Chapter1.

Introduction

Grains are stored by mankind for the supply of food material in the time of scarcity or in
unavailability of adequate food supply. The history of storing food material is as old as the
history of agriculture on the earth. Stored cereals face a lot of problems during storage which
include both biotic and abiotic factors. The biotic factors are the most dominating, including
diseases, insect pests and rodents. According to previous researches, the stored cereals are
attacked by various insect pests. These pests cause quantitative and qualitative losses to these
stored commodities (Rahila et al., 2003). Yang and Tang (1988) reported different parts of plants
which were commonly used to control the stored pests and found that there was a strong
association among medicinal plants containing insecticidal activities. Tribolium castaneum
(Herbst) (Red Flour Beetle) is considered as a major cosmopolitan stored grain secondary pest
(Howe, 1965). The post-harvest losses per year are estimated to be 10-25% which may be from
insect damages, microbial activity and many other factors of the total worldwide production
(Matthews, 1993).the most common method of saving the grains from damage is fumigation of
various chemicals but their indiscriminate and widespread use has directed to some serious
difficulties including pesticides resistance (Ribeiro et al., 2003). Also they leave the toxic
residues in stored grains which result in the harmfulness to users and also the expenses of
application is also increasing. Synthetic insecticides application to control the insect pests is
being practiced all over the world. Also a lot of negative public reactions have led to the
preference to abandon their uses (Bell, 2000). Moreover, each year, a large amount is being spent
on the expenses to buy the insecticides or in foreign exchange. This can be replaced by using the
native and natural resources.

Hence, we need to develop and discover the safer alternatives of these harmful chemicals that
must be of low cost price, convenient and easy to handle and use and also these must be
environmental friendly. Many scientists have made considerable efforts to focus on plant derived
materials which can be potentially used as commercial insecticides.
The botanical insecticides are safe and have low mammalian toxicity. So, these botanical
insecticides are now considered as major crop protectants (Prakash and Rao, 1997). Higher
plants are richest of the novel and miraculous natural compounds which can be used in the
development of environmental safe and eco-friendly methods for insect pest control (Arnason et
al., 1989). Many scientists have worked on these natural insecticides and have demonstrated their
activities against many of the insect pests in previous years (Isman, 2000). Plant extracts
comprise compounds that show repellent, anti-feedant, sterilization, ovicidal and poisonous
effects to insects (Isman, 2006). Neem and its products can control the wheat storage losses due
to insects in the farms. Research showed the growth preventing effect of neem seed oil gotten
from different areas against the T. castaneum in Pakistan (Jillani et al., 2003).
The toxic effect may be in contact, ingestion or through fumigation. Focus on the vapor or
fumigant toxicity of essential oils of plants and their components has improved since 1980s.
Over the last few years, the focus has been for the determination of the pesticidal action of
isolated compounds from plant extracts to discover out the most biologically active chemical
constituents (Lee et al. 2000). Studies proved the lesser grain borer (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae)
can be suppressed by the repulsive and feeding deterrent activity of the sweet flag oil, turmeric
oil, neem oil as well as the neem-based insecticide. It was found that sweet flag and Turmeric
oilswere significantly more repellent in first two weeks than Margosan-O, and neem oil. But

later, their repellent activity was decreased more quickly than that of neem oil or Margosan-O
(Jilani and Sexena, 1990).
By keeping in view the need of a safe and cheaper alternative to replace the hazardous
chemicals, black pepper, castor bean seeds, neem seeds, eucalyptus leaves, lemongrass leaves,
garlic, ginger, turmeric, red chili and peppermint were tested against Tribolium castaneum in
wheat flour. The results were also compared with that of the effect of deltamethrin for further
comparisons.

Chapter2.

Review of Literature

Saxena et al. (1988) reported that in some South Asian countries, people use 2% turmeric powder
in traditionally stored grains such as wheat or rice to control the pet population in the stock.
Babuet. el. (1989) evaluated the effect of inert clay by its pre-treatment of Vigna radiata seeds. It
resulted in adult mortality of Callosobruchus chinensis with 100% within 24 hours and provides
effective protection up to 12 months of storage.
Saxena et al. (1992) reported 18 palnt spices which have potential to protect wheat grains upto 9
months of storage form insects.
Rajeskaran and Baker (1994) showed that Artimisi aprinceps and Cinnamomum camphora(L)
oils have insecticidal as well as repellent activity against Sitophilus oryzae and Bruchus
rugimanus (B.).
Ahmed et al (2000) tested the insecticidal property of neem extracts. He compared it with
cypermethrin as well as methyl parathion for the control of different stored grain insect pests. He
found that neem extracts gave highest mortality of T. castaneum. He proposed that the neem
formulations can be used against T. castaneum to get a safer storage for long term.
Tapondjou et al. (2000) reported that the leaves of Eucalyptus saligna were used in Cameroon
for the protection of their stored grains from the insect influx in local storage structures. These
leaves protect the seeds from insect infestation for a long time.

Masamba et al. (2003) tested the contact and fumigant toxicity of Lemongrass oil (Cymbopogon
citratus) against the larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus). He indicated that lemongrass
oil had the capacity to protect maize better for long storage time against the storage pests.
Clemente et al. (2003) tested some species of family Lamiaceae for the insecticidal properties to
control Tribolium castaneum. The screening was performed with Mentharot undifolia L,
Ocimum basilicum L, Origanum dichloromethane. The first instar larvae of T. castaneum were
fed at a dose of 5000 ppm on the extracts and infusions from each plant. The effect on
development delay Rosmarinus officinalis L, vulgare Land Thymus vulgaris L. and mortality
until adult emergence, was evaluated. Dichloromethane extracts showed higher lethal effect with
M. rotundifolia while sub-lethal effect only was reported with O. vulgare L.
Haq et al. (2005), screened out few plant leaves for the control of T. castaneum. The leaves of
five plants viz., Bougainvillea glabra, Eucalyptus, Saraca indica, Azadirachta indica and
Ricinus communis were used, after forty five days all the plant leaves showed 76-78% repellency
to T. castaneum in stored grains of wheat.
Das et al. (2006) tested Nimbicidine against the eggs of T. castaneum and found significant
reduction in hatching, larval development and adult emergence. The effect of Nimbicidine was
also quite clear in next generation whose development was also reduced.
Facknath and Sunita (2006) reported that neem leaf extract (Azadirachta indicaA. Juss.) reduced
insect populations in stored products. They proved that it is toxic and also disrupts the growth
and also shows other sub-lethal effects on the storage pests.
Farhana

et

al.

