Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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http://asq.org/cert/six-sigma-green-belt/bok
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Bring #2 pencils
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Pass is 80%
Open book
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Evaluating,
Analyzing,
Applying, and
Creating
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This Course
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This Course
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Module 1 Topics
1. Six Sigma and Organizational Goals
1.
2.
3.
Lean concepts
2.
2.
3.
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The Greek letter Sigma ( ) represents Standard Deviation, so Six Sigma literally
translates to six standard deviations
Best defined as an systematic data-driven approach that seeks to find and
eliminate causes of mistakes or defects in business processes by focusing on
outputs that are critical importance to customers
It encompasses;
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Six Sigma was first developed in the late 1980s at Motorola in response to their
struggle to meet the demanding quality targets for complex manufactured products.
Become widely known when Jack Welsh GE adopted it in 1994
Initially it was a quality measurement approach based on statistical principles
Then it transformed to a disciplined process improvement technique based on
reducing variation within the system with the help of a number of statistical tools
Roots lie in the works of Phillip B. Crosby, George D. Edwards, W. Edward Deming,
Walter Andrew Shewhart, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Joseph M. Juran, Kaoru Ishikawa ,
and Genichi Taguchi
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Phillip B. Crosby
Author of Quality is Free, one of the seminal texts of quality control
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George D. Edwards
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W. Edwards Deming
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Another insight was the difference between common- and special-cause variation
Best know for defining the seven deadly diseases of the workplace and 14 points
for management.
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8. Eliminate fear
7. Establish leadership
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quotas
21
14. The transformation is everybody's
job
Data contain both signal and noise. To be able to extract information, one
must separate the signal from the noise within the data.
3. Originated the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle popularized by Deming
4. Long-time collaboration with Deming, who championed Shewhart's ideas
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Armand V. Feigenbaum;
1. Promoter of TQM
2. Known for his 9 M's of quality; markets, management, men, money, motivation,
materials, machines, modern information sources, and mounting (constantly
improving) product requirements.
3. One of the first to insist that the customer's perspective be used to assess quality
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Joseph M. Juran;
1. Known for his three main components of quality management;
1.
2.
Quality improvement
3.
Quality planning
2. Also one of the first to insist that the customer's perspective be used to assess
quality
3. Advocated deep management involvement in the quality improvement process
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Kaoru Ishikawa ;
1. Developed the Ishikawa or fish diagram for root cause analysis
2. Major advocate of TQM and developed Quality Circles
Genichi Taguchi
1. Another advocate of TQM in Japan
2. Promoted the use of statistics in quality management
3.Wrote The Design of Experiments
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To change or improve results (the Y), you have to focus on the inputs (the Xs), modify
them, and control them
Valid measurements and data are required foundations for consistent, breakthrough
improvement
Only a critical few inputs have significant effect on the output. Concentrate on the
critical few
Every decision and conclusion has risk (), which must be weighed against the
context of the decision
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Focus on processes
Reducing process output variation to stay within the limits defined by the customer
will yield significant returns.
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By utilizing Six Sigma to identify and optimize the vital few variables impacting quality
and throughput, an organization can realize sustainable breakthrough performance.
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Profit
Market Share
Customer Satisfaction
Efficiency
Product Differentiation
While quality is not mentioned above, it is key to successfully delivering on the above
drivers.
Take profit for example; a non-Six Sigma company typically spends 25%-40% of its
revenues fixing problems. Whereas Six Sigma companies typically spend less than 5
percent of their revenues fixing problems
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FY Final Yield
Cycle Time
Takt Time
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Net Present Value (NPV) = Each cash inflow/outflow is discounted back to its present
value (PV). Then they are summed to give the NPV.
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Balanced Scorecard;
Many Six Sigma professionals advocate the use of balanced scorecard metrics as a
method for ensuring that the project meets both customer and business needs.
The balanced scorecard approach includes;
Financial and non-financial metrics,
financial,
customer,
internal processes,
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The modern Lean approach was pioneered by Taiichi Ohno at Toyota during the 70's
Goal is to identify processes that do not add value and eliminate them as much as
possible
In Lean, inventory is considered a drag, rather than an asset; so a lean business will
do everything it can to minimize inventory
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A process is decomposed and each activity analyzed to see if it adds value or does
not add value
Key tools concepts and methods for determining if an activity is value-added or nonvalue-added, then addressing the non-value-added activities include; Process Cycle
Efficiency, Value Stream Mapping, Spaghetti Diagrams, Kaizen, 5S, and Poke Yoke
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Overproduction/overprocessing
Correction/rework
Excess inventory
Excess Motion
Transportation
Waiting
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Flow-Pull-Perfection
lGoal is to create continuous flow through the organization rather than improving
limited areas of a process
Pull means that each activity in a process should receive only the necessary
materials and resources when a subsequent activity is 'demanding' the process be
completed
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Method for calculating process cycle efficiency is to divide value-added time by process lead time
Little's law - process lead time is calculated by dividing the number of items in a process by the number
of times the process is completed in an hour
While 100% would represent that all activities added value, it is more typical to approach 25%
efficiency process cycle efficiency after the implementation of lean strategies; though on occasion
transactional processes can approach 50%
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PDCA
2.
DMAIC
3.
4.
5.
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PDCA defines the improvement cycle that underpins the three key Six Sigma improvement
cycles, it stands for; Plan -> Do -> Check > Act
It is an iterative process developed by Walter Shewhart and popularized by Deming.
Create a Plan,
Act on the results by returning to the Plan phase in order to Plan whatever corrective
action or improvement that should be pursued
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Repeat as needed
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DMAIC is the Six Sigma Life Cycle for improving existing processes, it stands for;
Define - The purpose of this step is to clearly define the business problem, goals,
potential resources, project scope and establish a high-level project timeline
Measure - The purpose of this step is to objectively establish current baselines as the
basis for improvement. This is the data collection step.
Analyze - The purpose of this step is to analyze the collected data in order to identify
and validate the actual root cause of the quality or cycle time issues is
identified.
Improve - The purpose of this step is to identify, implement and test the solution(s) to
the root cause problem identified in the Analyze phase.
Control The purpose of this step is to create and execute a control plan as well as
monitor the improvements to ensure continued and sustainable success
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Understand how DMADV and IDOV align with the DMAIC lifecycle
Describe how DMADV and IDOV are used for improving the end product or process
during the Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) phase
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Measure Measure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality),
product capabilities, production process capability, and risks
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Design Design an improved alternative, best suited per analysis in the previous
step
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Verify Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and
hand it over to the process owner(s)
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IDOV is the methodology most commonly associated with design for Six Sigma, or
DFSS. IDOV stands for;
Identification- Identify the customer needs, create an effective business model, and
establish the Six Sigma team
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Optimization - Adjust the factors that impact the process quality until the optimum
outputs are achieved
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Validation Validate the new process and make any necessary adjustments
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Both IDOV and DMADV have the same objectives and are rigorous in nature; their
only real difference is the terminology.
Overall goals are to reduce delivery time and development costs, as well as to
increase effectiveness and better satisfy customers
More concerned with the creation of new, high-quality processes than with the
incremental improvement of old processes
Is best used for new product and process development because it includes a design
phase
Also useful when the standard DMAIC lifecycle has proven ineffective at bringing an
existing process up to sufficient quality standards as due to the process needing an
extensive overhaul
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It is quite possible to start with DMAIC, realize that a substantive redesign is needed,
then switch to using either IDOV or DMADV
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Severity (SEV)
Occurrence (OCC)
Detectability (DET)
Nearly certain to
detect before reaching
the customer (p = 0)
Extremely low
probability of reaching
the customer without detection
(0 <p <= 0.01)
Customer
dissatisfaction due to
reduced performance
Likely to be detected
before reaching the
Customer (0.05 <p <=0.20)
Customers
productivity is
reduced
Documented moderate
failure rate
Might be detected
before reaching the
Customer (0.20 <p ,=0.50)
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Severity (SEV)
Occurrence (OCC)
Detectability (DET)
Undocumented moderate
failure rate
Failures common
10
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Some organizations have set guidelines on what actions are to be taken based on the
RPN value
The sum of the RPNs for all the potential failure modes is the overall RPN for the
process in question
One can anticipate and compare the effects of proposed changes by calculating
hypothetical RPNs for different scenarios
Must be customized to fit the product or process that is being analyzed as well as the
particular needs and priorities of the organization
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It can also play an important role in day to day improvement and problem solving
Ideally should be conducted prior to start-up of a new process, but can also be
conducted on existing processes
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End of Module 1
In this module we covered;
1. Six Sigma and Organizational Goals
1.
2.
3.
Lean concepts
2.
2.
3.
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For the first two reasons, there are three ways to decide on a
specific project;
1.An 'in your face' problem or opportunity
2.Brainstorming based on individual or organization knowledge
of possible areas for improvement or opportunities to pursue
3.Structure project selection approach based on data impacting
the bottom line metrics.
