; 60, 61, 203, Greeks, 48, 60, 64,104 Gulf War, 188 Hadrian, 291, 302, 3532 Hanukah, 189, 35102 Hashmoneans, 39, 49, 56, 97, 98, 107, 145, 165,173, Hebrew Bible, 109, 114, 146, 71795 279% 286, 351715, 350714 forgiveness of sins in, 276 Greek translation of, sqonzt Kingdom of Ged in, 312 lase days prophecies in, 154-55 Two Messiahs in, 160 see also specfc books: names of specif prophets Hebrew Prophets, 108, 109, 13, 15, 192, 196, 221, 253,266 and Golden Rule, ng in Islam, 304,315, Kingdom of Ged vision of, 166,178, 309, aun 32 last days foretold by, 110, 157, 202 365 messianic predictions of, 4. 48,121,156, 172, 244, 278, 283, 298 see also names of specific prophets Hebrew University, 26, 336m, Hebrews, Book of, 226 Hegesippus, 257, 285-89, 301-2, 3469 Helena, Queen, 225, 226, 338n10, 35475 Helvidius, 3454. Hercules, 60 Herod Agrippa II, 284, 285 Herod Antipas, 40-41, 73, 104-8, 128, 154, 156, 162,107,174, 176, 177, 184-85, 19%, 210, 201, 300, 3527 building projects of 92, 92-94) 105-6 and crucifixion, 105, 217 John the Baprizer imprisoned and murdered by, 40, 102, 104, 107-8 134 135, 141 148, 160, 171.193-75, 180, 309, 310 plots against Jesus of, 184, 190 in Rome, 98, 105 Herod the Great, 52, 92, 04, 96-104, 12, 174 284 building projects of, 3, 88-89, 98-101, 99, 100, 105,154,177, 187, 214 death of, 40, 102-4, 259 lack of Davidic lineage of, 39-40, 49, 88, 89, 97, 98 marriages of, 96-97, 101 Herodias,107,153173-74 Herodion, 260 Herodium, 102 Hezekiah, King, 290 Hilkiah, 290 Hillel, Rabbi, 19 Hinduism, 86 Hinnon tomb, 305 Hippolyeus, 327, 34105 Hosea, 184-85 Howard, George, 349014 Hiurchinson, Lee.8, 352 Hyreania, farteess of, 98360 INDEX 96 Immaculace Conception, 46 Idumeans, 3 Immanuel, 46 India, Jesus in, 86 Infancy Gospel of Toomas, 86 Iron Age, 225 Isaac, 49, 15, 265 Isaiah, 55,113, 157-58, 171,172,178, 196,288, 390,311-12 apocalyptic language of, 231, 278 Daridic Messish prophecy of, 35,134, 155,166 Great Sevoll of 14,114 Jesus as falillment of, 185,190 Paull’ interpretation of 379 Suifering Servant prophecy of, 181,189, 28335301 and virgin birth of Jesus, 46, 35021 Voice heard by, 125,129, 147, 159 Isis, 203 Islam, see Muslims Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), to. 18-20, 23, 23,26, 31 32, 57 320 Israel Museum, 3 Jacob, 49,56, 15,158, 265 Jacob of Sikbnin, 94, 344" dacobovici, Simcha, 17.21,319.321.322,328 James (son of Jesus), 320, 321 James (son of Judas), 104 James (descendant of Jude), 302 James the Apostle (brother of Jesus: the Just), 24, 61, 73-77-80, 104, 152, 163, 164, 203, 231, 307, 311, 320, 321, 326, 327,330, 350m14 35574 arrest and trial of Jesus witnessed by, 209,241 as"beloved disciple’ 5, 81, 91,165, 206-7, 258 birth of, 201-92 death by stoning of 79, 104, 188, 210, 284-89, 286, 299, 313, 326, 35703 Joha the Baptizer and, no, 142 at last supper, 206 leadership of Jesus movement by, 4.78, 121,165,204, 228, 236, 240, 244-45, 8, 284, 300, 301, 306, 247-48, 250: 310,314 315 letter of, 143, 273-78, 281-83, 288, 303, 312, 316 lecter from Peter £0, 363 marginalization by Christians of, 135, 233,244,247 Mary entrusted to care of, 105, 206, 221 marriage of, 141 Paul and, 261, 262, 266-73,280 Simon as successor t0,79)289-91 James the Apostle (son of Zebedee and Salome), 142,149, 160, 163,191, 237, 250 3,16, 12.324 28.227. 