(2006)

tested

the

chloroform

extracts

(TrachyspermumammiL.)coriander (Coriandrum sativumL.) and fenugreek

of

ajowain

(Trigonellafoenum-grecum L.) against the red flour beetle, T.castaneum adults by residual film
assay. The repellency of the plants was also conducted. According to the strength of activity the
toxicity were (from highest to lowest) of fenugreek was more than ajowain and then coriander,
whereas the repellent activities were in the order (from highest to lowest) of fenugreek>
coriander>ajowain.
Jbilou et al., (2006) tested methanolic extracts of the medically important plants
Ajugaiva(Labiateae), Peganumharmala(Zygophyllaceae),Raphanusraphanistrum(Brassicaceae),
and Aristolochiabaetica(Aristolochiaceae) against T. castaneum. They found significantly
inhibited larval growth as well as a disrupted developmental cycle of the insect by all of these
extracts. The former three botanicals also inhibited F1 progeny production.
Kanvilet al. (2006), tested the repellent activity of acetone extracts of three following plants viz.
Peganumharmala,Saussurealappaand Valerianaofficianalisagainst T.castaneum.They did this by
using the(free choice) Filter Paper Strip Method for eight weeks. They used neem oil as standard
in the research. The highest repellency was shown by A. indica and all of the extracts of plant
showed <25% repellency, on an average. Since the repellency decreased after the 4th week, the
acetone extracts of the test plants did not proved to be promising repellents.
Mamun et al., (2006) tested the acetonic and methanolic extracts of six plant species, Ghoraneem(Meliasempervirens),Bazna(Zanthoxylumrhetsa),

Hijal(Barringtoniaacutangula),

Karanja(Pongamiapinnata),

Mahogoni(Swieteniamahagoni)

Neem(Azadirachta

indica)and

against the red rust flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum. They found all of the botanicals having
toxic effects on the beetle but the highest mortality was recorded by A. indica. The effectiveness
of most of the extracts though decreased with time yet increased with doses.

Mondal and Khalequzzaman (2006) tested the fumigant and contact toxicity of the essential oils
of

three

important

plants,

viz.,

Cinnamon

(CinnamomumaromaticumNees),cardamom

(Elletariacardamomum Maton) and Clove (Syzygiumaromaticum(L.) Merr. and Petry) against the
Tribolium castaneum(Herbst). They tested two developmental stages of the insect viz, larvae and
adults. Results showed that cinnamon oil in surface-film bioassay showed maximum toxicity to
adults and ten days young larvae, where cardamom oil offered highest toxicity to fourteen and
eighteen days young larvae. Adults showed more susceptibility to contact and fumigant actions
than the larvae. As the larvae grew older, they became less susceptible. Among the three essential
oils, clove oil was less toxic to T. castaneum to the contact and fumigation trials. Whereas, the
adults were more susceptible than the larvae to the fumigant toxicity in all the three essential
oils.
Prakash&Rao (2006) tested the leaves of Vitexnegundo(L.), Ocimum sanctum (L.),
Lippiageminate (L.) and Aeglemarmelos(L.) for the protection of various stored grains including
rice forms in the rural areas of India. He found that all of these plants are better and safer plant
protectant and recommended their use for rice storage.
Rahman and Talukder (2006), reported the bio-efficiency of plant extracts, ash, powder and oil
from eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globules Labill.),nishinda (VitexnegundoL.), bankalmi (Ipomoea
sepiariaK.), safflower (CarthamustinctoriusL.), neem (Azadirachta indicaL.), sesame (Sesamum
indicumL.) and bablah (Acacia arabicaL.) against pulse beetle Collsobruchus maculates and
found them effective for surface protectant, oviposition inhibition, residual toxicity and direct
toxic effects without affecting the germination.

Talukder (2006) gave a mini review on plant products which can be used as potential agents
against stored-product pests. He described the secondary plant metabolites or allelochemics
including alkaloids, steroids, phenolics, saponins, resins, essential oils, organic acids and other
compounds as safer insecticides as they were unique in mode of action and insects developed
resistance very slowly. These allelochemics include azadirachtin, nicotine, pyrethrins and
rotenoides.
Moreira et al. (2007) calculated the bio-activity of rue (RutagraveolensL.), basil
(OcimumselloiBenth.),

lion's

ear

(Leonotisnepetifolia(L.)

R.Br.),

baleeira

herb

(CordiaverbenaceaL.), jimson weed (DaturastramoniumL.), mint (MenthapiperitaL.), billy goat

weed or mentrasto (Ageratum conyzoidesL.) and wild balsam apple (MormodicacharantiaL.)
against Coleopteran pests of stored grains and their products: Oryzaephilus surinamensis L.
(Silvanidae), Rhyzopertha dominicaF.
Upadhyay and Jaiswal (2007) evaluated the oil of Piper nigrum(L.) for its repellency against T.
castaneum, an important stored grain pest. The results demonstrated that in filter paper test, the
adults of red flour beetle were repelled significantly by P. nigrum at the concentration of 0.2%
(vol:vol) and above.
Upadhyay et al. (2007) tested the essential oils of Cumin, black pepper, ajwain, dill oil and
staranise oil which showed very high toxicity and low LC which ranged between 1.05 -1.25l.
He proved that most of the essential oils isolated from general spices show very high insecticidal,
larvicidal, pupicidal, oviposition inhibition and adult emergence inhibition potential against
many of the stored grain pests.

Epidi and Odili (2008) tested the activity of powders of important plant parts from
Zingiberofficinale(ginger), Telferiaoccidentalis(fluted pumpkin), Dracaena arborea(dragon tree)
and Vitexgrandifolia(Vitex) against the T. castaneum in stored groundnut. They found a very low
larval and adult recovery of the insect after 14 days in treated seeds. After 3 months storage, the
mean weight loss was significantly different from that of control, revealing the insecticidal
property of these respective plants.
Mamun et al. (2009) evaluated different plants extracts again T.castaneum in laboratory and
reported that neem seed extract showed the highest toxic effect (mortality 52.50%) against
T.castaneum, while hijal leaf extract showed lowest toxicity to T. castaneum.
Pugazhvendan et al. (2009) studied the repellency of plant powders of Agremonemexicana,
Prosopisjuliflora and Tephrosiapurpurea against T. castaneum. No repellency was reported by P.
Juliflora but the highest repellency was shown by T. purpurea, thus the use of synthetic
pesticides was discouraged.
Sule and Ahmed (2009) studied six plant products along with actellic dust (Pirimiphos-Methyl)
for their effect on Triboliumcastaneum in Stored Millet (Pennisetumglaucum L.). The plants used
were spider plant, basil, hyptis, sugar apple, desert apple and Negro coffee and the results on the
larval count and development, adult emergence, grain loss and percent grain damage was
significantly different from that of control.
Tripathi et al. (2009) tested eight plant spices for their contact as well as the fumigant toxicity
and repellency and their effects on the next developing progeny development against two major
pests of stored grains, i.e. Callosobruchus maculates F. (cowpea weevil) and red flour beetle T.
castaneum. He found the powder of large turmeric, cardamom and ginger, powder of green

cardamom and clove powder as contact toxicant, fumigant toxicant and repellent of both of the
pests. These powders, singly and in combinations, showed the best control of these pests and also
showed significant effects in F1 progeny.
Gandhi et al. (2010) tested the efficacy of pulverized leaves of Punica granatum(Pomegranate)
and Murrayakoenigii(Curry trees) against the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum Herbst and
also as seed protectant. Five different concentrations of leaf powders ranging from 0.05 to 1.0 g
per 10.0 g wheat grains were tested and the results showed that both of the plants leaves have
insecticidal property and also are good seed protectant.
Ashouri and Shayesteh (2010) studied the insecticidal activities of two spices, black pepper and
red chili fruit powder on two stored grains pests, Rhizopertha dominica and Sitophilus granaries.
They tested 5 different doses on wheat seeds and found 100% mortality on the highest dose and
found promising results on F1 progeny.
Gandhi and Pillai (2011), reported that the pulverized leaves of Punica granatum and Murraya
koenigii show the insecticidal effect along with seed protection and developmental delay against
Rhizopertha dominicain different media. They suggested that these plant powders can be used to
control post-harvest grain losses during storage.
Khatter (2011) studied the effect of Azadirachtin on the growth, development and reproductive
potential of Tribolium confusum. The chemical being a chitin synthesis inhibitor, significantly
reduced the number of oocytes per ovaries, size of basal follicles, eggs viabilities as well as
reduced hatching percentage in the next generation. The results proved the efficiency of neem
derived insecticides for the control of insect pests.