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Responsible
Party
Business
Case
Project
Charter
Cost
Benefits
Analysis
Frequency
Resources
Champion/
Executive Sponsor
Business Unit
Members
of Update
N/A
Black or Green
Belt(s)
Champion &
Business
Champion &
Ongoing /
D,M,A,I,C
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Cycle time
Defects
Cost
Revenue
Complaints
Compliance
Safety
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The selected measure or KPI should tie in directly with the organization's strategic
objective
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Several key Business Measures, Metrics, or KPIs fall into the following
overall categories;
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Critical-to-cost
Critical-to-schedule
Critical-to-quality
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Critical-to-cost;
Identifies areas of a process that significantly increase the expense
Critical-to-cost metrics should include not only the typical cost of a task, but
also the increased cost of errors incurred in the performance of this task
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Critical-to-schedule;
Cycle time is the most common critical-to-schedule metric. Cycle time is the
duration required for the completion of a defined process
Use process efficiency and velocity numbers to assess value added relative
to cycle time
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Critical-to-schedule (Cont'd);
In most Six Sigma projects, cycle time is considered secondary to metrics
related to quality or cost.
It can be useful to baseline quality and cost metrics and then work to reduce
cycle time
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Critical-to-quality;
A common critical-to-quality metrics is yield, or the amount of completed
product divided by the amount of product that began the process
The difference between perfection and reality is known as the scrap rate
While useful, it does not indicate where in the process errors occurred
Yield does not distinguish those pieces of scrap that can still be salvaged
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Key KPI
1.An Activity is an action that has one or more processes associated to it;
such as a customer call received at a call center
2.A process is a specific, repetitive, and systematic set of steps to be followed
to produce a specific value-added outcome; such as signing up a new
customer for cable service. Processes have inputs, processing steps, and
outputs
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The Business Case communicates the need for the project in terms of
meeting business objectives
It is comprised of:
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Line Graph
Run Charts
Control Charts
Process Flowcharting
Layout Diagramming
Process Watch
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We can have only One Primary Metric. Recall the equation Y = f (X); well
once your defect is located then Y will be your defect. Your primary metric will
measure it
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The Project Measure (Primary Metric) has to directly link between the process and its
KPIs
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Generating Charts;
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One for Primary Metric and one for each of the Secondary Metrics
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To analyze and measure the process from start to finish as it is currently being
performed
Resolve defects and errors by focusing on the process, not the people
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Process Maps
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Process Maps
In the Define phase, they are used to record top-level processes
In the Measure phase, they are used to record the lower process levels and reveal
differences in the perceptions of shareholders
In the Analyze phase, process maps are used to investigate the sources of variation
or excessive cycle time
In the Control phase process maps may be used to record process adjustments
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Cycle times
Defects
Inventory levels
7.Decision points
8.Problems that have immediate fixes
9.Process control needs
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PARALLELAGRAM shows
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the continuation of a
flowchart to another page
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One of the Define Phase deliverables is the high level Process Map; which as a
minimum must include;
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Directional flow
Value categories
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Linear Flow
Customer
Hungry
Calls
for
Order
Take
Order
Make
Pizza
Cook
Pizza
Pizza
Correct
Box
Pizza
Deliver
Pizza
Customer
Eats
This diagram shows the process steps in a sequential flow, generally ordered from
an upper left corner of the map towards the right side
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Customer
Hungry
Calls for
Order
Customer
Eats
Take
Order
Make
Pizza
Cook
Pizza
Pizza
Correct
Box
Pizza
Deliverer
Cook
Cashier
Customer
Deliver
Pizza
The Swim Lane map shows who or which department is responsible for the steps
in a process. A timeline can be added to show how long it takes each group to
perform their work.
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Value Enabling:
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Non-Value Added
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Everything else
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external customer.
External customers needs and requirements are best met when all process
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You may discover that there is no process for performing the work.
In these cases, bypass the Analysis step and proceed directly to Improve to design
and implement a production process that meets the needs of the customers
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Key question is Why was there no process, and what other products and services
are being produced without a process?
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Then bring the people who work the process together to develop the best method
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Or;
2. A bad process exists. Of course, the process must be revised
But the questions must be asked
1. Why are processes difficult to follow?
2. Are suggestions for improvement not offered, or taken?
3. Are the ad hoc 'processes' better?
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Process Boundary defines the process entry and exit points where inputs flow in and
outputs flow out
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Provides a clear picture of the process scope
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Defines the external interfaces
Internal interfaces
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Hand-off points within the process boundaries
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Most critical where the process crosses functional or organizational
borders
Most process inefficiencies are related to insufficient interface communication (lack
of coordination)
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Important to identify critical interfaces early on
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Benchmarking;
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Benchmarking process;
1.Determine what and why youre benchmarking - Decide on the real reasons
youre benchmarking. Identify what you want to benchmark and the reasons why
2.Identify the drivers find the drivers that will be used to determine the particular
metric you are benchmarking.
3.Find a way to measure how are you going to measure these driver?
4.State your current situation here you need to find your base point measure
your current performance.
5.Identify who or what you are going to benchmark against who do you want to
compare against? Competitors? Best Practices?
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Competitive Benchmarking;
Can be defined as the continuous process of comparing a firms practices
and performance measures with that of its most successful competitors
Compare and use the comparison as input to your project selection process
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Collaborative Benchmarking;
Carried out collaboratively by groups of companies; either related
subsidiaries or otherwise independent companies collaborating
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SIPOC is used during the define stage of DMAIC to identify each top-level process,
as well as its stakeholders
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SIPOC;
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The list of Customers from your SIPOC are the starting point for the Voice of the
Customer analysis
The major process steps (macro map) from your SIPOC are the overview for later
detailed process mapping
The Inputs, Process Steps, and Outputs on your SIPOC generates ideas for what
can and should be measured, which feeds the Data Collection Plan in the Measure
phase
The SIPOC contains clues about potential root causes that drive performance
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SIPOC;
Suppliers are those persons who contribute inputs to the process
Inputs are defined as all of the knowledge, resources, and information required to
produce the desired output
Customers are all of those parties that receive the deliverables (outputs)
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Provides the impetus, direction & alignment necessary for Six Sigma ultimate
success
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Process Owner
lIs the manager of a process. The process owner should be identified and involved in
all Six Sigma projects relating to the process owner area.
A process owner should:
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Customer
lIs the recipient of the output (good, service, product or idea) obtained from a process
lCan be internal or external
Has the final 'say' on what constitutes acceptable quality and value; especially the
external customer
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Classic Lean definition of value is anything the customer is willing to pay for
lConcept of Voice of the Customer is key to Six Sigma
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Project selection
Process elements
Benchmarking
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Outline
1.What is the Voice of the Customer
2.Voice of the Customer Process
3.Customer identification
4.Customer data
5.Customer requirements
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VOC Process
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Outcomes
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Customer identification
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Goal
l Identify your customers
l Decide what you need to know about their needs
l Decide when and how you will get this information
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Customer identification
S
U
P
P
L
I
E
R
S
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Inputs
Process
Outputs
AB-588.2
C
U
S
T
O
M
E
R
S
What are the outputs of your process? Who are the customers of that
output?
Are there particular groups of customers whose needs are especially
important to your organization and project success?
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Customer identification
S
U
P
P
L
I
E
R
S
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Inputs
Process
Outputs
AB-588.2
C
U
S
T
O
M
E
R
S
What are the outputs of your process? Who are the customers of that
output?
Are there particular groups of customers whose needs are especially
important to your organization and project success?
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Customer Identification
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Customer Identification
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If your customers seem to have similar needs across the board, you
dont need to divide them into segments
If you suspect that different groups will have significantly different
needs, and that these differences will influence how you structure
your process, product, or service, then you need to think in terms of
segments
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Customer Data
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What do you need to know about the needs of the customers youve
identified to make sure your projects purpose stays on track?
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Customer Data
For all customers, you should ask questions such as:
1. What is important to you about our process/product/service? (Ask them to rank
each of these needs in order of importance.)
2. What do you think of as a defect?
3. How are we performing on the areas you consider important?
4. What do you like about our product/service?
5. What can we improve about our process/product/service?
What can we do to make your job easier?