30 405, 306, 320, 321, 322, 325, 320, 235717, James Ossuary, 336r19 Jechoniah, 51,53, 341004, 5 Jehohanan, 218-20, 306 Jeremiah, 48,51, 155, 163, 196, 266, 3415 New Covenant predicted by, 266 Jericho, 191 Jerome, 206, 231, 258, 259, 33916, s45ung.s. Jerusalem 260-61,284 Babylonian destruction of, 51,143 99, 144 180, 233, 245,252, Christian quarter of, 224-25 final days of Jesus in, 86, mt, 187-207 gates of, 33307 Pesetoriuim, 214-15 rebuile by Hadeian, 302 Roman destruction of 18,285, 205, 206, 296-97,299- 301, 326, 35703, siege of, 293-95 symbols of Roman oppression in, Temp: of see Temple tombs in, 235-36, 35405 uprising in, 102 Jerusalem Council, 252-54, 266-68 Jerusalem Post, 3362INDEX 367 Jerusalem Talmud, 34207 Jesus apocalyptic outlook of, 143, 144, 185, 278, 299-300 arrest of, 208-9 as Davidic (King) Messiah, 4, 146,148, 154, 157-60, 166, 180, 190, 191, 211-12, 214, 217, 220,223, 244, 247, 279-80, 282, 283, 307, 309, 33917, 34001 baptism of, 32, 129, 135,138, 39, 142,149, 159, 309, 34601, 34871 baptism campaign of, 141, 149-53, 151 "beloved disciple” of 81, 91,165, 206-7, 238, 258 birth of 41-47,59- 61, 76, 85, 88, 339017, s4ovian, 341025, 34818 brothers and sisters of, 16, 24, 61, 72.73, 75-81, 90-91, 164~65, 188, 250, 201-92, 308, 3454, 35014 (see also James; Jade; Mar burial of, 12-13, 14, 28,121, 223-27, Jose: ; Salome; Simon) 238-39, 330, 3537! Caesarea Philippi retreat of, 176-78, 180, 181, 183, 190 chronology of, 85, 346m crucifixion of, 414.76, 86, 104, 105,107, 120, 209, 216-18, 220, 220~22, 226-27, 230, 234,248-49, 251, 200, 262, 283 and death of John the Daptizer, 175 178-80 in desert, 138 disciples of, r41~42 (see also Twelve Apostles) diviniey of, in Christian theology, 43, 135, 139-41, 262-65, 273-74, 279, 306, at early life of, 37, 38, 86-89, 102, 104, 107, 108, 34507 empty tomb of, 23, 27, 224-30, 237,249, shrinement in Christian theory of, 307-8 entry into Jerusalem of, 190-94 final campaign of, 183-86 as Gate of salvation, 288 genealogy of, 48-58, 89, 117 governing body established by, 162-63, ae healing and exorcisms by, 61-62, 184, 191-92 historical study of, 6, 308, 314, 316-17, 330 Judaism of, 109-11, 113 at, 314 keys of the kingdom promised to Peter by, 389-90 kinship of John the Baptizer and, 56, 58, 154, 255, 308 last meal of 165, 198-207, 221, 245,250, a8 mission inaugurared by, 165-66, 173, 2.45 money changers confronted by. 194-98, 210 moving of body of, 234-40 paternity of, 59-65, 70-72, 81, 88, 17, 234, 343 Paul's revelations of, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266,269, 272, 311 and people of the Way, 126 preaching campaign of, 156-57, 160-62, wa prophetic texts interpreted by, 178-82, 85 raising the dead by, 172~73, 182 relationship berween John the Bapeizer and, 136. 37,142) 147 resurrection of, Christian belief in, 23, 228, 230-33,237, 239, 243, 264, 329 return to Nazareth of 113-14, 17, 336013 in Samaria, 154 Second Coming of, 166, 261, » in Sidon, 71-72 sightings of, 230-33, 237, 238, 249 social status of, 89-94,117 teachings of, 42, 85,137,255, 274-78, 281, 282, 303, 304, 305, 310-13 trial of, 40, 104, 107, 209-17, 213-15, 223, 284,288308 Jesus (cont.) Voice heard by, 129 Wadi Cherith hideout of, 187-89, 189, 300 Jesus Family Tomb, The, 319 Jewish Christians, 206, 55-58, 266, 285 Jews aristocratic, Jesus as threat to power of, 185, 209-10 burial practices of 2-9.13, 12-13, 219-20, 224327, 33503 common names of, 104 crucifixion blamed on, 209, 215-16, 285 of Diaspora, 250 Hashmonean rulers of 49,97 illegitimacy of Herodian rule of, 39. 