Manzoor et al. (2011) showed that the ethanolic plant extracts of Bakain, Mint, Habulas,
Lemongrass and Datura can be repellent and lethal against Tribolium castaneum. Herbst, (Red
Flour Beetle), Oryzaephilus surinamensis L. (Saw- Toothed Grain Beetle) and Callosobruchus
chinensis L. (GramDhora). Lemongrass proved to be best repellent against O. surinamensis,
Habulas extract against T. castaneum and Datura against C. chinensis.
Naseem and Khan (2011) checked the efficacy of oil extracted from extraction of Piper nigrum
and Eucalyptus camaldulensis in the concentrations of 20%, 40% and 60% for the control of T.
castaneum. The results showed that the E. camaldulensis proved to be more effective than P.
nigrum in terms of both concentrations and time interval for treatment. He proved that both of
the oils were effective to control the T. castaneum and showed maximum control at maximum
concentration and maximum time exposure.
Sagheer et al. (2011) studied the ovicidal and reproductive inhibition effects of a chitin synthesis
inhibitor, flufenoxuron against T. castaneum. They proved that the direct treatment of eggs did
not show significant results but the treatment on adults showed reduction in egg hatching and
also inhibited the development of larvae, pupae and adult emergence. The effect on F1
generation was also severely ruthless.
Upadhayay and Ahmed (2011) studied various non-chemical methods to control insect pests in
stored grains for a long time. He studied physical methods, including low and high temperature,
heat, inert powder, dust, sand + silica gel, ionizing radiations, pheromones, IGRs, and microbial
and cultural methods, as well as the use of natural plants. They found 8 natural plants and their
essential oils which proved effective against about 28 insect pests including lepidopterans and

coleopterans. These plant materials tended to reduce oviposition, proved to be repellent and
caused mortality against those pests.
Bawa et. al. (2012) evaluated the efficacy of Bitter leaf products at different doses with pearl
millet seeds and Actellic EC (2%) for the control of Tribolium confusum. He found that the
actellic extract caused significantly higher mortality in adults than bitter leaf treated grains and
control. Whereas the powders were not significantly different from control at all levels.
Hameed et al (2012) checked the biocidal activity of a commercial insecticide Spinosad, and the
extracts of two plant extracts, viz, kanair(Nerium oleander) and neem (Azadirchta indica).He
found that spinosad work out best for T. castaneum followed by neem and kanair. He concluded
that T. castaneum can be managed in a better way by using bio-pesticides.
Rajasri and Rao (2012) checked the efficacy of neem products like neem oil and commercially
available neem formulations viz. Econeem plus, Neemindia and Neemazal against pulse
beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis which were compared with deltamethrin treatment as a
chemical check in the Bengal gram. The neem formulations proved to be very effective against
C. chinensis in stored bengal gram up to 12 months storage. He suggested the use of neem based
insecticides against C. chinensis.

Chapter3.

Materials and Methods

The laboratory study was carried out in the Eco-toxicology laboratory, Department of
Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture Sciences & Technologies, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan.

Plant test material:

Wheat flour was used as a medium of experiment, while ten different botanicals
including neem seeds, castor bean seeds, garlic, turmeric, ginger, lemon grass, eucalyptus, red
chili, black pepper and peppermint were used. Grinding was done with the help of electric coffee
grinder in the Eco-toxicology laboratory, Department of Entomology. Neem seeds, castor bean
seeds, garlic, turmeric, lemon grass and black pepper were crushed and powder was formed.
Neem Seeds:
The neem seeds were obtained from a local tree. The seeds were cleaned properly
and dried in the shade so that the active constituent may not lost. When the seeds were dried
enough, they were ground to fine powder with the help of an electric coffee grinder. The powder
was mixed in four different concentrations viz Dose 1, 0.18g/60g wheat flour, Dose 2, 0.24 g/60g
wheat flour, Dose 3, 0.30 g/60g wheat flour and Dose 4, 0.36 g/60g wheat flour in five
replications each.
Castor bean seeds:
Castor bean seeds were collected from castor bean trees and were shade dried.
The seeds were ground manually prior to electric grinding to make fine powder. The powder of

the castor bean seeds was mixed with 60 grams of wheat flour with four different doses (0.18g,
0.24g, 0.30g and 0.36g respectively) in five replications of each.
Garlic:
Fresh garlic was procured from the local market. The powder was made after
drying the garlic bulb in the shade with the help of the electric grinder. This powder was mixed
with 60 grams the wheat flour at the dose of (0.1g, 0.2g, 0.4g and 0.8g) in five replications each.
Turmeric:
Turmeric powder was purchased from the local market. The powder was mixed
with the wheat flour in four different concentrations (0.25g, 0.75g, 1.5g and 2.25g) in five
replications each.
Lemon grass:
The dry leaves of lemongrass were purchased from the market. These leaves were
ground and powder was formed. The powder in four concentrations (0.15g, 0.45g, 0.9g and 1.5g)
was mixed with wheat flour in five replications.
Red Chili:
Fresh red chili was taken from the chili field and dried in the shade. The dried
chili was ground and powder was sieved and mixed in the wheat flour in four doses (0.3g, 0.6g,
0.9g and 1.8g) in five replications.
Eucalyptus:
Green leaves of eucalyptus were obtained from the eucalyptus trees. The leaves
were shade dried in the lab. The dried leaves were crushed and ground and then sieved to get the

power of eucalyptus so that it may be easily mixed in the wheat flour. This powder was mixed in
four concentrations (0.18g, 0.24g, 0.30g and 0.36g) in five replications of each.
Peppermint:
Green leaves along with branches of the peppermint plant was taken from the
field and dried in shade. The grinding and sieving of the dried leaves was done to get the powder
of peppermint to be mixed easily in wheat flour. The powder was mixed with the wheat flour in
four different concentrations (0.15g, 0.45g, 0.9g and 1.5g) was mixed with wheat flour in five
replications.
Ginger:
Ginger rhizomes were purchased from the market and cut into pieces. These were
dried in the shade inside the laboratory The dried ginger was ground and fine powder is formed.
The ginger powder was mixed in 60g of wheat flour in four different concentrations (0.6g, 0.9g,
1.2g and 1.5g) in five replications
Black pepper:
Dry black pepper was purchased from the local market and ground in powder
form. The powder was mixed in 60g wheat flour as a treatment against T.castaneum. in four
different concentrations (0.3g, 0.6g, 0.9g and 1.8 g) in five replications each.

Deltamethrin:
Decis super (Bayer Crop Science (Pvt) Ltd Pakistan) were taken as a source of
deltamethrin for bio assay against Tribolium castaneum in comparison with botanicals, bio assay
was performed in the Eco-toxicology laboratory, Department of Entomology. The glass jar was
film coated of deltamethrin solution.