6. What specific recommendations would you make to us?
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Customer Data
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Customer Data
Typical Reactive Data
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Customer complaints
Problem or service hot lines
Technical support calls
Customer service calls
Claims, credits, contested payments
Sales reporting
Product return information
Warranty claims
Web page activity
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Customer Data
Typical Proactive Data
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Interviews
Focus groups
Surveys
Comment cards
Data gathering during sales visits or calls
Direct customer observation
Market research, market monitoring
Benchmarking
Quality scorecards
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Customer Data
The last steps in planning your data collection are to decide;
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Specifically how the data will obtained
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Over what time frame the data gathering should take place
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Customer Requirements
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135
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Taguchi Methods
FMEAs
Fault Tree Analysis
Cause-Effect Diagram
Pareto
Benchmarking
Pugh Concept Selection
Etc
Statisical Process
Control (SPC)
Check Sheets
- Monitor
- Continuous Improvement
- Hold the Gains
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Company Measures
Converted to
Manufacturing Process
Converted to
Production Requirements
(Day to Day Operations)
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139
140
Knowledge Transfer
Customer Satisfaction
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CUSTOMER
SATISFACTION
EXCITEMENT
VERY SATISFIED
UNEXPECTED, PLEASANT
SURPRISES
3M CALLS THEM
CUSTOMER DELIGHTS
DID NOT
DO AT ALL
UNSPOKEN
SPOKEN
PERFORMANCE
ONE-DIMENSIONAL
MOST MARKET
RESEARCH
UNSPOKEN
TIME
BASIC
DEGREE OF
AGREEMENT
FULLY
ACHIEVED
EXPECTED
TYPICAL OF
INVISIBLE PRODUCTS
VERY DISSATISFIED
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Voice of
the customer
Translating
for action
WHAT
WHAT
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HOW
UNTANGLING
THE WEB WITH A MATRIX
HOW
HOW
WHAT
RELATIONSHIPS
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Customer
importance
ratings
What the
customer
wants
Interrelationships
How to satisfy
customer wants
Competitive
assessment
House of Quality is a
complex matrix diagram
extensively used in QFD
Relationship
matrix
Target values
Technical
evaluation
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Weighted
rating
145
Interrelationships
What the
customer
wants
What the
Customer
Wants
Relationship
Matrix
Technical
Attributes and
Evaluation
Lightweight
Easy to use
Reliable
Easy to hold steady
Color correction
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3
4
5
2
1
Customer
importance
rating
(5 = highest)
146
Analysis of
Competitor
s
How to Satisfy
Customer Wants
What the
Customer
Wants
Relationship
Matrix
Module 3
Ergonomic design
Paint pallet
Auto exposure
Auto focus
Technical
Attributes and
Evaluation
How to Satisfy
Customer Wants
147
Analysis of
Competitor
s
How to Satisfy
Customer Wants
Aluminum components
Interrelationships
Interrelationships
High relationship
Medium relationship
Low relationship
Lightweight
Easy to use
Reliable
Easy to hold steady
Color corrections
What the
Customer
Wants
Technical
Attributes and
Evaluation
3
4
5
2
1
Relationship matrix
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Relationship
Matrix
148
Analysis of
Competitor
s
How to Satisfy
Customer Wants
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Relationship
Matrix
Technical
Attributes and
Evaluation
Ergonomic design
Paint pallet
Auto exposure
Auto focus
requirements
Low electricity
Relationships between
the things we can do
Aluminum components
What the
Customer
Wants
149
Analysis of
Competitor
s
How to Satisfy
Customer Wants
What the
Customer
Wants
House of Quality;
Relationship
Matrix
Technical
Attributes and
Evaluation
Lightweight
3
Easy to use
4
Reliable
5
Easy to hold steady
2
Color corrections
1
Our importance ratings
Weighted rating
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22
27 27
32
150
25
Analysis of
Competitor
s
How to Satisfy
Customer Wants
Relationship
Matrix
Technical
Attributes and
Evaluation
Lightweight
3
Easy to use
4
Reliable
5
Easy to hold steady
2
Color corrections
1
Our importance ratings
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22
5
151
Company B
What the
Customer
Wants
Company A
House of Quality;
Analysis of
Competitor
s
How to Satisfy
Customer Wants
G
G
F
G
P
P
P
G
P
P
Technical
evaluation
Panel ranking
2 circuits
75%
2 to
Target values
(Technical
attributes)
0.5 A
Technical
Attributes
and
Evaluation
Analysi
s of
Compe
titors
What
the
Custo
mer
Wants
How to
Satisfy
Customer
Wants
Relationship
Matrix
Interrelationships
Company A
0.7
60%
yes
ok
Company B
0.6
50%
yes
ok
Us
0.5
75%
yes
ok
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Company B
Company A
Ergonomic design
Paint pallet
Auto exposure
Easy to use
Reliable
1
Failure 1 per 10,000
Panel ranking
22 9 27 27 32 25
2 circuits
Color correction
ok
ok
ok
Technical
evaluation
Company A
Company B
Us
75%
0.5 A
Target values
(Technical
attributes)
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Auto focus
Lightweight
2 to
Aluminum components
153
0.5 75% yes
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l
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How were the design requirements (etc) determined? Challenge the usual inhouse standards.
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l
l
QFD on everything
Inadequate priorities
Lack of teamwork
l
Wrong participants
l
Turf issues
l
Lack of team skills
l
Lack of support
Too much chart focus
Handling trade-offs
Too much internal focus
Stuck on tradition
Hurry up and get done
Failure to integrate QFD
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Customer identification
Customer data
Customer requirements
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Outline
1.Project charter
2.Project scope
3.Project metrics
4.Project planning tools
5.Project documentation
6.Project risk analysis
7.Project closure
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Will direct employee efforts to the right areas because it will identify the key
variables that affect performance at all levels
Will ensure that a proposed project does not interfere with other work
performed in the company
Will ensure that the planned efforts are directed to the most important
aspects of performance
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What are the symptoms? What happens when the problem appears?
Where do symptoms appear? Where dont they appear?
When do symptoms appear? Where dont they appear?
Who is involved? Who isnt?
Why deal with it now?
How do we think it happened? How widespread is the problem?
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167
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In general, Six Sigma projects should take no more than four months
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Should include
l Major activities and tasks
l Sub-processes
l Process boundaries
l Inputs
l Outputs
Documents reality, not how you think the process is supposed to be
completed
Should identify opportunities for improvement
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In this case, regrouping into a few large categories may bring about a better
result
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Planning
Scheduling
Improvement
Controlling
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Slack time is the difference between the latest and earliest times for a given
event. Thus, assuming everything else remains on schedule,
The slack for an event indicates how much delay in reaching the event can
be tolerated without delaying the project completion
Activities with slack times of zero are said to lie on the critical path for the
project. A critical path for a project is defined as a path through the network
such that the activities on this path have zero slack
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In the Define phase, WBSs are combined with Pareto analysis to organize
problems before solutions are applied
In the Analyze phase, WBSs are used to organize all of the issues and
complaints to be handled during the Improve phase
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Management briefings
Story Boards
Summary spreadsheets
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80%
60%
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47%
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Project metrics
Project documentation
Project closure
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Outline
1.Affinity diagrams,
2.Interrelationship diagrams
3.Tree diagrams
4.Prioritization Matrices
5.Matrix diagrams,
6.Process Decision Program Charts (PDPC)
7.Activity Network diagrams
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Affinity Diagram
Created in the 1960s by Japanese anthropologist Jiro Kawakita.
Tool for assimilating and understanding large amounts of information
Draw out common themes from a large amount of information
Discover all the hidden linkages
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Record each idea with a marking pen on a separate sticky note or card.
Each participant reads and randomly posts their ideas on the wall
Do not place the notes in any order. Do not try to determine categories or
headings in advance
After all ideas are posted begin Silent Consensus
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Its all right to move a note someone else has already moved
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205
Limited
Professional
Development
Work
Environment
Leadership
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Low
Morale
Public Health
Misunderstood
206
Interrelationship diagrams
Identifies and explores causal relationships among related concepts or ideas
Use the strategic factors derived from your affinity diagram to develop the
concerns for your interrelationship diagram.
l
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Note: examine only cause and effect relationships. Likely will have arrows
on only 50% of relationships
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Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ASQ Quality Press
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Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ASQ Quality Press
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Tree diagrams
Deconstruct a high-level entity, factor, deliverable or plan into its component
elements or tasks
Use the key drivers and bottlenecks identified from your interrelationship
diagram .
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Link each goal to the purpose (these are the first branches of the tree)
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Goals
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Strategies
214*
Matrix Data Analysis - Arranges a large array of numbers so that they may
be visualized and comprehended easily
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217
Changing Minds
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Typical applications
l
Establishing an implementation plan for improvement project
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It is used to identify a projects critical path, as well as the most likely project
completion time, the most optimistic time, and the most pessimistic time
l
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End
Affinity diagrams,
Interrelationship diagrams
Tree diagrams
Prioritization Matrices
Matrix diagrams,
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Outline
1.Process Performance
2.Communication
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Calculate as follows:
For a given sub-process: the defect opportunities (o ) are defined (based
on customer needs & requirements), a given number of units (n ) are
chosen, and the total number of defects (d ) are counted
For discrete attributes, the number of opportunities where a Pass/Fail
judgment was made is counted as d, for continuous attributes; the number
of opportunities where the specification limit(s) were exceeded is counted
as d
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A Y norm is the fraction is a rolled-up weighted average of the subprocess First Pass Yields for an end-to-end process
This measure permits comparisons across different business processes
and across processes of varying complexity
A rolled-up process sigma can be calculated from Normalized Yield
(convert the yield value to a percentage and use the table on slide 6
To calculate; use o, n, and d. As well I = the number of subprocesses
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Is the probability of a unit going through all the processes without a defect
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DO NOT misinterpret this to mean that only normally distributed data can be
used to calculate a sigma there is an alternative.
.