41, +49, 88, 06-97, 107 iage of, 44, 47, 74-77, 338h11, 330716 Messiahs of, 57, 144-48, 280 (5 Dawvidic Messiah; Priestly Me: money-changing of 194 m persecution of, 301-2, 314 polemics againse Christians by, 86 Pontius Pilates oppression of, 153-54 196, 216 revolts against Romans of, 40, 102~4, 17-19, 138, 143-44, 188, 216,219,230, 249,285, 293-95, 298-300, 302 and tighecous Geneiles, 16, 254 Roman conquest of, 95-96 separatist, 06,133 village life of, mt—13, 177 see also Judaism Jezebel, 128, 188 Joachim (Heli), 39, 41, 52155, 337m, 338110 Joanna, 191 Joel, 276 John, Gospel of, 42~43, 45134185, 237, 243,250,273, 330718 arrest and trial of Jesus in, 208,209, 211, INDEX “beloved disciple” in, 81, 01,165, 206-7, 238,258 brothers and sisters of Jesus in, 76, 91 burial of Jesus in, 224,228 chronological and geographical details in, 28,140 crucifixion in, 78-79, 221, 222 illegicimacy charges in, 62 John the Baptizer in, 128,135, 139-42 last days of Jesus in, 187, 189 last supper in, 200 preaching campaign of Jesus in, 149, 153, 346n1, 33801 sightings of Jesus in, 250-355 2371 238, 329 theology of, 39-4273 John the Apostle (son of Zebedes and Salome), 5.77. 80.152, 163,183. 191, 206,250, 252, 201 baptism of 149 fishing business of 142, 160, 237 Paul and, 253, 266,267, 270 succession of James supported by, 257, 26 John the Baptizer, no, 121 125-44, 149-52, 184,185, 187, 197, 253, 266, 272,277, 300, 301, 311,315 apocalyptic vision of, 143 apostles and, 142,203 arrest and imprisonment of, 134,138, 41, 152-54) 160, 162, 166, 171-73, 309 bapsiam of Jesus by, 52, 139,135,138, 139, 142,149,159, 309, 346m, 3481 birth of, 29, a48nt cave of, 7.14, 120-33. 13h. 132, 150-52 dict of, 134, 286, 34911 disciples of 141,149 kinship of Jesus and, 56, 58, 134, 255 marginalization by Christians of, 135,138, 140,150, 306 message of repentance of, 245,276 Messianic Movement founded by Jesus and, 70,262, 265, 307-9INDEX murder of, 40, 102, 104,107-8, 134, 173-75, 178-0, 182, 190, 283, 310,313 Nazirite practices of, 133 prayer taught by, 137, 156, 280 and Roman soldiers, 70 and Two Messiahs prophecy, 135,137, 144, 146-48, 159-60, 172, 243 Voice heard by, 125-27 John of Damascus, 65 John Hyrcanus, 226, 3412 Joseph, 64,79, 86, 164,195,260, 289, 320, 325, 328-29, 3425, 34507 children of Mary and, 75, 90, 3454 death of, 76, 80, 81, 90, 291, 308 genealogy of 49-53.55 and Mary's pregnancy, 41-45, 59-61, 63, 7h 72, 34anto as observant Jew, 87-89 vocation of, 89-90 Joseph of Arimathea, 24, 86, 223-25, 35311 Josephus, 40, 88, 103, 208-9, 217, 226, 243, 34m, 352n7, 35302 on ceucifixions, 218,219 on death of James, 284,285 y of, 52, 55,3428 geneal on Herod Antipas, 105 on Herod the Grea 39, 99, 101 James and, 258,272 on Jewish Revolt, 117-18, 143-44, 219, 2944) 296,298, 300, 35703 on John the Baprizes, 26.28, 155,73, tps 34908 Roman citizenship of, 18 on Passover pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 110, 195 on philosophies of Judaism, 18-20, 133 on Pompey’ violation of Temple, 95 con tibes of Israel, 163 Joses (Joseph; brother of Jesus), 24, 26, 61, 73177-79, 91s 142. 152, 164, 248, 325, 326, 350714 bapzism of, 149 369 at last supper, 206 and leadership of Jesus movement, 201 292 Joshua, 35303 Jubilees, 144, 145, 156-57, 35404 Judah, 49, 56,145 tribe of, 163 (see also Judah (son of Jesus), 320, 324, 325, 328 Judah the Prince, Rabbi, 3477 Judaism, 306 Davide lineage) alienation beeween Christianity and, 109 ascetic dualism in, 74 confession of Sema in, 197, 279-80 of Jesus, 109-11, 280 of John the Baptizes, 26 Levirate marriage in, 76-77 mystical, 938-39 offerings in, 87 paternity in, 