Methodology:
Each dose of every botanical was added to 60 grams wheat flour in the jars having 500ml
capacity. The mixing was done with the help of stirrers to ensure thorough mixing. 3 pairs of
adult T. castaneum were put in each of the jars and the jars were tightly closed with a muslin
cloth and a rubber band. The adult pairs were removed after a week and the mortality was
checked. The adult pairs laid the eggs in the flour to continue a next generation. The treated flour
and jars were observed twice a week to check the larvae and pupae and the data were recorded.
The pupae were counted for each of the treatments including a control group. The temperature
throughout the experiment was 255 C and relative humidity was 405.

Chapter4.

Results

In case of black pepper decreasing trend in pupal emergence was observed from lowest to
highest dose. At Dose 1 highest number of pupae i.e. 94.00 emerged followed by 65.00 pupae at
Dose 2, 55.20 pupae at Dose 3 and 50.00 pupae at Dose 4. Adult mortality was found in order;
Dose 3 (n=5.80)>Dose 1 (n=4.80)>Dose 4 (n=4.60)>Dose 2 (n=4.20) (Figure 1).

100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00

f(x) = - 14.18x + 101.5

R = 0.87

60.00
Mean

50.00
40.00
30.00

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

20.00
10.00
0.00

f(x) = 0.1x + 4.6

R = 0.04

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 1. Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Black pepper

In case of Castor bean, a zigzag pattern in pupal emergence was observed at the four doses.
Pupal emergence at different doses of castor bean was found in order; Dose 2 (n= 49.80)>Dose 4
(n= 27.80)>Dose 1 (n= 16.40)>Dose 3 (n= 16.40). Adult mortality was highest at Dose 4 (5.20
adults) followed by Dose 2 (5.00 adults), Dose 1 (4.80 adults) and Dose 3 (4.60 adults) (Figure
2).

60.00
50.00
40.00
Mean 30.00
20.00

f(x) = - 0.1x + 28
R = 0

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

10.00
0.00

f(x) = 0.08x + 4.7

R = 0.16

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 2.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Castor bean

At different doses of eucalyptus an arbitrary fashion of pupal emergence was detected. At

Dose 4 highest number of pupae i.e. 108.20 emerged followed by Dose 3 (90.20 pupae), 84.20
pupae at Dose 1 and 69.00 pupae at Dose 2. Adult mortality was found in order; Dose 4
(n=5.40)>Dose 3 (n=5.20)>Dose 1 (n=5.00)>Dose 2 (n=4.60) (Figure 3).
120.00
100.00
80.00
Mean

60.00
40.00

f(x) = 9.32x + 64.6

Pupal Emergence
R = 0.55
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

20.00
0.00

f(x) = 0.18x + 4.6

R = 0.46

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 3.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Euclyptus

In case of lemongrass, a zigzag pattern of pupal emergence was found. Pupal emergence at
different doses of castor bean was found in order; Dose 2 (n= 83.60)>Dose 1 (n= 59.80)>Dose 3
(n= 44.80)>Dose 4 (n=38.60). Adult mortality was highest at Dose 2 (6.00 adults) followed by
Dose 1 (5.60 adults), Dose 3 (5.60 adults) and Dose 4 (4.40 adults) (Figure4).

90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
Mean

f(x) = - 10.24x + 82.3

R = 0.44

50.00
40.00
30.00

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

20.00
10.00
0.00

f(x) = - 0.4x + 6.4

R = 0.56

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 4.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Lemon Grass

At different doses of neem seed a random manner of pupal emergence was discovered. At Dose 1
highest number of pupae (126.20) emerged followed by Dose 3 (48.80 pupae), 48.40 pupae at
Dose 2 and at Dose 4, 28.60 pupae emerged. Adult mortality was observed in fashion; Dose 2
(n=6.00)>Dose 4 (n=5.20)>Dose 1 (n=4.80)>Dose 3 (n=4.80) (Figure 5).
140.00
120.00
100.00
80.00

f(x) = - 29.24x + 136.1

R = 0.76

Mean
60.00
40.00

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

20.00
0.00

f(x) = 0x + 5.2
R = 0

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 5.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Neem Seeds

In case of peppermint, an arbitrary array of pupal emergence was observed. Pupal emergence at
altered doses of peppermint was detected in order; Dose 4 (n=62.80)>Dose 1 (n= 50.60)>Dose 3
(n=36.80)>Dose 2 (n=31.60). Mortality in adults was on peak at Dose 2 and dose 3 (5.00 adults)
followed by Dose 4 (4.80 adults) and Dose 1 (4.00 adults) (Figure6).
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00

f(x) = 4.24x + 34.7

R = 0.15

Mean
30.00
20.00

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

10.00
0.00

f(x) = 0.24x + 4.1

R = 0.42

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 6. Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Peppermint.

In case of red chili pupal emergence was recorded at four different doses, as Dose 2
highest pupal emergence was observed as than following order of pupal emergence was observed
Dose 4 (87.00 pupae) followed by Dose 3 (70.40 pupae) and Dose 1 (40.60 pupae). Similarly in
case adult mortality was higher in Dose 2 (5.00) (Figure 7).
100.00
90.00
80.00

f(x) = 11.58x + 44
R = 0.4

70.00

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults Mortality)

60.00
Mean

50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00

f(x) = 0.1x + 4.5

R = 0.26

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 7.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Red Chili

At different doses of garlic, pupal emergence was recorded. At Dose 2 highest number of
pupae (38.20) emerged followed by Dose 1 (36.60 pupae), 25.80 pupae at Dose 3 and at Dose 4,
24.40 pupae emerged. Adult mortality was observed in fashion; Dose 1 (n=5.80)>Dose 3
(n=5.60)>Dose 2 (n=4.60)>Dose 4 (n=4.20) (Figure 8).

45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
Mean

f(x) = - 4.9x + 43.5

R = 0.78

25.00
20.00
15.00

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

10.00
5.00
0.00

f(x) = - 0.38x + 6
R = 0.4

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 8.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Garlic

In case of ginger, pupal emergence was observed at the four doses. Results was found in
order; Dose 4 (n= 36.00)>Dose 3 (n= 32.20)>Dose 1 (n= 23.20)>Dose 2 (n= 21.00). Adult
mortality was highest at Dose 2 (5.00 adults) (Figure 9).
40.00
35.00
30.00
Pupal Emergence
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

25.00
Mean 20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00

f(x) = - 0.08x + 5
R = 0.4

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 9.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Ginger

At different doses of termeric an arbitrary fashion of pupal emergence was detected. At

Dose 1 highest number of pupae i.e. 38.40 emerged followed by Dose 4 (37.80 pupae), 33.00
pupae at Dose 3 and 29.60 pupae at Dose 2. Adult mortality was found higher at Dose 1 i. e
(n=6.00) (Figure 10).
45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
Mean

f(x) = 0.16x + 34.3

R = 0

25.00
20.00
15.00

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

10.00
5.00
0.00

f(x) = - 0.58x + 6
R = 0.59

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 10.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Termeric

As comparing one insecticide deltamethrin with botanicals, four doses was prepared as pupal
emergence was at Dose 2 minimum i. e 9.20, followed by Dose 1 pupae (n=11.40) was observed,
at Dose 3 pupal emergence was observed i.e. 14.40 and Dose 4 highest pupal emergence was
recorded i.e. 17.80. Adult mortality was higher Dose 3 i. e 3.80 (Figure 11).
20.00
18.00
16.00
14.00

f(x) = 2.44x + 7.1

R = 0.71

12.00
Mean 10.00
8.00
6.00

Pupal Emergence
Linear (Pupal
Emergence)
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults
Mortality)