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244
244
245
245
Labor Savings
Cycle Time Improvements
Scrap Reductions
Hidden Factory Costs
Inventory Carrying Cost
Customer Loyalty
Strategic Savings
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246
247
247
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OR
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Whichever is lower
251
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End
Communication
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Outline
1.Team stages and dynamics
2.Team roles and responsibilities
3.Team tools
4.Team Communication
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Definition: Stage 1 teams are generally new teams that are learning how to
work together
Characteristics of stage 1 teams: Members tend to be tentative and
polite and to have little conflict
Critical skills and activities: Stage 1 teams need to identify their purpose,
develop group norms, identify group processes, define roles, build
relationships and trust
Role of facilitator/leader: Stage 1 teams usually need a strong leader who
can help the team go through its forming activities
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270
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273
Champion
Takes a very active sponsorship and leadership role in conducting and implementing
Six Sigma projects
Champions should:
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Takes a leadership role as keeper of the Six Sigma process and advisor to executives
or business unit managers
l
l
l
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Black Belt
l
Is a full time change agent and improvement leader.
l
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Green Belt
lIs an individual who works on projects part time, either as a team member for
complex projects or as a project leader for simpler projects
Green Belts should:
Train team members in the use of Six Sigma tools and methods through
all phases of the project
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280
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Team Communication
The Six Sigma team uses the usual forms of communications; both within the
team and out to other teams and stakeholders. These include:
l
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End
Team tools
Team Communication
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Gain consensus on the business case and mobilize the required resources
Outline
1. Measure Phase Overview
2. Process Analysis and Documentation
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Measure Phase
l
The team will focus on gathering the information necessary to complete the
project
First, the team will attempt to define each relevant process in great detail
It will be necessary to develop a group of metrics appropriate to the
processes
No metric is complete until accompanied by a measurement analysis
system that identifies and quantifies any common errors in the metric
The final general objective of the measure phase is to estimate process
baselines
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Process Maps
l
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Flow Charts
l
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END
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Outline
1.Basic Probability Concepts
2.Central Limit Theorem
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Sample size
Module 9
Population size
300
300
Normal Distribution
The normal distribution provides the basis for many statistical tools and techniques.
Definition
A probability distribution where the most frequently occurring value is in the
middle and other probabilities tail off symmetrically in both directions. This shape
is sometimes called a bell-shaped curve
Characteristics
Curve theoretically does not reach zero; thus the sum of all finite areas total less
than 100%
Curve is symmetric on either side of the most frequently occurring value
The peak of the curve represents the center, or mean, of the process
For practical purposes, the area under the curve represents virtually 100% of the
variation the process is capable of producing
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Influenced by Outliers
l
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Terms;
lPopulation: All the items that have the property of interest under study
lFrame: An identifiable subset of the population
lSample: A significantly smaller subset of the population used to make an
inference
lMode: the most common value
Median :The value which comes half way when the data are ranked in order
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Formulas
Standard Deviation - Sample
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305
Formulas
Mean Sample
Mean - Population
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306
Formulas
Variance Sample
Variance - Population
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307
Formulas
Standard Error
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308
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309
310
310
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End
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Outline
1. Statistical Distributions
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Normal Distributions
l
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Empirical Rule
l 68.27% of the values lie within one standard deviation of the mean
l
l
95.45% of the values lie within two standard deviations of the mean
99.73% of the values lie within three standard deviations of the mean
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Binomial Distributions
l
Binomial distributions are useful when the units in a population exist in only
two states.
A binomial distribution only applies when trials are independent and the
number of samples in the population is fixed.
In a binomial distribution, the distributional parameter is the average
proportion
This value is assumed or calculated by dividing the number of sample items
that meet the condition by the total number of items in the sample
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Poisson
l
323
Wikipedia
The horizontal axis is the index k, the number of occurrences. The CDF is discontinuous at the integers of k
and flat everywhere else because a variable that is Poisson distributed can only take on integer values
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324
where
e is Euler's number (e = 2.71828...)
k! is the factorial of k
The positive real number is equal to the expected value of X and also to its
variance
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Chi Square
A goodness-of-fit tests used measure the validity of a statistical assessment
l Chi-square analysis is primarily used to deal with categorical (frequency)
data
l We measure the goodness of fit between our observed outcome and the
expected outcome for some variable
l
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Chi Square
Usually, the higher the chi-square statistic, the greater likelihood the finding
is significant, but you must look at the corresponding p-value to determine
significance
lMany datasets encountered in Six Sigma have normal or approximately
lnormal distributions. It can be shown that in these instances the distribution
lof sample variances has the form (except for a constant) of a chi-square
ldistribution
lChi square requires that there be 5 or more in each cell of a 2x2 table and
5 or more in 80% of cells in larger tables. No cells can have a zero count
l
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Students t
It is used to express confidence intervals for a set of data and to statistically
compare the results of different experiments
l
The t test is also valuable to compare two different sets of data to determine
if they are the same or different
l
Larger spread about zero due to increased variability due to using a sample
rather than the population
l
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Students t
Assumptions
Population is normal although this assumption can be relaxed if sample size
is large
l
If the absolute value of the test statistic is greater than the critical value ,
then we reject the null hypothesis
l
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t distribution
standard normal distribution
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The critical value t with probability p lying to its right is found by looking up
on a t Distribution Critical Values Table
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Better yet use Excel's TINV() though double the probability as it generates 2tailed results
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F Distribution
l
336
F Distribution Formula
l
Let
second sample. The two samples need not have the same sample size.
l
F is the F distribution.
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F Distribution Curve
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End
Statistical Distributions
In this module we covered
Statistical Distributions
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Outline
1. Types of data and measurement scales
2. Sampling and data collection methods
3. Descriptive statistics
4. Graphical methods
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Types of data
Attribute Data (Qualitative)
l
342
342
343
343
One of your first decisions in the sampling arena is the type of study or
question(s) you have
Take into account the rate of change of the process, the faster the process,
the more frequent should be the sampling
Another factor is the number/value of items produced between samples as
there is a risk of missing a problem
A sampling pattern that is too regular runs the risk of adversely affecting the
randomness of our sample and inadvertently syncing with some unknown
cycle
Always ensure that sampling plans and data collection plans are properly
documented
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346
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Check Sheets
A check sheet is a custom-designed tally sheet to collect data on frequency
of occurrence
lA simple and effective way to display data
lProvides a uniform data collection tool
lUse when the data can be observed and collected repeatedly by either the
same person or the same location
lAlso effective for collecting data on frequency and identifying patterns of
events, problems, defects, and defect location, and for identifying defect
causes
lCome in three forms; tally sheets, location check sheets and graphical or
distribution check sheets
l
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Check Sheets
Tally Sheets are commonly used to collect data on quality problems and to
determine the frequency of events
lLocation Check Sheets are a diagram of the part or item where the
defects are marked; a familiar example is the rental car diagram where you
mark any damage. A variation is marking any error on a document on the
document itself
l
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Check Sheets
Graphical or Distribution Check Sheets using a graphical form, the
person collecting the data is able to visualize the distribution of the data.
Changing Minds
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Data Coding
l
When to code;
l
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Data Coding
l
When to code;
l
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Why Code?
l
l
l
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Data Screening
l
l
l
l
Code Book
l Allows study to be repeated and validated.
l Makes methods transparent by recording analytical thinking used to devise
codes.
l Allows comparison with other studies.
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Exhaustive a unique code number has been created for each category
Mutually Exclusive information being coded can only be assigned to one
category
Residual other allows for the participant to provide information that was
not anticipated
Missing Data - includes conditions such as refused, not applicable,
missing, dont know
Heaping is the condition when too much data falls into same category
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Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics describe the properties of empirical distributions, that is,
distributions of data from samples. There are three areas of interest: the
distributions location or central tendency, its dispersion, and its shape
Measures of Location (central tendency)
lMean
lMedian
lMode
Measures of Variation (dispersion)
lRange - the difference between the largest score and the smallest score
lInterquartile Range - the difference between the 25th and 75th percentiles
lStandard deviation
lVariance
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Descriptive statistics
Measures of Shape
lSkewness - A measure of asymmetry. Zero indicates perfect symmetry; aka
a normal distribution. Positive skewness indicates that the tail of the
distribution is more stretched on the side above the mean. Negative
skewness indicates that the tail of the distribution is more stretched on the
side below the mean
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Measures of Shape
Kurtosis - Is a measure of flatness of the distribution. Heavier tailed
distributions have larger kurtosis measures. The normal distribution has a
kurtosis of 3
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Descriptive statistics
Frequency Distributions
l
l
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Descriptive statistics
l
l
l
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Graphical methods
A scatter diagram is a plot of one variable versus another.
lOne variable is called the independent variable and it is usually shown on
l
the horizontal (bottom) axis.
lThe other variable is called the dependent variable and it is shown on the
vertical (side) axis
l
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Graphical methods
Scatter diagrams display different patterns that must be interpreted
Strong Positive
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Graphical methods
Scatter diagrams display different patterns that must be interpreted
Moderate Positive
Moderate Negative
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Curviliniar
366
l
l
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Graphical methods
Normal Probability plots
l
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Graphical methods
Normal Probability plots
369
Graphical methods
Creating Normal Probability Plots
Observations are plotted as a function of the corresponding normal order
statistic medians which are defined as:
Ni = G(Ui)
Where Ui are the uniform order statistic medians (defined below) and G is the percent
point function (inverse of the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution
In addition, a straight line can be fit to the points and added as a reference line
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Graphical methods
Histograms
lA pictorial representation of a set of dat.
lCreated by grouping the measurements into cells
lAre used to determine the shape of a data set.
lDisplays the numbers in a way that makes it easy to see the dispersion and
central tendency and to compare the distribution to requirements
lExcellent troubleshooting tool
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Graphical methods
Creating Histograms
1.Compute range of your data
2.Number of cells determined by sample size
l
100 or less = 7 to 10 cells
l
101-200 = 11 to 15 cells
l
201 or more = 13 to 20 cells
3.Compute width (W) of each cell W = range/# of cells
4.Compute cell boundaries.