6 Paul's repudiation of, 246, 261,262, 264-70 righteous of nations in, 283 Romans sympathetic ¢9, 69, 16 sects of, sce Essenes; Pharisees; Sadducees see also Passover; Sabbath; To Judas (brother of Jesus), sce Jude the Apostle Judas (son of Bzekias), 40, 102-3 Judas the Galilean, 105417, 120 Judas Iscarios, 150, 163,208 5,208 245,250 Jude the Apostle (Judas brother of Jetus), 24, 6, 64, 73, 9, 104s 14, 152, 163-65, 248,250, 251, 280, 320, 324, 326, song baptism of 149 death of, 301-2 leadership of Jesus’ movement by, 291, 292 letter of, 277-78, 282 Judea, Romar road in, 126 Julio-Claudian Dynasty, 292-94 see also specific emperors370 INDEX Julius Caesar, 95, 96, 202 Justin Mareys,270 Justus, 201 Kabbalists, 238 Kerygmata Petrou, 303 King James Bible, 354213 Kings, Book of, 188, 290 Klones, Amos, 25,28, 29, ite 32337022 Kokhaba, 55, 342n9, 3447 Koopmans, John, 320-21, 324 Lamech, 34473 Last days, 48, 110,157,292 Last supper, 165, 198 207,221,258 Lipper Roam of 2, 198-99, 205, 245, 250 Lateran Council, 3453 Lazarus, 236 Lemaire, Andsé, 15-19 Levi (lea Levi, tribe of, 55-58, 145, 148, 163 Levitate martiage, 76,77, 289, 34508 Leviticus, Book of, 87,202, 343017 + of Jesus’ movement), 201, 328 Lewis, Rafi, 8.20 Lexicon of Jewish Names in Late Antiquity Part |, 330 “Little Apocalypse,’ 299 Livia, 293 London Sanday Times, 23 “Lord's Prayer, The,’ 137 Lest Tonth of Jesus, The, 318 Lose Tribes of Israel, 163, 230 Luiken, Jan, 286 Luke, Gospel of, 42-43, 72, 80, 134, 138,130, 140,193, 210, 240, 273-75, 303, 330018, 34577, 34601 apocalyptic language in, 171-72 apostles in, 163, 164, 183, 206, 252, 266 birth story in, 41-42, 44-46, 58-60, 62, 7 85, 33801, 12 and brothers and sisters of Jesus, 73, 37-78, 81,248 establishment of Church in, 237 ethical teachings of Jesus in, 275-76, 281 genealogy in, 48, 49, 51-53, 56,57, 342”5 Gentile version of Christianity in, 248-49 Jesus and money-changers in, 198 John the Baptizer in, 129, 135-37, 142, 143, 175, 180, 348" Kingdom of God in, 182-84, 190, 245 last supper in, 200, 204, 205 poverty of Mary and Joseph in, 87, 88 preaching campaign of Jesus in, 161, 162 raising of dead in, 172-73, 182 return of Jesus to Nazareth in, 13,159 Roman soldiers in, 70 Sadducees join Messianic Movement in, sightings of Jesus in, 230-33. 328 tomb of Jesus in, 224,220 trial of Jesus in, 214 women followers of Jesus in, 191 see also Acts of the Apostles Laria, Rabbi Isaac ben (‘the Ari"), 238-39 Luther, Martin, 47,277, 341025 Maceabees, 39, 49; 56, 975 104, 107) 145,165,226 Machaerus, fortress of 98, 102, 153, 162, 71-75 ruins of, 174 Magi. 88 Malachi, 125, 146,147,159, 178, 210, 2 Malthaée, 107 Mann, Chris, 23-24 Mariamenon, 327-28 Mariamne, 39, 06-97, 101, 327 Mark, Gospel of, 42-43, 45, 85, 154, 136, 139, 140,142, 187, 19% 273) 274, 277+ 299-301, 339218, 349012, 35111 apocalyptic language in, 143 apostles in, 163-65, 183,252 baprism of Jesus in, 129,138 brothers and sisters of Jesus in, 61,73, 76-8, 91,165, 248, 291-92, 326, 328, 350014INDEX carpenter story in, 89, 00 illegitimacy implied in, 61, 62, 99 Jesus and money-changers in, 196-98 John the Baptizer in, 128, 129, 135, 141, 153, 160, 173-75, 179-80 Judaism of Jesus in,280 last supper in, 200-202, 204, 207, 238 preaching campaign of Jesus in, 160, 162 Roman soldiers in, 70 Sidon trip in, 71-72 sightings of Jesus added t0,230-31,233, sanma,3 Son of Man revelation in, 181, 190, 288, 299-301 romb af Jesus in, 234, 299, 230, 235.3530 trial of Jesus in,2m, 212,201,249 Mark Antony, 