4.00
2.00
0.00

f(x) = 0.72x + 0.7

R = 0.89

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 11.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses of Deltamethrin

As control level, similarly four doses was made as other botanicals and one insecticide
deltamethrin, so pupal emergence was minimum at Dose 1 i.e 23.20, at Dose 3 pupae (n=44.40)
was observed, at Dose 4 pupal emergence was observed i. e 38.00 and Dose highest pupal
emergence was recorded i. e 84.40. Adult mortality was same pattern in all Doses i.e. 6 adults
died (Figure 12).
90.00
80.00
Pupal Emergence
70.00

Linear (Pupal Emergence)

60.00
Mean

50.00
Adults Mortality
Linear (Adults Mortality)
f(x) = 0.44x + 46.4
40.00
R = 0
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00

f(x) = + 6
R = 0

D1=Dose 1, D2=Dose 2, D3=Dose 3, D4=Dose 4

Figure 12.Pupal Emergence and adult mortality at four different doses in control

The results show that many of the insecticides controlled the population of T. castaneum.
Table1 shows the effect of four doses of each of the botanical and deltamethrin used in wheat
flour on the mean number of pupae. The lettering in higher case refers to the botanical wise
comparison in the table. In the comparison of Dose1 of each botanical, the minimum number of
pupae was given by deltamethrin followed by castor bean seed and ginger. Castor bean and
ginger were not significantly different from the control group. All the other botanicals showed
the population of pupae higher than the control group. Neem seed showed the maximum
population of pupae in the flour. In the comparison of D2 of each botanical, again deltamethrin
showed the minimum number of pupae followed by peppermint, ginger and turmeric. Highest
population was recorded to be in control which was not significantly different from lemongrass,
whereas this time, neem showed significant control. In the comparison of D3 of each botanical,
deltamethrin again showed the minimum control but the results of castor bean seeds were also
significant. These were followed by garlic ginger and turmeric. The pupae population exceeded
the number of pupae in control by red chili, black pepper, neem seeds and lemongrass. In the
comparison of D4 of each botanical, Deltamethrin showed the minimum number of pupae
followed by garlic, castor bean and neem seeds. Eucalyptus showed the highest number of pupae
this time.
The dose wise letting is represented by lower case letters. In Black pepper, D3 (0.6g) and D4
(0.9g) showed the maximum control but D1 (0.3g) showed the highest population of pupae.
Castor bean seeds also showed minimum control in D3 (0.3g), D1(0.18g) and D4(0.36g); and
maximum population in D2(0.24g). Deltamethrin results showed significantly same results on all
doses. Eucalyptus, garlic, ginger and turmeric also showed no significant difference in all of the
doses. Lemongrass showed good control in D4(1.5g) followed by D3(0.9g), D1(0.15g) and

D2(0.45g). Neem seeds showed minimum population in D4(0.36g), D2(0.24g) and D3(0.3g). As
the dose increased, the number of pupae decreased. Peppermint showed minimum pupae in
D2(0.45g) and maximum in D4(1.5g). Red chili showed maximum control in D1 (0.3g).

Table1:

Maximum number of pupae in the flour treated with different botanicals

and deltamethrin
Black pepper
Castor bean
Eucalyptus
Lemon Grass
Neem Seeds
Peppermint
Red Chilli
Garlic
Ginger
Turmeric
Control
Deltamethrin
e

D1
94.000 Ba
17.000 EF b
84.200 BC a
59.800 CD ab
126.20 A a
50.600 D ab
40.600 DE b
36.600 DEF a
23.200 EF a
38.400 DE a
23.200 EF a

D2
65.000 ABCab
49.800 BCD a
69.000 AB a
83.600 A a
48.400 BCD b
31.000 DE b
93.800 A a
38.200 CDE a
21.000 DE a
29.600 DE a
84.400 A a

D3
55.200 BC b
16.400 E b
90.200 A a
44.800 BCD b
48.800 BCD b
36.800 CDEab
70.400 AB ab
25.800 DE a
32.200 CDE a
33.000 CDE a
44.400 BCD b

D4
50.000 CD b
27.800 DE b
108.20 A a
38.600 CDE b
28.600 DE b
62.800 BC a
87.000 AB a
24.400 DE a
36.000 CDE a
37.800 CDE a
38.000 CDE b

Mean & S.E

666.21
27.754.93
87.95.13
56.76.33
6313.65
45.34.51
72.957.49
31.252.26
28.12.26
34.71.32
47.58.27

11.400 Fa

9.2000 E a

14.400 E a

17.800 E a

13.21.18

Table 2 shows the number of adults in all treatments of botanicals and doses. The botanical wise
lettering is represented by higher case letters. Again in this case, the comparison of D1 of each
botanical showed that the minimum number of pupae was recorded by deltamethrin. Garlic,
neem and control showed non-significant results. In the comparison of D2 of each botanical,
followed by deltamethrin, black pepper and neem, eucalyptus and garlic showed significant
results. Lemongrass and turmeric showed no significant difference from the control group. In the
comparison of D3 of each botanical, neem seeds and castor bean seeds followed by deltamethrin,
showed minimum control. The maximum population of adults was recorded by control only. In
followed by deltamethrin, D4 of each botanical, followed by deltamethrin, neem seeds showed
the maximum control. Maximum numbers of adults were recorded in the control group followed
by eucalyptus.
According to the dose wise lettering (lower case) in table2, black pepper showed the minimum
population in D2(0.6g) and a maximum in D1(0.3g). Castor bean, eucalyptus, garlic, ginger, red
chili, peppermint and control showed no significant effect of dose to control the number of
adults. Turmeric showed the minimum number of adults in D1 (0.25g) and D3(1.5g).
Lemongrass showed maximum control on the highest dose (1.5g). Deltamethrin showed the least
number of adults with D1 and the highest number of adults was recorded to be in D4.

Table2: Maximum number of adults in the flour treated with different botanicals and
deltamethrin

Black pepper
Castor bean
Eucalyptus
Garlic
Ginger
Red chilli
Turmeric
Peppermint
Neem seeds
Lemon grass
Control
Deltamethrin

D1
4.8000 ABCab
4.8000 ABCab
5.0000 ABCa
5.8000 Aa
4.8000 ABCa
4.4000 Bca
4.8000 ABCb
4.0000 Ca
6.0000 Aa
5.6000 Aba
6.0000 Aa
1.4000 Db

D2
4.2000
5.0000
4.6000
4.6000
5.0000
5.0000
6.0000
5.0000
4.0000
6.0000
6.0000
2.4000

Bb
Aba
Ba
Ba
ABa
ABa
Aa
ABa
Bb
Aa
Aa
Cab

D3
5.8000
4.6000
5.2000
5.6000
4.8000
4.8000
4.8000
5.0000
4.2000
5.6000
6.0000
2.4000

Aba
Cda
ABCDa
ABCa
BCDa
BCDa
BCDb
ABCDa
Db
ABCa
Aa
Eab

D4
4.6000
5.2000
5.4000
4.2000
4.6000
4.8000
5.2000
4.8000
4.0000
4.4000
6.0000
3.8000

BCDab
ABCa
Aba
BCDa
BCDa
ABCDa
ABCab
ABCDa
CDb
BCDb
Aa
Da

mean + SE
4.850.22
4.90.08
5.050.11
5.050.24
4.80.05
4.750.08
5.20.18
4.70.15
4.550.31
5.40.22
60.00
2.50.31

Chapter5.