5.They have one more decimal place than the raw data values in the data set
6.Low boundary of the first cell is less than the smallest value in the data set
7.Other cell boundaries are found by adding W to the previous boundary
8.Determine into which cell each value falls and tabulate
9.Graph your histogram
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Graphical methods
Example Histogram
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373
Graphical methods
Histogram Tips
lCan be used to compare a process to requirements if you draw the
specification lines on the histogram
lAlways construct a run chart or a control chart as histograms dont show the
time sequence of the data
lEvaluate the pattern of the histogram to determine if you can detect changes
of any kind. Look for multiple peaks; though small samples often have
multiple peaks that merely represent sampling variation
lCompare histograms from different periods of time
lStratify the data by plotting separate histograms for different sources of data.
This can sometimes reveal things that even control charts dont detect
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Graphical methods
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
l Stem-and-leaf plots are a variation of histograms and are especially useful
for smaller data sets (n<200)
l A major advantage of stem-and-leaf plots over the histogram, which groups
data in cells, is that the raw data values are preserved as it displays every
piece of data by showing the digits of each number
l The greatest common place value of the data is used to form stems
l So the stem Is the digit or digits that remain when the leaf is dropped
l The numbers in the next greatest place-value position are then used to form
the leaves
l So the leaf is the last digit on the right side of the number
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Graphical methods
Stem-and-Leaf Plot Example
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Graphical methods
Stem-and-Leaf Plot Tips
l
Always put in a key
l
Always put your data in order
l
To work out the median, you must find the middle value
l
If there are two middle values, you need the average
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Graphical methods
Box-and-Whisker Plots
lGraphically depict groups of numerical data, via the box, through their
quartiles.
lAlso have lines extending vertically from the boxes (whiskers) indicating
variability outside the upper and lower quartiles.
lOutliers may be plotted as individual points
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Graphical methods
Box-and-Whisker Plots
l Use of the box as follows; the bottom and top of the box are always the first
and third quartiles, and the band inside the box is always the second
quartile (the median)
l
The ends of the whiskers can represent several possible alternative values,
the more common being:
l
The minimum and maximum of all of the data
l
One standard deviation above and below the mean of the data
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Graphical methods
Box-and-Whisker Plot Example
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End
Descriptive statistics
Graphical methods
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382
Outline
1.Measurement System Analysis (MSA)
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387
387
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388
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Xs in the process
Prior to modeling
To qualify operators
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390
Repeatability
Accuracy
Reproducibility
Stability
Bias
Linearity
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391
Gage R+R
l A precise metric is one that returns the same value of a given attribute
every time
l Precise data are independent of who estimates them or when the
estimates are made
l Precision consists of:
l
Repeatability
l
Reproducibility
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392
Gage R+R
l Bias is defined as the deviation of the measured value from the actual
value.
l Stability of a gauge is defined as error (measured in terms of Standard
Deviation) as a function of time.
l Control Charts are commonly used to track Stability
l Linearity is the difference in Bias values throughout the measurement
range in which the gauge is intended to be used. This shows the
accuracy of the measurements are through the expected range of the
measurement
l Formula for Linearity is:
l
Linearity = |Slope| * Process Variation
l
% Linearity = |Slope| * 100
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393
Pass/Fail
l
Document Preparation
l
Surface imperfections
l
Customer Service Response
Variable
l
Continuous scale
l
Discrete scale
l
Critical dimensions
l
Pull strength
l
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394
MSAs
Transactional projects usualy have Attribute based measurement systems
lManufacturing projects generally use Variable studies, but can use
Attribute studies in some cases
l
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398
Estimates for a Gage R&R study are obtained by calculating the variance
components for each term and for error
Repeatability, Operator and Operator*Part components are summed to
obtain a total Variability due to the measuring system
We use variance components to assess the Variation contributed by each
source of measurement error relative to the total Variation
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399
% Contribution
Results are
< =10%
< =1%
Ideal
10-20%
1-4%
Acceptable
20-30%
5-9%
Marginal
=>30%
=>10
Poor
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400
401
401
402
402
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403
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404
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405
End
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Outline
1.Process capability studies
2.Process capability (Cp, Cpk) and process performance (Pp, Ppk) indices
3.Short-term vs. long-term capability and sigma shift
4.Summary and review of the Measure Phase
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409
410
410
411
411
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Where
Cpl = (Mean - LSL) /3s
Cpu = (USL - mean) /3s
One can replace process standard deviation and mean with sample SD and
mean if process SD and mean unknown
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420
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422
Processes usually do not perform as well in the long term as they do in the
short term.
Thus the number of sigmas that will fit between the process mean and the
nearest specification limit will likely drop over time.
To account for this real-life increase in process variation over time, an
empirically-based 1.5 sigma shift is introduced into the calculations
So a process that fits 6 sigma between the process mean and the nearest
specification limit in a short-term study will in the long term fit only 4.5 sigma
Therefor the 3.4 DPMO of a six sigma process in fact corresponds to 4.5
sigma, namely 6 sigma minus the 1.5-sigma shift introduced to account for
long-term variation
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End
Process capability (Cp, Cpk) and process performance (Pp, Ppk) indices
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Outline
1.Analyze Phase Overview
2.Multi-Vari studies
3.Correlation and Linear Regression
4.Basics of Hypothesis Testing
5.ANOVA
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l
l
l
The team will focus on analyzing the sources of variation in the target
process
Based on the high-level problem, the tools to drill down with will be selected
This analysis may require the use of sophisticated statistical tools
The team will analyze the value stream. The value stream is the set of
activities that create value for the customer
The team will also identify the process drivers, which are the activities that
exert a significant influence on the results of processes
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Variation Reduction
Hypothesis Testing
Correlation
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Hypothesis Testing
l
Integrates the Voice of the Process (VOP) with the Voice of the Business
(VOB) to make data-based decisions to resolve problems
The VOP describes what the process is telling us. What it is capable of
achieving, whether it is under control and what significance to attach to
individual measurements
The VOB describes the stated and unstated requirements of the business
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Hypothesis Testing
l
l
Can help avoid high costs of experimental efforts by using existing data
Can help establish a statistical difference between factors from different
distributions; such as from different shifts or suppliers
Two types of significant differences occur and must be well understood,
practical and statistical
Failure to tie these two differences together is one of the most common
errors in statistics
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Hypothesis Testing
Practical Difference: The difference which results in an improvement of
practical or economic value to the company. Reflects the VOB
Statistical Difference: A difference or change to the process that probably
(with some defined degree of confidence) did not happen by chance. Reflects
the VOC
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Hypothesis Testing
l The practical difference to be achieved must match the statistical
difference.
l Which can be either a change in the Mean or in the variance.
l Detection of the difference is then accomplished using Hypothesis Testing
l A Hypothesis Test converts the practical problem into a statistical problem.
l Since small sample sizes are used to estimate population parameters, there
is always a chance of collecting a non-representative sample
l Inferential statistics allows us to estimate the probability of getting a nonrepresentative sample
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Type I errors.
lA type I error, also known as an error of the first kind, occurs when the null
hypothesis(H0) is true, but is rejected
lThe rate of the type I error is called the size of the test and denoted by the
Greek letter (alpha).
lIt usually equals the significance level of a test.
lIn the case of a simple null hypothesis is the probability of a type I error.
lIf the null hypothesis is composite, is the maximum (supremum) of the
possible probabilities of a type I error.
