3.2.2.1.1. Landsat image conversion to reflectance and DOS1 atmospheric correction Radiance is the "flux of energy (primarily radiant or incident energy) per solid angle leaving a unk surface area in a given direction”, "Radiance is what is measured at the sensor and is somewhat dependent on reflectance” (NASA, 2011, p. 47). ‘The Spectral Radiance at the sensor's aperture (Lj) is measured in [watts/(meter squared * ster * jum )] and for Landsat images it is glven by (https-/landsat usgs qoviLandsat8_Using Product php) La=M1* Qea +AL where: + M_, = Band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor trom Landsat metadata (RADIANCE_MULT_BAND_x, where x is the band number) + 41 = Band-specitc additive resc ‘auimber) + Qeat "For relatively clear Landsat scenes, a reduction in between-scene variabllty can be achieved through a normalization for solar radiance by converting spectral radiance, as calculated above, to planetary reflectance or albedo. This combined surface and atmospheric reflectance of the Earth is computed with the following formula” (NASA, 2011, p. 119}: Ing factor from Landsat metadata (RADIANGE_ADD_BAND_x, where x Is the band uantized and calibrated standard product pixel values (ON) p= (e* La * PYESUN, * 050s) Initless planetary reflectance, which ig “the rato of reflected versus total power energy” (NASA, 2011, p. 47) Spectral radiance at the sensor's aperture (at-satellte radiance) + d= Earth-Sun distance in astronomical units (provided with Landsat 8 metafile, and an excel file is available from itp //landeathandbook aste nasa doviexcel_doce/d xl) + ESUN); = Mean solar exo-atmospheric irradiances. + 6, = Solar zenith angle in degrees, which Is equal to 0, = 90° - 0, where 0, is the Sun elevation It is worth pointing out that Landsat 8 images are provided with band-specitic rescaling factors that allow for the direct, conversion trom DN to TOA reflectance, However, the effects of the atmosphere (Ie, a disturbance on the reflectance that varies with the wavelenght) should be considered in order to measure the refletance at the ground. As described by Moran et al. (1992), the land surface reflectance (p) is. pa [rr (Ly Lp) * PVT, * (ESUN, & cos, * T2)+ E down where: + Lp isthe path radiance + Ty isthe atmospheric transmittance in the viewing direction Is the atmospheric transmittance in the illumination direction + E-down 18 the downwelling diffuse radiance Therefore, We need several atmospheric measurements In order to calculate mo (physically-based corrections). Alternatively, it is possible to use image-based techniques for the calculation of these parameters, without in-situ ‘measurements during image acquisition ‘The Dark Object Subtraction (DOS) is a family of image-based atmosphere corrections, Chavez (1996) explains that basic assumption is that within the mage some pixels are in complete shadow and their radiances receved at the satellite are due to atmospheric scattering (path radiance). This assumption is combined with the fact that very few targets on the Earth’s surface are absolute black, so en assumed one-percent minimum reflectance is better than zero percent. It ‘worth pointing out that the accuracy of image-based techniques is generally lower than physically-based corrections, but they ate very useful when no atmospheric measurements are available as they can improve the estimation of land surface reflectance. The path radiance is given by (Sobrino, et al,, 2004) Emin ~L pore were: + Linn = "radiance that corresponds to 2 digital count value for which the sum of all the pixels with digital counts lower or equal to this value is equal to the 0.01% of all the pixels from the Image considered” (Sobrino, et al., 2004, p. 437), therefore the radiance obtained with that digital count value (DN' min ) + L pois * radiance of Dark Object, assumed to have a reflectance value of 0.01 1 of‘Therfore for Landsat images Lwin = M1 *DNnn +A ‘The radiance of Dark Object is given by (Sobrino, et al, 2604): L por = 0.01 + [(ESUN, * cosy * Tz) + Edown | * Tyl(a * d?) Therefore the path radiance is: Lp =Mz1 *DNinn +A p~0.01 * (ESUN 4 * cosy * Te) + Edown | * Tyla * a?) ‘There are several DOS techniques (e.g, DOS, DOS2, DOS3, DOS4), based on different assumption about Ty, T: , and E-aown - The simplest technique is the DOS1, where the following assumptions are made (Moran et al., 1992) o ‘Therefore the path radiance ts: Lp =Mz * DNmin +A, — 0.01 * ESUN, * cosOgi(x * d?) And the resulting land surface retlectance Is glven by: p= [e* (La —Lp)* a? WESUN, * cos®,) ESUN [W /(m2 * jm )lvalues for Landsat sensors are provided in the following table, Band Landsat 4* Landsat §** Landsat 7"* 1 1957 1983 1997 2 1825 1769 1812 3 1857 1536 1833 4 1033, 1031 1039 6 2149 220 230.8 7 e072 23.44 24.90 * from Chander & Markham (2003) * from Finn, et al. (2012) For Landsat 8, HSUN can be calculated as (from hitp://arass.osqeo ora/arasse5/manuals/ilandsat.toar html): ESUN = (a # d®) « RADIANCE. MAXIMUMIREFLECTANCE MAXIMUM: where RADIANCE_MAXIMUM and REFLECTANCE_MAXIMUM are provided by image metadata 3.2.2.1.2. Conversion to At-Satellite Brightness Temperature For Landsat thermal bands, the conversion of DN to At-Satellite Brightness Temperature is given by (from https /iandsat.usgs.gowlandsat®_Using Product pho) Ty = Kalln(K La) +1) Band-specific thermal conversion constant (in wattsimeter squared * ster * urn) 2 = Band-specifc thermal conversion constant (in Kelvin) and [.4 Is the Spectral Radiance at the sensor's aperture, measured in watts/(meter squared * ster * jzm2 ); for Landsat Images itis glven by (from hitos/landsat usas gov/Landsat8 Using Product pho) La=M1* Qea +r where: 20f3+ .M,, = Band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor trom Landsat metadata (RADIANCE_MULT_BAND_x, where x is ‘the band number) + 41 = Band-specific additive rescaling factor from Landsat metadata (RADIANCE_ADD_BAND_x, where x is the band sumeer + Qin) = Quantized and caliorated standard product xl values (ON) The K) and K 2 constant for Landsat sensors are provided in the following table: Landsat Constant Landsat 45° Landsat 7 (wattsineter squared *ster“jim) 67162. 60776 65609 2 (Kelvin) 1284.30 1260.56 1282.71 *from Chander & Markham (2003) “trom NASA (2011) For Landsat 8, the A’) and K'> values are provided in the image metafile References Engineering and Remote Sensing, (Falls Church, Vac) American Socicty of Photogrammetey, 62, 1025-1036 s Flin ary Reeds Mote Sik Tananoto, ot, 2013. A Straight Torvard Guise for Frocwssing Radiance and of Bicellence for Geospatial Information Science, ‘nfip:/icegle usas gov/soll moisture InctiaSe26Sivaight0s20F owardde2Oquide%2 fon 20Processing x2ORadianceX2oand%a0Rellectance V 24JuI12 pdt + Mocan, Mer Jackson, Rur Slater, F- f Teillet, F. 1992- Bvalvation of simplified proceduses for retrieval Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, 196 httpisandsathandbook asfe.nasa gov/pdts/Landsat7 Handbook pdf S emote Sensing of Eaviconment, Elsevier, $0, 434-a40 30f3