Discussions

Stored grain losses always become a threat to the food security for the mankind. Among many of
the factors of storage losses, insect pests are the main factor. Chemicals have been used for the
control of these pests but due to indiscriminate use, the pests are developing resistance against
these chemicals. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to find out an alternative which is safe and
acceptable by the local people. The research indicates that the botanicals have potential to control
the pest population in stored grains. All of the botanicals proved to have tendency to lessen the
population of T. castaneum in wheat flour.
The results show that at least one dose of every botanical has a significant effect on controlling
the population of larvae and adults. Deltamethrin showed the maximum control exhibiting the
significance of chemical control in storage. A few of the botanicals like garlic and lemongrass
showed similar results in the experiment. Neem and lemongrass effect was increased with the
increase in the concentration. Lower doses of neem showed even higher infestation in the wheat
storage, showing the resurgence phenomenon. Ahmed et al. (2000) studies did not show similar
results. He tested neem and cypermethrin and found neem to have better potential than
cypermethrin, whereas in this experiment, deltamethrin showed better results than neem.
Tapondjou et al. (2000) reported that eucalyptus leaves were used to control he pest population in
stored grains. Moreira et al. (2007) studies support our findings that peppermint
(MenthapiperitaL.), against Coleoptera pests of stored products: Oryzaephilus surinamensis L.
(Silvanidae), Rhyzopertha dominica F. Previous findings of Shayesteh and Ashouri (2010) also
supported these findings. He studied the effect of four powdered spices viz, black pepper, chili
pepper, cinnamon and turmeric as repellents against adults of

Rhyzopertha dominica F.,

Sitophilus granarius (L.) and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and found all of these plant species
to be most effective at the highest dose (2.5%) and interval (24 hours). All these experiments
prove that botanicals can be sorted out on the basis of the doses to control the pest population.
The research can be the basis for further experiments on botanicals to control storage pests.

Chapter6.

Summary

History of storing food is as old as the history of agriculture. Man started storing food and food
products since he started growing grains and cereals. The storage faced a lot of problems
including both, biotic and abiotic factors. Among the biotic factors, the most common are insects,
birds, rodents and microbial organisms. Insects are the largest group of biotic factors which
cause up to 40% loss each year. These insects include lepidopteran and coleopteran pests which
cause both quantitative and qualitative losses. Among those devastating insects, Tribolium
castanuem (Herbst) (Coloeptera: Tenebrionidae) is the major secondary pest which causes a lot
of damage to the stored commodities. Many tactics have been in application since centuries to
control these pests. Different chemicals, botanicals and physical control measures have
suppressed the pest population in the storage. Chemicals, for many previous years, are been in
use as grain protectants but due to many controversial issues like development of resistance,
safety issues, and many other problems, their use has to be abandoned. Botanicals, by the virtue
of being safe to non-target species, were selected in this research to check their effect. For this
purpose, the powder of neem seeds, castor bean seeds, red chili, black pepper, eucalyptus leaves,
ginger rhizome, garlic bulbs, lemongrass leaves, mint leaves and turmeric were selected in this
research as they were reported to have insecticidal activities in the previous experiments. Four
doses of each botanical were tested for the control of pest population. These botanicals were
tested along with a chemical Deltamethrin to compare the results. All of the botanicals showed
significant reduction in the pest population. Especially neem, lemongrass and ginger proved to
be best of all in controlling the beetle. These botanicals also caused adult mortality within a
week. All of the botanicals also reduced the number of pupae in the storage. This shows that

these plant parts have the potential to develop an insecticide effective in storage. The use of
botanicals will lead to the reduction in the use of chemicals and thus a safer and cheaper
alternative will be produced.

Chapter 7:

References

1. Ahmed, I., Perveen, A., Khan, M. F., Akhtar, K. and Azmi, M. A., 2000. Determination of
toxicity of early immature neem berries extract as compared to profenofos against Tribolium
castaneum Herbst, wild strain, pp. 20: 93-100. In Proceeding: Pakistan Congress 2001,
Jamshoro, Pakistan.
2. Arnason, J. T., Philogene, B. J. R. and Morand, P., 1989. Insecticides of plants origin.
American Chemical Society Symposium Series Vol. 387. Washington.
3. Ashouri, S. and Shayesteh, N., 2010. Insecticidal activities of two powdered spices, black
pepper and red pepper on adults of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) and Sitophilus granaries (L.).
Mun. Ent. Zool. 5(2): 600-607.
4. Babu, T.R., Reddy V. S. and Hussaini, S.H., 1989. Effect of edible and non-edible oils on the
development of the pulse beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis L.) and on viability and yield on
Mungbean (Vigna radiata [L.] Wilczek). Tropical Sci., 29: 215-220.
5. Bawa, L. Y., Bamaiyi, L. J., Amadi, O. A. and Ainika, J. N., 2012. Evaluation of Vernonia
amygdalina for the Control of Tribolium confusum on Stored Pearl Millet. World. J. Eng.
Pure. Appl. Sci. 2(2):69-73.
6. Bell, C.H., 2000. Fumigation in the 21st century. Crop Prot., 19: 563- 569.

7. Clements, S., Malreggiani, G., Broussalis., A., Martion, V. S. and Ferraro, G., 2003.
Insecticidal effects of Lamiaceae species against stored product insects. Plagas. 29(3):421426.
8. Das, D. R., Parween, S. and Faruki, S. I., 2006, Efficacy of commercial neem-based
insecticide, Nimbicidine against eggs of the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Herbst).
Univ. j. zool. Rajshahi Univ. 25: 51-55.
9. Epidi, T. and Odili, E. O., 2008. Biocidal activity of selected plant powders against Tribolium
castaneum (Herbst) in stored groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.
3(1): 001-005.
10. Facknath, J. and Sunita, D., 2006. Combination of neem and physical disturbance for the
control of four insect pests of stored products. Intern. J. Trop. Insect Sci. 26(1), 16-27.
11. Farhana, K., Islam, H., Emran, E. H. and Islam, N., 2006. Toxicity and repellent activity of
three spice materials on Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) adults. J. Boil. Sci. 14: 127-130.
12. Gandhi, N. and Pillai, S., 2011. Control of Rhyzopertha dominica (coleoptera: bostrichidae)
by pulverized leaves of Punica granatum (lythraceae) and Murraya koenigii (rutaceae). Int.
J. Agric. Biol. 13: 535540.
13. Gandhi, N., Pillai, S. and Patel, P., 2010. Efficacy of pulverized Punica granatum
(Lythraceae) and Murraya koenigii (Rutaceae) leaves against stored grain pest Tribolium
castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Int. J. Agric. Biol. 12: 616620.

14. Hameed, A., Freed, S., Hussain, A., Iqbal, M., Hussain, M., Naeem, M., Sajjad, A., Hussnain,
H., Sadiq M. A., and Tipu, A. L., 2012. Toxicological effects of neem (Azadirachta indica),
Kanair (Nerium oleander) and spinosad (Tracer 240 SC) on the red flour beetle (Tribolium
castaneum) (Herbst.). Afr. J. Agric. Res. 7(4): 555-560.
15. Haq, T., Usmani N. F. and Abbas T., 2005. Screening of plant leaves as grain protectants
against Tribolium castaneum during storage. Pak. J. Bot., 37(1): 149-153.
16. Howe, R. W., 1965. Losses caused by insects and mites in stored foods and foodstuffs. Nutr.
Abstr. Rev. 35: 285-302.
17. Isman, M. B., 2000. Plant essential oils for pest diseases management. Crop Prot. 19: 603608.
18. Isman, M. B., 2006. Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and repellents in modern agriculture
and an increasingly regulated world. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 51: 4566.
19. Jbilou, R., Ennabili, A. and Sayah, F., 2006. Insecticidal activity of four medicinal plant
extracts against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Afr. J.
Biotechnol. 5 (10): 936-940.
20. Jilani, J., Nazli, G. R., Ibrahim, F., Solangi, A. H. and Kazmi, A. R., 2003. Growth inhibiting
effect of neem seed oil obtained from different locations of Pakistan against red flour. Pak.
Entomol. 25(1):95-99.