30, 06, 67 Martha, 194,227, 235,236 Mary (mother of Jesus), 24, 324 39, 39-56, 86,142, 152176, 191, 244,250, 279, 3205 327, 29, 330, 337m 338r, 34207, 350mg assumption into Heaven of 47, 34124 baptism of, 149 birth of 39 and burial of Jesus, 224, 229, 230, 235, 248 children 0f,75-81, 90-91, 104, 291-92, 308, 34584 conception of, 46, 34124 at erucifiion, 77 $0, 221, 248 Ebionite bel lief about, 303 enshrinement in Christian theology of, 307-8 genealogy of, 51-56, 58, 65, 164-65, 286 James and, 165 Levirate remarriage of, 76, as observant Jew, 87-89 poverty of, 87,195 pregnancy of, 41-46, 59-61, 63, 70-72, 81, 88, 151, 340m19, 344010, 348! and sightings of Jesus, 232 371 tomb of, 24~25, 33.236, 326, 338710 virginity of, 16, 46-47,73-75, s30nm15, 16, 340123, 34124 25, 34503, Mary (sister of Jesus), 24, 25, 61,73, 91 142» 149,176,191, 324 Mary (sister of Martha), 194,227,235, 236 Maty Magdalene, 4, 25, 107, 142, 176, 191, 230, 320, 327,328, 330 at crucifixion, 7-80, 221 and sightings of Jesus, 232-35 ar tomb of Jesus, 224, 228, 229,248 Masada, fortress of, 39, 98, 174, 230, 300 ruins of 97 Masoretie text, 146 Mass, 200, 202 Matthew, Gospel af, 4243, 129,134, 39, 140,199,237, 240, 248, 250,273-75, 289-90, 330m18 apostles in, 163, 165 baptisen of Jesus in, 135, 138 birch story in, 44-46, 8-60, 62, 71 85, 87-88, 338nnnt 12615, brothers and sisters of Jesus in, 61,73, 77, 78,81 coming of Son of Man’ in, 166 ethical teachings of Jesus in, 275~76, 281 genealogy in, 48-53, 61 34295 Hebrew version of 136-37, 303, 349714, John che Baptizer in, 136-37, 180 last supper in, 200, 202, 204 Sidon twip in, 72, sightings of Jesus in, 230-33, 238, 329 social status of Jesus in, 89-92 tomb of Jesus in, 78, 224, 227, 220, 353n1 trial of Jesus in, 212, 214, 215 Matthew the Apostle, 55,140,160, 163,164, 250,291, 325, 328-29 Matthias, 102 Menorah, 145 Messianic Movement, 81,121,133, 150,153, 5,266 acceptance of Gentiles into, 253-54, 266372 IND Messianie Movement (cont.) founding by John the Baptizer and Jesus of, 70, 262, 265, 307-9 fulfllmenc of Isaiah’s prophecies by, me impact of murder of Jolin the Baptizer on, 175 Phatisee opposition to, 162 Sanhedrin members sympathetic t0, 224 see also Nazarenes Micah, 155 Mishnah, 115, 321, 34792. Moabites, 50 Mohammed, 315, 316 Moses, 741095 15,154) 195) 254 285) 385 ‘Raton and. $6-58,.135 cating of blood prohibited by, 202-3 Exodus led by, 163 Law of, see Torah repudiated by Paul, 267~69 Mount of Offense, 235,236 Mount of Olives, 2, 192-94, 102, 196, 202, 207,220, 227, 294, 35406 account of Jesus’ ascension to heaven, from, 232-33 crucifixion on, 220, 226-27 tombs on, 229, 235-36, 287,290 Muratorian Fragment, 273 Muslims, 130, 304, 314-16. 35479 Nuabatsa, 173 Nain, 105,172 Nathan, 53. 179 Nathanael the Apostle, 141, 149, 237 Nazarenes, 55, 121,126,133, 189, 285, 286, 300 leadership of, 188, 252-54, 266 requirements for non-Jews to join, 203, 267-69 Nazareth, 75, 88, 92~94, 105, 112, 16, 129, 141, 142, 154,260, 338013, 34279, 10, a44n7 archaeology project in, m—ta EX childhood of Jesus in, 37-38 Davidic line in, $5,116-17 Pharisees and Essenes in, 120 return of Jesus to, 61, 91 113,159, 338113 scandal of Mary's pregnancy in, 43-44, oa Nazirices, 133 Nebuchadnezzar, 156 Neiger, Mottis 26 Nero, Emperor, 260, 261,270, 290, 293, 294, 299 New International Bible, 354013 New Testamentsi.2.5.10 24.20.86, 165, 249) 254, 277) 280) 303-4) 307; 3151 337% 339017 apocalyprie language in, 143 genealogy in. 49 English translations of, 