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    Failure Mode under Compression RC Non Flexural Members

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    23 views59 pages

    Evaluation of Compression Failures in RC Non Felxural Members

    Uploaded by

    Frederick Tan
    Failure Mode under Compression RC Non Flexural Members

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    ISSN 0077-880x THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES STUDIES FROM SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING EVALUATION OF COMPRESSION FAILURES IN RC NON - FLEXURAL MEMBERS BY SJ FOSTER and AR MALIK UNICIV REPORT No. R-401 JULY 2001 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES SYDNEY 2052 AUSTRALIA hitp://www.civeng.unsw.edu.au ISBN: 85841 368 X Evaluation of Compression Failures in RC Non-Flexural Members by S.J. Foster BE MEngSc PhD Senior Lecturer, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW AR. Malik BE MEngSc ‘Structural Design Engineer, Meinhardt (Pakistan) ABSTRACT In strut-and-tie modelling the efficiency factor is used to take into account the lower strength of struts relative to the uniaxial strength of the concrete. The reduction in strength is justified on the grounds of the brittle nature of concrete and on the basis of the effects of transverse tension fields on the strength of the struts, In this report the available models for the efficiency factor are reviewed and new models proposed which are compared with the test results of 135 non-flexural structural elements such as deep beams, corbels and nibs. The results show that the efficiency factor has only a week relationship with the concrete strength and that the more important parameter is the angle of the strut relative to the longitudinal axis of the member. Efficiency models based solely, or primarily, on the concrete strength are found to have a poor correlation with the data. Efficiency models that account for the angle of the strut and models based on the modified compression field theory are found to give the best correlation with the test results KEYWORDS: Non-flexural, strut-and-tie, efficiency factor, deep beams, corbels, nibs, D-regions. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT NOTATION wessosseste iteitctecii INTRODUCTION ... THE PLASTIC TRUSS MODEL THE CONCRETE EFFICIENCY FACTOR CONCRET RENGTH VERSUS THE SHEAR SPAN TO DEPTH RATIO... 7 EVALUATION OF EFFICIENCY EQUATIONS. CONCLUSIONS 1. REFERENCES .. APPENDIX A - DETAILS FOR SPECIVIENS FAILING IN COMPRESSION 30 APPENDIX B - REINFORCEMENT DETAILS AND EXPERIMENTAL EFFICIENCY CALCS 7 APPENDIX C1 - THEORETICAL EFFICENCY CALCUATIONS 1 44 APPENDIX C2 - THEORETICAL EFFICENCY CALCUATIONS 2 31 NOTATION @ = shear span, distance between the centre of the nodes measured parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member ance from the centre of a concentrated load to the edge of the support measures parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member A, =area of main tensile reinforcement b = member thickness 61, €) = empirical constants C= force in strut d= effective depth of main longitudinal reinforcement d= width of strut D = overall depth of a member fo effective in-situ conerete strength fi = cylinder strength Joy = yield strength of main longitudinal reinforcement Suy = Yield strength of web reinforcement normal to a strut Fay = yield strength of horizontal web reinforcement SFuyv = yield strength of vertical web reinforcement = in-situ conerete strength factor = concrete damage factor (Vecchio) ky = conerete strength factor (Vecchio) s =stirrup spacing T = force in tie v = shear force w= support width z= distance between the centre of the nodes measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member y= strain in the horizontal direction 6, = principal strain normal to the strut ©) = principal strain parallel to the strut ficiency factor concrete damage factor (MacGregor) % concrete strength factor (MacGregor) 8 = angle of the strut to the longitudinal axis of the member Pp nain longitudinal reinforcement ratio Pw = web reinforcement ratio Prnin = Minimum web reinforcement ratio normal to a strut Pu = horizontal web reinforcement ratio Pwy = Yettical web reinforcement ratio Q = equivalent strut width over which ties contribute 1. INTRODUCTION Non-flexural members are common in reinforced concrete structures and include elements such as deep beams, corbels and nibs, pile caps, connections and the end