21. Kanvil, S., Jilani, G. and Junaid-Ur-Rehman, 2006. Repellency Of Acetone Extract Of Some
Indigenous Plants Against Tribolium Castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Pak.
J. Zool. 38(4): 297-303.
22. Khatter, N. A., 2011, Efficiency of Azadirachtin, a chitin synthesis inhibitor on growth,
development and reproductive potential of Tribolium confusum and adult treatment. J.
Entomol. 8 (5): 440-449.
23. Lee, S., Peterson, C. J. and Coats, J.R., 2003. Fumigation toxicity of monoterpenoids to
several stored product insects, J. of Stored. Prod. Res. 39: 77-85.
24. Mamun, M. S. A., Shahjahan, M. and Ahmad M., 2009. Laboratory evaluation of some
indigenous plant extracts as toxicants against red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst. J.
Bangladesh. Agril. Univ. 7(1): 1-5.
25. Manzoor, F., Nasim, G., Saif, S. and Malik, S. A., 2011. Effect of ethanolic plant extracts on
three storage grain pests of economic importance. Pak. J. Bot. 43(6): 2941-2946.
26. Masamba, W. R. L., Kamanula, J. F. M., Henry, E. M. T and Nyirenda, G. K. C., 2003.
Extraction and analysis of Lemongrass (Cymbopogan citratus) oil: An essential oil with
potential to control the Larger Grain Borer (Prostephanus truncates) in stored products in
Malawi. Malawi. J. Agic. Sci. 2(1): 56-64.
27. Matthews, G. A., 1993. Insecticide application in stores, 305315. In G. A. Matthew and E.
C. Hislop (eds.) Application Technology in Crop Protection. CAB, London.

28. Mondal M. and Khalequzzaman M., 2006. Toxicity of essential oils against red flour beetle,
Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). J. Biol. Sci. 14: 43-48.
29. Moreira, M. D., Picanco, M.C., Barbosa, L. C., Gudes, C. N. R., Campos, M. R., Silva, G. A.
and Martins, J. C., 2007. Plant compounds insecticide activity against Coleoptera pests of
stored products. Pesq. agropec. Bras. 42.
30. Naseem, M. T. and Khan, R. R., 2011. Comparison of repellency of essential oils against red
flour beetle Trinolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). J. Stored. Prod.
Postharvest. Res. 2(7): 131-134.
31. Prakash, A. and Rao, J., 2006. Exploitation of newer botanicals as rice grain protectants
against Angonmois grain moth Sitotroga cerealella oliv. Entomon Trivandrum. 31: 18.
32. Prakash, A. J. and Rao, 1997. Botanical pesticides in agriculture. pp: 481. CRC/ Lewis Publs.
Boca Raton, U.S.A.
33. Pugazhvendan, S. R., Elumalai, K., Ross, P. R. and Soundararajan, M., 2009. Repellent
Activity of Chosen Plant Species against Tribolium castaneum. World. J. Zool. 4 (3): 188190.
34. Rahila, N., Jilani, G., Ibrahim, F., Kazmi, A. and Solangi, A. H., 2003. Repellency of neem
seed oil Raton products. Bulletin Natural Resources Institute, 65: 1-84.
35. Rahman, A. and Talukder F. A., 2006. Bioefficacy of some plant derivatives that protect grain
against the pulse beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus. J. Insect. Sci. 6(3): 10.

36. Rajasri, M. and Rao, P. S., 2012. Neem formulations- Safer seed protectant against pulse
beetle, Callosobruchuschinensis for long term storage of bengalgram. Int. J. Appl. Biol.
Pharma. Technol. 3(3): 323-328.
37. Rajeskaran, M. and Baker, P., 1994. Biochemical changes in the liver of house sparrows
(Passer domesticus) treated with combinations of pesticides. Indian J. Environmental
Toxicol. 4: 37-40.
38. Riebeiro, B.M., Guedes, R. N. C., Oliveira, E. E. and Santos, J. P., 2003. Insecticide
resistance and synergism in Brasilian populations of Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae). J. Stored Prod. Res. 39: 21-31.
39. Saxena, R. C., Dixit, O. P. and Sukumaran, P., 1992. Laboratory assessment of indigenous
plant extracts for anti-juvenile hormone activity in Culex quinquefasciatus. Indian. J. Med.
Res. 95:204-206.
40. Saxena, R. C., Jilani, G. and Kareem, A. A., 1988. Effects of neem on stored grain insects.
Focus on phytochemical pesticides. Florida. Entomol. 1: 97-111.
41. Sule, H. and Ahmed, B. I., 2009, Effect of Plant Product, Application Rates and Grain Type
on the Control of Red Flour Beetle Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)
on Stored Millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.). Acad. J. Entomol. 2 (1): 22-30.
42. Talukder F. A., 2006. Plant products as potential stored-product insect management agents
A mini review. Emir. J. Agric. Sci. 18(1): 17-32.

43. Tapondjou, L. A., Bouda, H., Fontem, D. A., Zapfack, L., Lontsi, D. and Sondengam B. L.,
2000. Local plants used for traditional stored product protection in the Menoua division of
the Western highlands of Cameroon. Int. Org. Biol. Control. Bullet. 23: 73-77.
44. Tripathi, A. K., Singh, A. K. and Upadhyay, S.,. 2009, Contact and fumigant toxicity of some
common spices against the storage insects Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera:
Bruchidae) and Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), Int. J. Trop. Insect. Sci.
29(3) 151157.
45. Upadhayay, R. K. and Ahmed, S., 2011, Management Strategies for Control of Stored Grain
Insect Pests in Farmer Stores and Public Ware Houses, World J. Agric. Sci., 7(5): 527-549.
46. Upadhyay, R. K. and Jaiswal, G., 2007. Evaluation of biological activities of Piper nigrum oil
against Tribolium castaneum. Bull. Insectol. 60(1): 57-61.
47. Upadhyay, R. K., Jaiswal, G. and Yadav, N., 2007. Toxicity, repellency and oviposition
inhibition activity of some essential oils against Callosobruchus chinensis. J. Applied
Biosciences. 33(1): 21-26.
48. Yang, R. Z. and Tangs, C. S., 1988. Plants used for pest control in China: a literature review.
Econ. Bot. 42: 376-406.