89, 231 Herodians in, 162 “holy spirit” in, 3309 marginalization of James in, 244,247 Paul's versus James’ versions of Chriscianity in, 261,270-73 Pharisces in, 19 Sadducees in, 18, 19 shrouded burial of Jesus in, 12-13 virginity of Mary in, 59, 75 sce also Gospels; specific books New York Times, The, 15 New Yorker, The, ax Newsweek 25 Nicodemus, 233-24 Noah, 202, 254, 34.493 Laws of, 3554 North Carolina, University of, at Charlotte, Numbers, Book of 87, 125,133, 342013 O'Connor, Jerome Murphy, 27 Octavian, see Augustus Caesar Offerings, 87, 88 Old Testament, 50, 340021 see also Hebrew BibleINDEX Olympias, 60 Origen, 231, 273, 285, 34.4nn6,.10. 35703 Orthodox Jews, Iscaeli 9.28 Osiris, 203 Otho, 204 Palestinian Archaeological Museum, see Rockefeller Museum Pantera, 63-73, 86, 344nn8,10 tombstone of, 65-70, 66, 68 Panthera, jacob, 64 Parmigianino, 203 Parthians, 96 Passover 14,102, 109, 142) 165,177,192) 199-201, 208, 217, 227, 238, 245) 314-15, s4sn7, 349% burial of Jesus before, 24, 200, 223,224, as and crucifixion, 209, 222, 262 murder of James at, 284, 287 pilgrimage to Jerusalem for, 10-11, 190, 4 Paul (Saul of Tarsus), 5,73, 140, 143, 258-71, 301,315, 343018, 356nm1, Lg beheading of, 270 birth and early life of, 259-60 conversion of, 246, 261 Ebionite rejection of, 303 James and, 251-53, 269,270 last supper account of, 200, 202-6 lecters off 251, 266, 266-68, 303, 35501 mission to Gentiles of, 248-51, 262, 267, 260 Peter and, 246, 246-48, 251-53,266-67, 270,274,290 Pharisee background of, 260, 263, 272 repadiation of Torah by, 253, 265-69 revelations of, 203, 232, 261,262, 263, 268, 269, 272, 307, 310-11 sightings of Jesus reported by, 231-34, 29 theology of, 74, 262-65, 270-75, 277, 279-80, 282, 289, 302 373 Pella, 200 Pellegrino, Charles, 319, 321 Pentecost, feast of, 10, 245 People of the Way, 126, 127 Peter che Apostle (Simon Peter), 5, 140, 143, 152, 160-61, 161, 163, 180,228, 250, 310 arrest and trail of Jesus witnessed by, 209,211 as first pope of Roman Catholic Church, 247,289-90 fishing business of 142, 160, 233, 238 Jesus proclaimed Messiah by, 190 John che Bapeizer and, 141-2) 149, "5 Paul and, 246, 246-48, 251-53, 266-67, 270,271,290 Preaching of, 303 sightings of Jesus by, 231, 237 succession of James supported by, 258,262 Petronius, 293 Pharisees, 17-20, 148, 152, 162, 197, 209, 285, 309 Christian, 128 Jesus warned of danger by, 184,193 Paul and, 260, 262,272 Phasaelis,173 Philip (son of Herod), 40, 108, 107,153, 173, 7 Philip che Apostle, 141) 142, 1497 163,175, 250,39 387 Philip of Macedonia, 60, 257 Philippians, a61, 263, 268,270,279 Philo of Alexandria, 74, 120, 216, ssn Philogenes, 234 Piacenza Pilgrim, 337m Pilate, Pontius, 19, 121, 153-54, 163, 180, 196, 200,223,249 trial of Jesus before, 208-9, 211,213, 214 n1g-18 Pius XII, Pope, 3ain24374 Phato, 60,74, 356m4 Pheonises, 18 Plutarch, 60 Pompey, 95-96 Poplin, Jeff, 7.33502 Poppaca, 293 Poussin, Nicolas, 47 Powell, Vicki, 33502 Practorian guard, 261 Priestly Messiah, 57-58, 19, 145~48, 160, 166,172, 203, 309, 3412, 343016 Prophets, see Hebrew Prophets; nantes of speci prophets Protestants, 47,225,277 Protocvangslinm of Jamies, 89, 33701; 340023, 4506 Palms, Book of, 48, 51.157, 158, 180-82, 102, 201, 221-22, 245,276 Psalms of Solomon, 155 Pseudepigrapha, 356m4 Pssudo-Clementines, 257-58, 303 Pythagoras, 60 Pythagoreans, u8 Qsourcey 42, 4311405 280, 307, 311 31536, sagme discovery Joha the Baptizer in, 130-37, 147 overthrow of Satan in, 162, 166 teachings of Jesus