zones of prestressed girders. Some examples of non-flexural members showing possible strut-and-tie models are shown in Figure 1. In non-flexural members plane sections before bending do not remain plane after bending. Therefore, the principles of stress analysis used for shallow members are neither suitable nor adequate to determine the strength of reinforced concrete non-flexural members. © (d) Figure 1 - Examples non-flexural members showing typical strut-and-tie models for a) deep beam; b) corbel; c) dapped connection; and d) prestressed anchorage zone. An important characteristic of non-flexural members is their considerably higher shear strength than is predicted by shallow beam theory. The greater shear strength of the non- flexural members is due to internal arching, that is the process that transfers the load directly to a support through the development of struts. Steel reinforcement acts as ties and, therefore, non-flexural members can be modelled as an analogous truss. Strut-and-tie modelling is the most rational and simple method for designing non-flexural members currently available. Design of non-flexural members using strut-and-tie modelling incorporates lower bound theory of plasticity assuming that both the concrete and the steel are perfectly plastic. The behaviour and dimensional properties of steel are well known and the strength of members failing in tension can be predicted with some degree of certainty. The same is not true, however, for the struts and for members failing in compression. To account for the imperfect assumption that concrete is a perfectly plastic material, an efficiency factor is applied to the uniaxial strength of the concrete. The efficiency factor accounts for effects such as the softening of the concrete at strains beyond the strain at peak stress and other strength reducing effects such as that of transverse tension strains. In this, report a number of proposed efficiency models are reviewed against a wide range of test data and some new models are developed. 2. THE PLASTIC TRUSS MODEL A number of strut-and-tie models have been used to describe the development of the struts. One of the earliest is the plastic truss model, first appearing in Nielsen et al. (1978) and used extensively in the design of non-flexural members by Rogowsky and MacGregor (1983). Whilst other strut-and-tie models can be adopted, the appeal of the plastic truss model lies in its simplicity. Two points distinguish the plastic truss model from other strut-and-tie models 1) all members enter the nodal zones at 90 degrees; and 2) at the nodes, for a specified set of boundary conditions, the members have the largest cross sectional area available of any strut and-tie model. The significance of point one is that the nodes are in a state of hydrostatic compression and thus do no require checking for shear (although shear on the nodes is rarely checked in practice). Point two implies that when calibrating the efficiency factor (the empirical factor required to take into account the brittleness of the concrete struts) the plastic truss model gives the lowest factor of the infinite selection of strut-and-tie models available when calculating the section capacities for the experimental test data In the plastic truss mode! there are two possible modes of failure; failure by crushing of the concrete in the strut (including any struts immediately beneath load plates, that is bearing failure) and failure by the yielding of the ties causing a mechanism. A third and important mode to be considered is that of splitting or bursting of the strut and a model for bursting failure is given in Foster (1998), The basic equations relating to materials, geometry and ‘equilibrium for the plastic truss model are given in Eqs. 1 to 3 where 4, is the area of tension reinforcement, f,, is the yield strength of the reinforcement, f2 is the effective concrete strength and is given by fo =k3yf, v is an efficiency factor (v<1) and ky is the in-situ strength factor and is defined as the ratio of the in-situ conerete strength to the cylinder strength, The dimensions are as shown in Figure 2 with the notation as given in the appendix Two points need to be stated about the formulations used in this report. Firstly, to standardise the nomenclature for corbels and deep beams the shear span (a) is taken as the distance from the centre to centre of the strut nodes in the longitudinal direction of the member (refer Figure 2). Secondly, to date, studi