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Type II errors.
lA type II error, also known as an error of the second kind, occurs when the
null hypothesis is false, but erroneously fails to be rejected
lThe rate of the type II error is denoted by the Greek letter (beta) and
related to the power of a test (which equals 1)
lHence it is also known as Beta Risk
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Nonparametric Tests
lAre occasionally used in place of traditional hypothesis tests for the equality
of two means
lThese tests are more effective when the assumptions associated with
common statistical distributions cannot be met
lIn the analyze stage, nonparametric tests are used to compare the means
from samples with different conditions
lIn the improve stage, they are used to assess whether process averages
have been improved over baseline estimates after the implementation of
changes
lThese tests do not require statistical normality or any other quality in order to
be valid
lOne disadvantage of this form of testing is its requirement of a larger sample
size
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Multi-Vari plots
lAre effective tools for assessing the variation within samples or within
particular parts.
lMulti-Vari plots can be used to analyze variation over time or between
different batches
lPrimarily used to isolate the causes of variation and to obtain more
information about the interactions among factors
lIdentifies possible Xs or families of variation. These families of variation can
hide within a subgroup, between subgroups or over time
lHelps screen Xs by visualizing three primary sources of variation. Later we
will perform Hypothesis Tests based on the findings
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Multi-Vari plots
lThe first step in constructing a Multi-Vari plot is determining the system for
gathering data.
lThis data should then be placed on a plot, with each sample unit represented
by a different symbol.
lThe length of each symbol will indicate the variation within the sample
lHowever, it will not indicate whether the process is unstable from a statistical
perspective
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Minitab
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Sources of Variation
Within Unit or Positional
Within piece variation related to the geometry of the part.
Variation across a single unit containing many individual parts such
as a wafer containing many computer processors.
Location in a batch process such as plating.
Between Unit or Cyclical
Variation among consecutive pieces.
Variation among groups of pieces.
Variation among consecutive batches.
Temporal or over Shift-to-Shift
Day-to-Day
Week-to-Week
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l
l
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Although the time variable, X, is not used in the formula for autocorrelation,
the assumption is that the observations are equi-spaced
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Autocorrelation Interpretation
When interpreting an autocorrelation chart, one should be aware of
phenomena that might produce false correlation
lSometimes autocorrelation will be significant only at adjacent data points,
where the lag is very low. To diminish this autocorrelation, one should
increase the time between data point collection
lAnother source of false correlation emerges with sampling from several
different streams in a process. Sometimes large autocorrelations for smaller
lags can influence larger lags
l
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Linear Regression
l
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Linear Regression
l
A simple linear regression tries to orient data points around a single straight
line
In Six Sigma the formula expressed as this:
466
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Residuals analysis
lResiduals are the differences between a responses observed value and a
regression models predicted value for that response
lA residuals analysis of a regression model will reveal any unusual
patterns that could suggest error in the model.
lStatistical software programs will calculate a standardized residual such
that the variance is set to 1. This makes outliers more obvious
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Residuals analysis
lThe most common technique of residuals analysis is the normality test, in
which the randomness of error is tested by creating a distribution of the
residuals
lIf the error truly is random, then the residuals should follow a normal
distribution with a mean of zero
lResiduals also can be used on a scatter diagram to assess the
independence of a variable
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End
Multi-Vari studies
ANOVA
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Outline
1.Value Stream
2.Batching
3.Lean Metric Velocity
4.Setup Time
5.Reducing Movement and Physical Space
6.Analyze phase summary and review
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Will document both the current state and the future state
The current state value map is examined for steps that do not add
value. These non-value-added steps need to be eliminated or
minimized
l
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Capturing Information
Time it;
l Cycle Time (CT) - Time for one part. Time before repeating
operation
l Change over time (CO) - Time to switch product type
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Capturing Information
Measure or count;
l Travel (TR) - How far does the Operator travel to do their job?
l Inventory
(I) - Count the amount of inventory before and after the
process
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Capturing Information
Observe;
l Yield
(Y) - % How many pass inspection
l Up Time
(UP) - % machine is up and running
l Scheduled Changes (SC) -Number of scheduled changes per
week
l Waiting time (WT) - Find how often Operators are waiting for
something to do. How often are they waiting for another operation
to be done
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Capturing Information
Ask;
l Correct Information (CI) - % of times the job instructions are correct
and accurate. How many times do Operators ask for clarification
l Operators per shift (OPS)
l Production Scheduling (PS)
l Inventory Flow up (IFU) - Where does inventory come from, all
sources
l Inventory Flow down (IFD) - Where does inventory go to, all places
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Value Stream Map Symbols Note there is a lot of variation in these symbols;
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502*
Wikipedia
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Batching
lA traditional method of reducing waste
lWhen work is batched a large number of essentially identical tasks are
gather and performed the same time
lWhen tasks are divided into batches, the time required to perform them
clearly is shorter
lHowever, batching creates delays at the beginning and end of the activity
lThe team must wait for a number of tasks to arrive in the input queue before
beginning, creating unnecessary lag time
lAlso the entire batch does not move on to the next step of the process until
every item has been subjected to the batched step
lThis wait is one of the greatest contributors to lead time
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Batching
lHowever, there are times when batching makes sense
lFor example, if the set up time for the equipment is significant then
performing the activity in batches may be more efficient
lWhen the cost of moving materials is large is another instance when
batching makes sense
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Setup Time
lSetup time is the interval between the completion of the last item and the
beginning of the next item
lConsists of four components:
l
Preparation - the set of tasks necessary to gather all of the
materials and people for the activity
l
510
Setup Time
lPreparation time is considered a non-value-added activity
lReduce preparation time by:
l
Staging supplies and equipment as close as possible to the
workstation
l
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Setup Time
lReplacing and relocating equipment and resources prior to a process is
anon-value-added activity
lReduce replacement and relocating time by:
l
Standardizing setups
l
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Setup Time
lAdjustments prior to a process is a non-value-added activity
lReduce adjustment time by:
l
Establishing good process controls
l
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Spaghetti Diagram;
lUsed to track motion of a person, item, or activity related to a process via
continuous flow lines
lIdentifies redundancies in the work flow and opportunities to expedite
process flow
lAlso highlights major intersection points; these point are causes of delay
lHelps one see waste that would be otherwise overlooked.
lLike Value Stream maps, one can create current state and future state
diagrams
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End
Process Drivers
In this module we covered
l
Value Stream
Batching
Setup Time
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Outline
1.Improve Phase Overview
2.Basic DOE terms and Designs
3. DOE Graphs and Plots
Module 16
The first major objective of the Improve phase is to set the new process
operating conditions. These conditions are based on the experimentation
and analysis of the measure and analyze phases.
The next objective of the improve stage is to identify and address the failure
modes for the new processes
Assessing and predicting the benefits of the proposed solution also is
appropriate. Before making massive changes, the team should be able to
guess how positive the results of these solutions will be
The final objective of the improve stage is to implement and confirm
process improvements
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Design of Experiments
An experimental design is a structured investigation of whether a series of
factors, when varied, have an effect on the variable of interest (usually
referred to as the Response Variable or Quality Characteristic)
lThe statistically designed experiment involves varying two or more variables
simultaneously and obtaining multiple measurements under the same
experimental conditions
lThis is known as Factorial design, and is an important method to determine
the effects of multiple variables on a response
l
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Design of Experiments
The advantages of this approach are as follows:
l
Interactions can be detected and measured
l
Each value does the work of several values.
l
A properly designed experiment allows you to use the same observation to
estimate several different effects; thereby reducing the number of
experiments
l
it can be used to find both main effects (from each independent factor) and
interaction effects (when both factors must be used to explain the outcome)
l
Experimental error is quantified
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Problem solving
l
Eliminate defective products or services.
l
Reduce cycle time of handling transactional processes
Optimizing
l
Mathematical model is desired to move the process response
Robust design
l
Provide consistent process or product performance.
l
Desensitize the output response(s) to input variable changes
including NOISE variables.
l
Design processes knowing which input variables are difficult to
maintain
Screening
l
Narrowing of the critical factors
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Factors are the main categories to explore when determining the cause
A level is basically one of the subdivisions that make up a factor
A group is set of conditions that will make up that particular experiment
Null outcome is when the outcome of your experiment is the same
regardless of how the levels within your experiment were combined
Main effect is when there exists a consistent trend among the different
levels of a factor
Interaction effect is when there is an interaction between the factors
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243 design has five levels, four with two levels and one with three levels,
l
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In the analyze stage, fractional factorial designs are used to identify process
drivers and sources of variation
In the improve stage, fractional factorial designs are used along with center
points to estimate the effects of curvature
Fractional Factorial design is common
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l
l
The next step is to create response surface and contour plots for each two
factors.
Then, identify the stationary point in the response surface and contour plots.
Next, predict the response at the optimum using the second-order
regression model .
Finally, verify the model by gathering new data in the region around the
optimum
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The distinct lines on the plot are defined by the levels of the interaction
variable
If the plot variables exhibit no interaction, then the lines basically will be
parallel. That is, both plot variables will produce similar trends when
combined with the response variable.
If the lines are not parallel, however, an interaction likely exists
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End
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Outline
1.Root Cause Analysis
2.Titanic case study
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Not finding the root cause can lead to costly band aids and rabbit holes
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A problem hits
Fire fighting
Blame someone / CYA all-around
The problem hits again or some 'new' problem caused by the fire fighting
Return to step 2... rinse and repeat
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Problem manifests
Problem identified
Containment of problem and process
Follow defined RCA process
Solution validated
Solution fully implemented
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l
l
l
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Be internally consistent.
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So lets do a RCA...