in, 171, 274-76, 281, 282, 312 Quirinius, 103 Qumran community, 127, 14 101, 203, 252, 300, 3514 excavated ruins of, 127 Qur'an, 315 Rabinovich, Abraham, 336712 Rahab, 50 Rabmani.L. H.23.31 Redemption of the Son,’ceremony of, 87 Resurrection, 23 Reuters, 23, INDEX Revelation, 188, 290, 343013 Revised Standard Edition, 231, 340n21 Roberts, David, 295 Rockefeller Museum, 10,26, 321, 336%14 Roman Catholic Church, 79,235, 277, 33701 3453, 35305 Marian dogmas of 46-47, 7533815, 339016, 35124 Peter as first pope of, 247, 289-90 Ranianaie kegs aarniatias iii 156-57, 162, 80, 188-90, 233, 239, 244, 254,284, 290, 308, 0, 315, architectural style of, 92 artisan erades under, 90 attitudes toward Judaism off 15-16 conversion to Christianity of, 225 (see alsa Gentiles, Paul’s mission to) cremation practiced by, 13 crucifixion of Jesus by, 4, 199, 20-21, 201, 208-12, 214-19, 222,223,226, 234 coins of, 194, 194-95, 297. 34776 destruction of Jerusalem by, 205, 296, 296-97, 299-301 execution of members of Davidic line by, 40 Herod Antipas and, 105, 107, 108 Herod the Great and, 97-99 historians, 88 Jewish Revoles against, 40, 102-4, 17-19, 143-4188, 216, 219, 230, 249, 285, 393. 95)298. 300, 302 Josephus and, 17-20 Judea under military rule of, 153-54 Julio-Claudian Dynasty of, 292-04 messianic leaders executed by,243 occupation of Land of Israel by, 95-97 Paul and, 246 251, 260, 262, 264-65 religious beliefs and practices of, 60, 177 soldiers, and Pantera story, 64-72, 86 ‘Temple commerce under, 195-98 Romans, Book of, 260, 279, 343718 Rome, 101, 297, 297 burning of 293INDEX Herod family in, 06, 08,105 inseability in, 96 Josephus in, 18 Peter in, 290 Rosh HaShanah, 128 Royal Ontario Museum, 16, 8-20 Ruth, 50, 77 Sabbath, Jewish, 95,109, 15,192, 199, 222, 224, 235 Sabbatical years, 142-44 Sadducees, 17-20, 121,148, 195, 197, 209, 284, 310 Salome (daughter of Herodias), 173-74) 174 Salome (mother of James and Joha, the fishermen), 80, 14, 191 Salome (sister of Jesus), 24, 61.73,77,78, 80, 1, 142, 149, 176, 191, 229, 220, 235, 248,324,327 Salvation by faith, Paul's teaching of, 267, 24 Samaritans, 107, 154, 165 Samuel, 48, 58, 286, 34201 Samuel, David, 33506 Sanhedrin, 97, 118-19, 209, 211,212, 223-24, 285 Satan 138, 162, 166, 180, 182-85, 188, 221,245, 309 Saul of Tarsus, see Paul Sebaste, 154 Second Apocalypse of James, The, 258 Second Coming of Jesus, 166, 261,278 Seder, 200, 222 Sejanus, 216 Senikus, 291 Sepphoris, 37-39, 38, 4 64, 106, 108, 111, 16, 154 263, 337, 34208, 34802 archaeological dig at, 93, 93-94 burning of, 40-42, 102 rebuilding of, 92, 92-93, 105, 107 Sermon on the Mount, 137,275, 281 Sermon on the Plain, 275, 281 Seutonius, 3247 375 Seventy, council of the, 303 “Seventy Weeks’ prophecy, 143, 144,299 Shammai, Rabbi, 19 Shanks, Hershel, 15-21 Shaprus, Shem-Tab lin, 349014 Shavuot, 245 Shekels, Tyrian, 194, 194-95 Shema, 197, 279-80 Shem-Tob, 227 Sheol (realm of the dead), 3515 Shroud of Turin, Silberman, Neil, 26 Siloam, 3 Simon (slave of Herod), 103 Simon (son of Judas), 204 Simon the Apostle (beother of Jesus; she Zealot), 244, 61, 73, 91 104, 152, 163, 164, 248,250, 251, 287, 324, 26, ssont4 baptism of 149 crucifixion of, 104, 301, 302, 313 at last supper, 206 leadership of Jesus’ movement by, 79, 188, 289-91, 299, 300 Simon Perer (Simon bar Jonah) ossuary of, 236 sce also Peter the Apostle Sin offerings, 87 Sinaiticus, 35412 Sisters of St. Anne, 337m1 Six Day War101, 212 Society of Biblical Literature, 28 Solomon, King, 48, 53,100,179 