on the efficiency factor combine the efficiency of the struts and the in-situ concrete strength factor into a single efficiency parameter where, in fact, the two parameters represent two distinctly different and important phenomena. In this report 1 aT oT 1 a? | | 1 Vos () @) Figure 2 — Plastic Truss Models; a) corbel without stirrups (after Rogowsky and MacGregor, 1983) and; b) deep beam with stirrups. the in-situ strength factor (43) and the strut efficiency factor (v) are separated and the equations reported in the previous work of Foster and Gilbert (1996) and others adjusted accordingly. Materials: a) Geometry: 2) Strength: @) In evaluating the efficiency factor from test data and provided that failure mode is one of compression, the efficiency factor can be calculated using the relationship v ks fdbw (4) where V is the shear force, b is the thickness of the section and w is the width of the node over which the shear force is applied 3. THE CONCRETE EFFICIENCY FACTOR ‘The efficiency factor (v) is applied to the strength of the struts to account for the imperfect assumption that concrete is a rigid plastic material. The fact that concrete is not perfectly plastic and that the strength of the struts may loose capacity due to transverse tension fields, as per the Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT) of Vecchio and Collins (1986) are two of the phenomena for which an empirical reduction factor is needed. The efficiency factor also accounts for any other shortcomings of the model or other, yet to be determined, factors. There has been considerable debate about the value of efficiency factor. Marti (1985) suggests a value of y= 0.6 be adopted, while Rogowsky and MacGregor (1983) suggested a value of y=0.85 and noted that of greater importance than the adoption of a particular value for v is the selection of an appropriate strut-and-tie model. In models by Schlaich et al (1987), Alshegeir and Ramirez (1990) and MacGregor (1997) the efficiency factor is taken as a function of the location of the struts, or nodes, within the structural element and the degree of disturbance to the struts or nodes. The greater the degree of disturbance, for example by transverse tension fields, the lower the efficiency. A comprehensive summary of the Schlaich etal, Ishegeir and Ramirez, and MacGregor models is given by ASCE-ACI Committee 445 (1998), 10 Nielsen et al. (1978) developed concrete plasticity models for beams in shear, including deep beams and corbels. Nielsen et al, introduced the effi ncy factor to calibrate their models. In the later work of Chen (1988) the efficiency factors of Nielsen et al. were revised and for deep beams Chen proposed that a/Ds25 for | p-<0.02 () Dsi10 y= 2.6(1=0.25D)(100p + 2)(2-0.4a/ D) where D is the height of the beam in metres, pis the reinforcement ratio for main longitudinal steel and _f/ is the concrete cylinder strength in MPa. In AS 3600-1994 the efficiency factor adopted is a version of that proposed by Nielsen et al (1978) for shallow beams, that is f iwr-o8- fe 6 Whilst Eq, 6 has been iscredited by Foster and Gilbert (1996) and stated as inappropriate for deep beams in a discussion by Braestrup (1996), it remains in use by the Australian Concrete Structures Code (AS3600, 1994) and is included here only for comparison. Equation 6 was developed for members with conerete strengths of less than 50 MPa and Braestrup notes that a limit on v is needed for application to high strength concrete. In the analyses that follow the limit of > 0.5 is applied to Eq, 6 and is referred to as the AS3600 model with cutoff. Batchelor and Campbell (1986) suggested that the apparent reduced strength of the web conerete is primarily due to the fact that the diagonal struts are in a state of biaxial tension- compression, thereby reducing the effective compressive strength. They used two methods for evaluating the shear strength of a reinforced concrete beam, the variable angle truss model and the plasticity model. As a part of their parametric study, Batchelor and Campbell plotted u v against the non-dimensional parameters B/d, py. P, £i/foy » sfd and afd where b is the width of the web, d is the effective depth, ,, is the web reinforcement ratio, s is the stirrup spacing and fy, is the yield strength of the longitudinal reinforcement. From their studies Batchelor and Campbell proposed that the efficiency relationship be given by n(rf)=aas2-0 woo )-rani 2) a b d d Warwick and Foster (1993) undertook