Chapter8:

Appendix

Appendix1: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

black pepper treated wheat flour

D1
D2
D3
D4

R1
64
82
78
37

Black Pepper
R2
R3
93
126
75
70
73
50
100
39

R4
112
28
42
39

R5
75
70
33
35

Appendix2: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

castor bean treated wheat flour

R1
9
30
35
10

D1
D2
D3
D4

Caster Bean
R2
R3
14
15
70
50
16
19
34
28

R4
28
51
5
36

R5
19
48
7
31

Appendix3: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

eucalyptus treated wheat flour

D1

R1
62

Eucalyptus
R2
R3
104
65

R4
74

R5
116

D2
D3
D4

87
66
54

58
58
185

34
116
53

88
148
170

78
63
79

Appendix4: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

lemongrass treated wheat flour

D1
D2
D3
D4

R1
38
78
42
12

Lemon Grass
R2
R3
25
76
125
75
30
43
61
40

R4
53
70
45
42

R5
107
70
64
38

Appendix5: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

neem seed treated wheat flour

D1
D2
D3
D4

R1
104
35
53
24

Neem Seed
R2
R3
165
100
33
94
45
51
54
23

R4
113
50
44
21

R5
149
30
51
21

Appendix6: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

peppermint treated wheat flour

D1
D2
D3
D4

R1
28
20
60
60

Peppermint
R2
R3
30
70
25
70
25
48
42
98

R4
65
13
17
29

R5
60
27
34
85

Appendix7: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in red

chili treated wheat flour

D1
D2
D3
D4

R1
50
118
13
103

Red Chili
R2
R3
43
29
132
100
70
98
56
99

R4
15
73
123
97

R5
66
46
48
80

Appendix8: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

garlic treated wheat flour

Garlic
D1
D2
D3
D4

R1
62
63
20
16

R2
18
61
27
35

R3
28
26
28
34

R4
57
16
14
12

R5
18
25
40
25

Appendix9: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

ginger treated wheat flour

D1
D2
D3
D4

R1
11
13
59
30

Ginger
R2
R3
35
11
15
16
15
28
45
40

R4
40
28
35
55

R5
19
33
24
10

Appendix10: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

turmeric treated wheat flour

R1
20
22
33
36

D1
D2
D3
D4

Turmeric
R2
R3
34
43
55
36
15
60
68
17

R4
55
15
25
38

R5
40
20
32
30

Appendix11: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

deltamethrin treated wheat flour

R1
12
13
9
12

D1
D2
D3
D4

Deltamethrin
R2
R3
13
14
8
11
14
22
16
32

R4
11
9
15
26

R5
7
5
12
3

Appendix12: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in

control group of wheat flour

Control
D1
D2
D3

R1
96
44
58

R2
101
113
40

R3
65
122
35

R4
76
97
40

R5
50
46
49

D4

38

31

33

46

42

Appendix13: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in black pepper

treated wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

black pepper
D1
D2
D3
0
4
6
0
6
6
0
4
6
0
2
5
0
5
6

D4
5
5
4
3
6

Appendix14: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in castor bean

treated wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

D1
4
5
5
5
5

Castor bean
D2
D3
5
5
4
6
5
4
5
5
6
3

D4
6
3
6
5
6

Appendix15: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in eucalyptus

treated wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

D1
6
4
5
4
6

Eucalyptus
D2
5
5
4
4
5

D3
5
6
4
5
6

D4
5
5
5
6
6

Appendix16: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in garlic treated

wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

D1
6
6
6
6
5

Garlic
D2
6
6
2
3
6

D3
4
6
6
6
6

D4
5
6
2
4
4

Appendix17: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in ginger treated

wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

D1
6
6
5
4
3

Ginger
D2
5
5
4
6
5

D3
5
5
5
6
3

D4
4
2
5
6
6

Appendix18: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in lemongrass

treated wheat flour

R1
R2
R3

D1
5
5
6

Lemongrass
D2
D3
6
6
6
5
6
6

D4
3
5
6

R4
R5

6
6

6
6

6
5

5
3

Appendix19: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in neem seeds

treated wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

D1
6
6
6
6
6

Neem Seeds
D2
D3
3
3
5
3
3
5
4
5
5
5

D4
4
5
3
4
4

Appendix20: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in peppermint

treated wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

D1
4
6
4
1
5

Peppermint
D2
6
2
6
6
5

D3
5
5
6
4
5

D4
4
5
5
4
6

Appendix21: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in turmeric treated

wheat flour

D1

Turmeric
D2

D3

D4

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

4
5
4
5
6

6
6
6
6
6

5
5
4
4
6

4
6
6
6
4

Appendix22: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in red chili treated
wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

D1
4
5
4
3
6

Red chili
D2
5
6
5
4
5

D3
5
5
4
4
6

D4
5
6
4
5
4

Appendix23: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in deltamethrin treated

wheat flour

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

Deltamethrin
D1
D2
D3
3
2
0
2
2
3
0
2
3
2
4
4
0
2
2

D4
4
4
5
4
2

Appendix24: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in control group of

wheat flour

D1

Control
D2

D3

D4

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

6
6
6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6

Table of Contents
Chapter1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................1
Chapter2. Review of Literature.......................................................................................................4
Chapter3. Material and Methods...................................................................................................13
Plant test material:.....................................................................................................................13
Neem Seeds:..........................................................................................................................13
Castor bean seeds:..................................................................................................................13
Garlic:....................................................................................................................................14
Turmeric:...............................................................................................................................14
Lemon grass:..........................................................................................................................14
Red Chili:...............................................................................................................................14
Eucalyptus:............................................................................................................................14
Peppermint:............................................................................................................................14
Ginger:...................................................................................................................................15

Black pepper:.........................................................................................................................15
Deltamethrin:.............................................................................................................................15
Methodology:.............................................................................................................................15
Chapter4. Results...........................................................................................................................17
Table1: Maximum number of pupae in the flour treated with different botanicals and
deltamethrin...............................................................................................................................27
Table2: Maximum number of adults in the flour treated with different botanicals and
deltamethrin...............................................................................................................................28
Chapter5: Discussions...................................................................................................................29
Chapter6: Summary.......................................................................................................................31
Chapter 7: References....................................................................................................................33
Chapter8: Appendix.......................................................................................................................40
Appendix1: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in black pepper
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................40
Appendix2: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in castor bean
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................40
Appendix3: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in eucalyptus
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................41
Appendix4: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in lemongrass
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................41

Appendix5: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in neem seed
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................42
Appendix6: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in peppermint
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................42
Appendix7: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in red chili
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................43
Appendix8: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in garlic treated
wheat flour.................................................................................................................................43
Appendix9: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in ginger treated
wheat flour.................................................................................................................................44
Appendix10: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in turmeric
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................44
Appendix11: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in deltamethrin
treated wheat flour.....................................................................................................................45
Appendix12: Maximum population of pupae recorded during 8 weeks storage in control group
of wheat flour.............................................................................................................................45
Appendix13: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in black pepper treated wheat
flour............................................................................................................................................46
Appendix14: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in castor bean treated wheat
flour............................................................................................................................................46
Appendix15: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in eucalyptus treated wheat
flour............................................................................................................................................47

Appendix16: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in garlic treated wheat flour.47
Appendix17: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in ginger treated wheat flour48
Appendix18: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in lemongrass treated wheat
flour............................................................................................................................................48
Appendix19: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in neem seeds treated wheat
flour............................................................................................................................................49
Appendix20: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in peppermint treated wheat
flour............................................................................................................................................49
Appendix21: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in turmeric treated wheat flour
...................................................................................................................................................50
Appendix22: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in red chili treated wheat flour
...................................................................................................................................................50
Appendix24: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in Deltamethrin treated wheat
flour............................................................................................................................................51
Appendix24: Adult population recorded after a week of storage in control group of wheat flour