Pealms of. 155 ‘Temple of, 106 Sophocles, 90 Sorbonne, 15,19 Stoics, 08 Strozzi, Bernardo, 39 Suba cave. 2.14, 120-38, 131, 132, 150-52 Suffering Servane prophecy, 18, 182, 283, 53m Suffolk Counsy Crime Laboratory, 321 Sukenik, Bleazar, 336m14376 INDEX Sukkoth, feast of, 128 Susanna, 191 Synoptic gospels, 42, 43, 348nt “Tabernacles, feast of, 10, 28 ‘Theitus, 293 Talpiot tomb, 22~32, 25, 28-30, 56-57, 57, 165, 235-37) 305, 319-21, 325, 326, 329, 330, 336016, 33722 ‘Tamar, $0, 77 Tarsus, 259 ‘Teacher of Righteousness, 147-48, 159,179, 182, 201 Temple, 213) 89) 108, 154,185, 192, 226-27, 284,287,293 30 35303 Annas family of priests and, 210, a3 destruction of, 295,296, 301, 35773 Herodian, 99-101, 110, 220 inner sanctum of, 95 James at, 286 Jesus at, 193-98 offerings at, 88, 194-95, 276 Paul at, 269 Roman temple on site of, 302 Sadducean control of, 18, 195, 209 of Solomon, 196 ‘Temple Guard, arrest of Jesus by, 208, 210 ‘Temple Mount, 99, 100, 101, 198, 287 Tertullian, 234 ‘Testament of che Twelve Patriarch, 145 ‘Thomas the Apostle, 163,237,250 Tiberias, 106, 106-8, 173 ‘Tiberius Caesar, 69, 105, 107, 153, 173, 208, 216, 292-93 Time magazine, 15, 21 Titus, 118, 219, 294, 301 Arch of 207 ‘Tobiah, 201 Toldoth Yesbu, 234, 344010 “Tomb of the apartment,’ 330 ‘Tomb of the Shroud, 814, 9412.13.20. 2h 222 236, 237, 287, 305 “Torah, 104, 13, 115-16, 137, 197, 254, 274, 209, HO, 312, 314, 34702, 353984 consumption of blood prohibited by, 202 Ebionite observance of, 303 Essene interpretation of, 121 Golden Rule and, 19 Holy of Holies in, 95 Levirate marriage in, 76, 34508 Nazirite vow of separation in, 133 Paul's repudiation of, 253, 265-69 Pilg priestly service specified by, 125 image to Jerusalem required by, 10 in Qumran community, 198, 252 Redemption of the Son in, 87 Sabbatical years in, 142 “Trajan, 201, 292, 301 Tefat, grave at, 238-40, 230 ‘Twelve Apostles, 120, 152-53, 162-66, 176, 180, 191, 194, 243, 248, 250-52, 257, 270-7282, 283 310, 327, 35188 enshrinement in Christian theology of 307-8 at last supper, 165, 198-207, 221, 238, 258 Paul and, 252, 262 preaching campaign of, 42,173, 175,178, 245 replacement for Judas Iscariot chosen by, 150,203, 250 sightings of Jesus by, 251 Teaching of, 204-5 ae Temple, 197 and Twelve Tribes of Terael, 266, 274 sce also names of specific apostles ‘Twelve Tiibes of Israel, 56,163, 266, 274, 280, 309 James’ letter t0, 274 ‘Two Messiahs, 57-58, 19,135,137, 144-48, 159-60, 166, 172, 178, 182, 203, 243, 244, 309, 310, 34172 dale, William, 89 Tyrian shekels, 104, 194-95INDEX 377 US. News & World Report, 15 Uriah, 50 USA Today, 336m Vaphees, 291 Varus, Publius Quineilius, legate of Syria, 40, 69, 102, 3567 Vatican, 27 Vaticanus, 35412 Vespasian, 40,117-18, 294,296 99, 301 Vitellius, 294. Voice, hearing of, 125-27, 129, 159, 313 Wadi Chesith (Wadi cl-Yabis),128, 87 89, 189 Washington Pos, The, 15 Weisse, C,H 34002 Well of Mary, 92 Wesley, John, 47, 34% Williams, Mark, 33502 5 Witherington, Ben, 17 World War 1, 66 World War Il, 66, 67 Wyatt, Ron, 3431 Yardeni, Ada, 19-20 Yochai, Rabbi Shimon bar, 239 Yom Kippur, 95, 288 Zachariah, 291 Zaddik (righteous or just one), 283 Zealots, 103, 104, 17, 120, 217,294, 300 Zebedee, 77, 80 sons of, sce James the Apostle; John the Apostle Zechariah, 145, 178 80, 192, 193, 196, 201, 220,278 281 Zechariah (Father of John the Baprizer) 44, 56, 125, 151, 34871 Zias, Joe, 26, 33619 Zissu, Boaz, 10 Zoker, 302 Zoingli, Huldeych, 47aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.