an investigation of the efficiency factor for conerete strengths ranging from 20 to 100 MPa and proposed that : 2 v=12s-2 974 2 )eou18 {Vt forald<2 (8a) 500 d d 0.53-L¢. for a/d22 (8b) 500 Equation 8 was developed by undertaking a series of nonlinear finite element analysis and compared with experimental data. The parameters investigated were the compressive strength of concrete fi, the shear span to depth ratio (a/d), and the quantity of horizontal and vertical web reinforcement. It was concluded that the main parameters that effet the concrete efficiency factor were the concrete strength and the shear span to depth ratio. The quantity of web reinforcement was found to have only minor effect provided the web reinforcement was, greater than 0.2% in the horizontal and vertical directions. They proposed that the quantity of web reinforcement used should be that required to control the transverse tensile forces (bursting forces) in the strut, but not less than 0.20% for f/<50 MPa and 0.40% for > 50 MPa Based on the panel tests of Vecchio and Collins (1986), Collins and Mitchell (1986) proposed i — 9 0.841706, e ky where 4, . 6; is the major prineipal strain (normal to the strut), &,i8 the minor principal strain (parallel to the strut), ¢, is the strain in the horizontal direction and 0 is the angle of the strut to the horizontal axis of the member Foster and Gilbert (1996) showed that Collins and Mitchell's expression for the efficiency factor (Eq. 9) could be modified to one that depended on the concrete strength and a’/d ratio. However, in the development of their equation the strut angle was approximated as tan@ ~d/a whereas, to be more precise, tan@ = z/a. With this modification bye __.. (10) 1614+ (0.644 f£/ 470)(a/ 2) Foster and Gilbert termed this equation as the modified Collins and Mitchell relationship Further examination of Eq. 10 showed that v was not highly sensitive to) and was further simplified to 1 1.1440.75(a/ 2) ay For the special case of a/z=0 (that is ej =0 in Eq. 11) it can be inferred from the MCFT that v=1.0. In review of Eq. 11 we write 1 1.0+0.66(a/ 2)? and note that for the modified Collins and Mitchell model of Eq. 11 ky = 0.88 MacGregor (1997) proposed that efficiency factor be given by kyv=vy2 (3) 13 where v2 =0.55+1.25/4//2 s fis in MPa; and y, is a factor depending upon the potential of damage to the struts. Foster (1998) gives the minimum web reinforcement needed to control splitting of the struts as Pusnin = V1 Fe /4 fay (ay where Py»; is the minimum reinforcement ratio for web steel placed perpendicular to the strut and fy, is the yield strength of the web reinforcement, For web reinforcement placed in orthogonal axes the minimum web steel requirements are satisfied if 4 . zs Te Wonhini sind + Py fiyye050)=1 (is) Ve where yj, and py, are the horizontal and vertical web reinforcement ratios, respectively, and fy and fyyy are the yield strengths of the horizontal and vertical web steel, respectively. In the application of the MacGregor model, if the inequality given by Eq. 15 is satisfied vy =0.8, else Research has shown that a wide range of variables affects the value of efficiency factor and there has also been a wide variation in the values reported for the efficiency factor. However, two primary variables that are considered to have direct influence on the value of efficiency are the concrete strength _f; and the shear span to depth ratio (a/z) the strut angle Vecchio and Collins (1993) reviewed their modified compression field theory to newly available data. The revised model, written in the efficiency factor form, is _ 1 T¥kek ¥ (16) where 14 (17) ky =0.1825y f 21.0 (18) and 2, is the major principal (transverse tension) strain, ,is the compressive (prineipal) strain and f, is the concrete cylinder strength in MPa. Taking £, = -0,0025 and with 6 = 6, +(e, —@,)/tan*@ (19) as proposed by Collins and Mitchell (1986), Eq. 17 is written as 7080 k, -oagosin (2) (20) Z Again, for a/z=0 the MCFT implies v=1.0 and substituting Eq. 20 into Eq. 16 (with ky =1.0) we write 1 v= ey) O83 +k ok and note that in Eq. 16 ks = 0.83. Thus a modified Vecchio and Collins (1993) relationship is developed using Eqs. 18, 20 and 21 In development of the cracked membrane model for reinforced concrete plane stress elements, Kaufmann and Marti (1998) adopted the efficiency factor 22) (0.44304) f21/9 As for the development of the modified Collins and Mitchell equation (Eq. 12), 61 can be treated as a function of the longitudinal strain, ¢,, and 1/tan?