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Titanic RCA
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End
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Outline
1. Kaizen and Kaizen Blitz
2. Waste elimination
3. Cycle-time reduction
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Kaizen;
l Kaizen is a philosophy of continuous improvement
l Improvements are based on the insights and experiences of lower-level
employees, as opposed to the traditional executive-driven Western model
l Can be successful only with adequate training, defined operating practices,
and buy-in from all employees
l Constant communication exists
l Focus is small improvements, not breakthrough changes
l Driven from the bottom-up
l Based on the premise that the people who do the work know it best
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Kaizen Goals;
l Enhance capacity
l Reduce waste
l Increase productivity
l Reduce inventory
l Improve flow - Flow-pull-perfection
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Kanban
lKanban is faster, more efficient, and saves significant money over most other
production models
lReduces inventory, on average, by 25 to 75%
lThe visually organized environment ensures all parts are easily found and
continually stocked
lThe speed of moving from one task to another is significantly reduced by the
creation of clearly marked flow lanes, kanban cards, and clearly marked
labels
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Kanban
lTranslates as card signal
lSignals the start of an event
lUse either a physical 'card' or electronic signal
lPull system with the goal of reducing inventory by producing only what is
ordered, when its ordered, and only the quantity ordered
lIncreased flexibility to meet customer demand
lAt its core, it requires one to visualize the workflow and reduce WIP
lBottlenecks become visible in realtime
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Rules of Kanban
lThe Parts Are Always Withdrawn From The Prior Process
lProduce Only What Is Necessary To Replenish The Quantity Withdrawn
lNever Pass on A Bad Part
lLevel Load Production, Rapid Changeover, Small Lot Production, Zero
Defects
lKanban Is Used To Fine Tune (Not Provide For Major Changes)
lThe Process Must Be Capable Of Producing Good Parts (Rational And
Stable)
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Rules of Kanban
lNeed Efficient Methods Of Transportation, Shortest Routes Possible
lDisciplined Organization
lNothing Is Made or Transported Without A Kanban.
lKanban Cards Always Accompany the Parts Themselves.
lThe Number of Kanbans Should Decrease over time
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Types of Kanban
The two basic types of Kanban are:
l Production (P) Kanban A P-kanban, when received, authorizes the
workstation to produce a fixed amount of products
l The P-kanban is carried on the containers that are associated with it
l Transportation (T) Kanban A T-kanban authorizes the transportation of the
full container to the downstream workstation
l The T-kanban is also carried on the containers that are associated with the
transportation to move through the loop again
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Waste Elimination
lWaste is any activity that doesnt add value, as defined by the customer, to
the end product or service
lAsk two questions:
1. Is your customer willing to pay for this activity?
2. Does this activity add value to a process that adds direct customer
value?
No to either means it's waste, though you still have to watch for more subtile
forms of waste; such as rework and inspection
lYou will never get rid of all non-value-adding activities due the regulatory or
compliance activities
l
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l
l
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l
l
Movement of materials from one location to another adds zero value to the
product
Can be a very high cost as one need people to operate it and equipment
such as trucks or fork trucks to undertake this expensive movement of
materials
Also results in the waiting waste as one waits for the shipment to arrive
Internally, use spaghetti diagrams to map out the transportation of goods
within your facility
Try and source from suppliers as close as possible to your facilities
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5S;
l An essential step required for Waste Elimination
l
Foundational to Kaizen
l
It is a valuable strategy for reducing cycle time that does not add value and
that is lost to movement, finding lost materials, and inefficiently using the
physical space
l
May also be used to accelerate inventory processes and to diminish
accidents in the workplace
l
Represents 5 disciplines for maintaining a visual workplace and a
standardized workplace
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5S Stands for;
Sort Red tag and remove unnecessary items and either store or dispose of
them properly
Straighten or Streamline - Arrange all necessary items in order so they can
be easily picked for use
Shine or Sweep - Clean and inspect the workplace completely
Standardize - Maintain high standards of workplace organization at all times.
Maintain everything according to its standard
Sustain - Keep in working order and perform regular audits
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638
5S Things to do overall;
lDevelop a map identifying the access ways and the action areas
lPerform any necessary realignment of walkways, isles, entrances
lAssign an address to each of the major action areas
lMark off the Walkways, Aisles & entrances from the action areas
lApply flow-direction arrows to aisles & walkways
lPerform any necessary realignment of action areas
lMark-off the inventory locations
lMark-off equipment/machine locations
lMark-off storage locations( Cabinets,shelves,tables
lColor-code the floors and respective action
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Unsafe conditions
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Standard Work
l Standard work is one of the most powerful but least used lean tool
l By documenting the current best practice, standard work forms the baseline
for Kaizen
l As the standard is improved, the new standard becomes the baseline for
further improvements
l Each step in the process should be defined and must be performed
repeatedly in the same manner
l Any variations in the process will most likely increase cycle time and cause
quality issues
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Poka-Yoke - Error-Proofing ;
lPoka-yoke states that preventing errors is better than detecting them as
rework is a non-value-added activity
Processes must be rigorously analyzed and improved so the frequency and
severity of mistakes is reduced
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Cycle-time Reduction
Two process types:
1.Discrete
2.Continuous
Three main flow structures:
1.Convergent - several inputs feed one output
2.Divergent - several outputs derived from one input
3.Linear
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655
Cycle-time Reduction
Key Concept is process throughput
l IN(t) = Arrival/Inflow rate of jobs at time t
l OUT(t) = Departure/Outflow rate of finished jobs at time t
l IN = Average inflow rate over time
l OUT = Average outflow rate over time
Stabilize first before tackling cycle time reduction
IN=OUT
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Cycle Time
The difference between a jobs departure time and its arrival time = cycle
time. Also referred to as throughput time
Includes both value adding and non-value adding activity times
Processing time
Inspection time
Transportation time
Storage time
Waiting time
Cycle time is a powerful tool for identifying process improvement potential
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657
Cycle Time
Little's Law
l CycleTime = WIP/Throughput
Must account for
l Rework
l Multiple paths
l Parallel activities
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Eliminate activities
Reduce waiting and processing time
Eliminate rework
Perform activities in parallel
Move processing time to activities not on the critical path
Reduce setup times and enable batch size reduction
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659
Pull
lIncreases throughput
lBy pulling material in small lots, inventory cushions are removed, exposing
problems and emphasizing continual improvement
lManufacturing cycle time is reduced
lIdeal situation is to have lot sizes of one pulled from one process to the next
lLot sizes can be reduced by;
l
Improving material handling
l
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JIT Scheduling
l Process frequent small batches rather than a few large batches
l Make and move small lots so the level schedule is economical
l Because lead times are shorter, quality problems are exposed sooner
l Better quality means fewer buffers and allows simpler JIT systems to be
used
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Continuous Flow
l Takt time represents customer demand rate
l Calculate the takt time = number ordered/time in shift
l Goal is to precisely synchronizes the cycle time to the takt time
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Continuous Flow
l The creation, ordering, and provision of any good or any service can be
made to flow
l Think about ways to;
l
Line up all of the essential steps needed to get a job done
l
Obtain a steady, continuous flow
l
No wasted motions
l
No interruptions
l
No batches or queues
l Focus on the actual object or service
l Ignore traditional boundaries
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Level Loading
l
l
l
l
l
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End
Lean Tools
In this module we covered
Kaizen and Kaizen Blitz
lWaste elimination
lCycle-time reduction
l
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Outline
1. Control Phase Overview
2. SPC Basics
3. Control Plan
4. Control Charts
5. Rational Subgrouping
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The primary objective of the Control phase is to ensure that the gains
obtained during Improve phase are maintained long after the project has
ended
To that end, it is necessary to standardize and document procedures, make
sure all employees are trained and communicate the projects results
In addition, the project team needs to create a plan for ongoing monitoring
of the process and for reacting to any problems that arise
And finally close out the project
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SPC Basics
l Statistically-based quality control method
l Goal is to ensures that the process operates at its full potential
l Make as much conforming product as possible with a minimum of waste
l Can be applied to any process where the conforming product output can be
measured
l Emphasis on early detection
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SPC Basics
l Variability is inherent in every process
l Provides a statistical signal when assignable causes are present
l Detect and eliminate assignable causes of variation
l
Natural variations in the production process are to be expected
l
Output measures follow a probability distribution
l
For any distribution there is a measure of central tendency and
dispersion
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SPC Basics
Implemented in 2 phases:
l The first phase is the initial establishment of the process
l The second phase is the regular production use of the process
Involves three main phases of activity:
l Understanding the process and the specification limits
l Eliminating assignable sources of variation, to stabilize the process
l Monitoring the ongoing production process, assisted by the use of control
charts
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measurement technique
Sample size
Sample frequency
Analytical tool
Reaction protocol
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l
l
l
l
At the end of the Improve phase you may need to calculate new process
control limits and use these new limits as triggers for corrective action
If the answer to the following questions is yes, then proceed with calculating
new control limits. Any noes indicates the process does not have sufficient
statistical control to do so
The questions are;
Is there a statistical difference between the baseline and the new
measurements?
Is the rationale for the implemented change(s) understood?
Are the new measurements expected to represent the future performance?
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l
l
l
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Control Charts
l
On a control chart, the specification is the objective range within which the
characteristic tolerably can fall
The control chart should indicate how the warblers will be measured and
how many measurements will be included in each sample
It should also indicate the frequency of sampling and the analytical tool to
be used to evaluate the sample
Finally it will will include the reaction rules for when a variable value falls
out of bounds
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SPC Charts
l A time-ordered plot of the process data
l The plot outlines the expected range of variation of the data
l Since the expected range is known, anything outside of that needs
investigation and correction
l Used to monitor your process Xs and/or your process Ys
l Use when;
l Process has a tendency to go out of control
l Process is particularly harmful and costly if it goes out of control
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SPC Charts
l There are two categories of SPC charts: Variable and Attribute;
l
Variable charts use continuous data
l
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X-bar (
) chart formula
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X-bar (
) chart example
Wikipedia
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R-chart formula
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R-chart example
Wikipedia
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s-chart formula
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s-chart example
Wikipedia
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P-chart Formula
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P-chart example
Wikipedia
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P-chart Interpretation
lAll of the data points should lie between the upper and lower control limits. In
such a case, the process is said to be in statistical control
lAs long as the data points remain within the control limits, any variation may
be attributed to common causes
lIf all the data points are within the control limits, the process is said to be
within statistical control and future performance can be predicted
lHowever, if data points lie outside of the control limits, this must be blamed
on special causes of variation
Wikipedia
Module 19
703
C-chart Formula
Module 19
704
C-chart example
Wikipedia
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705
C-chart Interpretation
lThe measured event may occur more than once in each unit of the sample
l For instance, a C chart may be used to track errors in a particular process,
with the knowledge that several errors might occur in a single iteration of the
process
lAll of the data points should lie between the upper and lower control limits. In
such a case, the process is said to be in statistical control
lAs long as the data points remain within the control limits, any variation may
be attributed to common causes
lIf all the data points are within the control limits, the process is said to be
within statistical control and future performance can be predicted
lHowever, if data points lie outside of the control limits, this must be blamed
on special causes of variation
Wikipedia
Module 19
706
U-chart formula
Module 19
707
U-chart example
Wikipedia
Module 19
708
U-chart Interpretation
lThe upper and lower control limits indicate the boundaries of expected
process behavior
lThe variation of points that lie within the control limits is attributed to common
causes, while any points outside the statistical control must be attributed to
special causes
lIf no special-cause variation exists, then the process is stable enough to be
predictable
Wikipedia
Module 19
709
Np-chart formula
Module 19
710
Np-chart example
Wikipedia
Module 19
711
Np-chart Interpretation
lDepicts a stable process when all of the data points lie between the upper
and lower control limits
lAny variation within these limits is due to common causes, but any variation
that results in data points outside the control limits must be attributed to
special causes
lData points that lie outside the control limits must be explained
lTypically, an Np chart is succeeded by experimentation aimed at diagnosing
particular causes
Wikipedia
Module 19
712
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713
Wikipedia
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714
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715
Rational Subgrouping
l Is the process of organizing data into groups of items that were produced
under similar conditions in order to measure the variation between the
subgroups instead of between individual data points
l The organization of subgroups is generally established to sample a subset
of the population within relatively homogeneous conditions
l The subgrouping strategy directly determines the sensitivity, and therefore
the usefulness, of the control chart by bearing on the sampling plan for the
charts
l Without a rational subgrouping strategy, the control charts will not answer
the right questions related to identifying the source of variability of a process
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716
What strategy would produce ranges having the lowest withinsample variation?
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717
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718
End
SPC Basics
Control Plan
Control Charts
Rational Subgrouping
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719
Outline
1. Visual Factory
2. Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
3. Summary and Review of Control Phase
Module 20
721
Visual Factory
l Describes visual methods a manufacturing plant can use to communicate
information about a process to everyone who needs to understand it as
they work
l Use of visual tools will convey information in a clear, accurate, efficient, and
organized way to those who need to know it
l Overall goal is to make the control and management of a company as
simple as possible
l Visual Factory is implemented in two stages;
l
Determining what information needs to be communicated
l
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722
Visual Factory
l It prevents errors arising from miscommunication
l It increases comprehension, even when describing complex processes
l It makes employees feel more competent and reduces friction due to
misunderstanding about what is needed to be done
l It improves the way machines are used
l It decreases how long work stays in progress
KEY FACT: 83% OF THE INFORMATION WE ABSORB IS VISUAL
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723
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724
Visual Factory
Typically this data includes;
l Process metrics
l Work instructions
l General plant information
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728
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729
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730
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731
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732
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733
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734
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735
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736
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737
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738
7 Steps of TPM
1.Initial Clean-up (5S & Visual Factory)
2.Identify and eliminate inherent faults
3.Set Initial Standards
4.General Inspection
5.Autonomous Inspection
6.Standardization
7.Autonomous Maintenance
Module 20
739
Downtime Database
l
l
l
l
l
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740
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741
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742
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743
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744
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745
TPM Tags
l Problem communication tool to and from maintenance, tool room, and
production
l
Identify abnormal machine conditions
l
Status tracking system
l
Visual management tool (hang tags)
l TPM Tag used for recording problems & fix
l
Blue Tag-Operator or Maintenance to repair
l
Module 20
746
Module 20
747
End
Module 20
748
Exam Review
757
Exam Review
758
Pass is 80%
Open book
Your own notes are allowed, however the proctor will inspect your notes
and can reject them
No collections of questions and answers are allowed
Hand held calculators without an alphabetic keyboard are allowed. The
memory must be cleared
Exam Review
759
Exam Review
760
Exam Review
761
l
l
Understand how to use and apply each tool or concept within each chapter
Create hypothetical situations of where and when you could apply each
tool, or draw from previous experiences
Read case studies
After each chapter, summarize key takeaways and important topics.
Combine this list for all chapters into a master summary/cheat sheet
Do the practice questions. They were mostly drawn from previous exams
are are very reflective of the types of questions you will encounter
Use your wrong answers to focus your further studies
Exam Review
762
l
l
l
Create cheat sheets with formulas, key terms, tools, concepts, as well as
page number references
Add tabs for each chapter, or each phase of DMAIC
Know how your materials are organized and how to use them efficiently
Practice solving the problems using the calculator you plan to use on the
exam day
Exam Review
763
Exam Review
764
Exam Review
765
766
l
l
Exam Review
767
First, the team will attempt to define each relevant process in great detail
Exam Review
768
Exam Review
769
Exam Review
770
Control Phase
l The primary objective of the Control phase is to ensure that the gains
obtained during Improve phase are maintained long after the project has
ended
l To that end, it is necessary to standardize and document procedures, make
sure all employees are trained and communicate the projects results
l In addition, the project team needs to create a plan for ongoing monitoring
of the process and for reacting to any problems that arise
l And finally close out the project
Exam Review
771
Exam Review
772
Exam Review
773
l
l
l
l
l
l
Mean (average): add all numbers in the list together and divide by the
number of items in the list
Median (middle): order the numbers and take the number in the middle
Mode: The number listed most. The most frequently observed value.
Variance (average distance from the average squared)
Standard Deviation (average distance from the average)
Range: The difference from the largest to the smallest value in a set
Confidence Intervals: estimated range of values which includes the true
value with stated probability
Exam Review
774
Exam Review
775
A data point's position between the mean and another location (usually
mean) as measured by the number of standard deviations
A measure of process capability and corresponds to the process sigma
value that is reported
Exam Review
776
Exam Review
777
Exam Review
778
Exam Review
779
Exam Review
780
Exam Review
781
Pareto Chart: A Pareto chart is a bar chart ordered from category with the
highest value to category with the lowest value
l
Also shows cumulative values in a line.
l
Exam Review
782
Exam Review
783
Exam Review
784
Exam Review
785
Exam Review
786
Exam Review
787
Exam Review
788
Exam Review
789
Exam Review
790
791
Exam Review
792
Exam Review
793
Exam Review
794
Exam Review
795
Exam Review
796
Exam Review
797
Exam Review
798
Exam Review
799
799
800
Exam Review
801
Exam Review
802
Exam Review
803
Exam Review
804
Exam Review
805
Exam Review
806
Exam Review
807
Exam Review
808
Exam Review
809
Exam Review
810
Exam Review
811
l
l
l
l
Exam Review
812
Exam Review
813
Exam Review
814
l
l
l
Attribute data - qualitative data that can be counted for recording and
analysis good/bad, yes/no
the average and dispersion are closely related; therefore, only one chart
needed
P-Chart proportions percent defective with variable or constant sample
size
NP-chart number of defects with constant sample size
C-Chart count of defects with constant sample size
U-Chart defects per unit with variable or constant sample size
Exam Review
815
X and MR
Exam Review
816
Exam Review
817
Exam Review
818
Exam Review
819
Exam Review
820
Exam Review
821
Exam Review
822
Exam Review
823
Exam Review
824
Exam Review
825