@ or (a/z)*. Equation 22 can be written in the form 15 veg i @3) frsertale? | 219 where ¢; and cy are empirical constants, Using a non-linear regression analysis for the 135 deep beams, corbels and nibs discussed in Section 4 and failing in a compression mode, the residual error was found to be a minimum with ¢ =0.238 and c= 0.160. The specimens identified as having failed in a compression mode are given in Table | with the full details of the experimental efficiency calculations given in Appendix A. For the purposes of comparison, Eq. 23 is designated as the modified Kaufmann and Marti relationship In this study the efficiency factor expressions given by Eqs 12, 21 and 23 are compared with the available experimental data together with models proposed by Batchelor and Campbell (1986), Chen (1988), Warwick and Foster (1993), the AS3600 (1994) model with cutoff and the MacGregor (1997) model. The efficiency factors are calculated using plastic truss model of Rogowsky and MacGregor (1983) taking the load and support nodal zones to be in a state of hydrostatic compression. For the plastic truss model (refer Figure 2) the dimension z is given by (24) where the limit of a/V3 is set by limiting the angle of the strut such that @ > 30°. For cases where the limit of a//3 controls the design a portion of the limiting shear stress is carried by stirrups, rather than directly by the major strut (refer Figure 2b). For the case in Eq. 23 of d? ~2Va/bksfz <0 the limit of z = a/,/3 is applied. For the analyses of the laboratory test data, that follows, the in-situ strength factor is taken as ks = 1.0 ‘Table 1 — Identification of exper 16 ental tests of non-flexural members with failure being in a compression mode Researchers Specimen Identification Kriz and Raths (1965) 3,4, 9, 35, 49, 50, 51, 60, 65, 66, 67, 73, 74, 79, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 96, 97, 119, 120, 142, 143, 144, 151, 152 de Pavia and Siess (1965) G33-S11, G33-S12, G33-S31, G33-S32, F282 Crist (1970) 8-3, $-4,S-7 Ramakrishnan et al. (1968) | C1, K1, KI(R) Manuel et al. (1971) 1,2,3,4 Mattock et al. (1976) BBA, G4, C3, F3, Fa, F4A, HBA, H3B ‘Smith and Vantsiotis (1982) OA0-44, OA0-48, 1AI-10, IA3-I1, 1A4-12, 2A6-41, 3A6-46, 1B3-29, 1B4-30, 16-31, 2B1-05, 2B3-06, 2B4-07, 284-52, 236-32 Rogowsky et al. (1983, 1986) VAOTI, 1/.0T2, 2/1.0 Tl, 2/1.0 72,3/1.0 TL, 3/1.0 72, 41.0 TI, 4/1.072, 6/1.0 TI, 6/1.0T2 Ricketts & MacGregor (1985) 1, IR, 2,4, 4R, 5, 5R Subedi et al. (1986) ICI, 2C1 Foster (1992) Beam 1, Beam 2, Beam 7, Beam 8 Fang et al. (1995) HS2-2, HM2-2, HL2-2, LM2-2, MM2-2, HM1-2, HM3-2, HM2-1, HM2-3, HS2-1, HS2-3, HM2-1A, HS2-1A, HS2-2A, HS2-3A, HS-0, HM-0, LM-0, MM-0 Foster et al. (1996) SAI, SA2, SA4, SBI, SC2-1, SD1, SD2, PB2, PC2, PD2, PE2, PGI PG? Foster and Gilbert (1998) B2.0-1, BL2-3 Subedi (1998) IcBI Asin (2000) LO/I(P), 1.0/2, 1.0/2/1, 1.0/2 15/2/, 15/22 7 4, CONCRETE STRENGTH VERSUS THE SHEAR SPAN TO DEPTH RATIO. In Eqs. 5 to 23 two parameters have been used to define the efficiency factor, the concrete strength and a/z. Many have argued that as conerete becomes more brittle with increasing strength the efficiency of the struts decreases with increasing strength. Similarly, by the MCFT (Vecchio and Collins, 1986) it could be expected that as the shear span to depth ratio increases the transverse strain in the struts at the strength limit state increases and, hence, the efficiency factor decreases with increasing a/2 In this study, the efficiency factor has been calculated for 135 specimens that have been identified to have failed in a compression mode. The data has been obtained from the studies on deep beams by de Pavia and Siess (1965), Ramakrishnan and Ananthanarayana (1968), Crist (1970), Manuel et al. (1971), Smith and Vantsiotis (1982), Rogowsky and MacGregor (1983), Subedi et al, (1986), Ricketts and MacGregor (1985), Foster (1992), Subedi (1998), Fang et al. (1995), Foster and Gilbert (1998) and Asin (2000) and on the corbel and nib studies of Kriz and Raths (1965), Mattock et al. (1976) and Foster et al (1996). A list of the specimens identified as having failed in compression are given in Table 1 with the details of the specimens and efficiency calculations given in Appendix A Figure 3 shows the atter plots of the experimentally obtained efficiency factor against concrete compressive strength with a large scatter observed in the data. The plot indicates that there is no direct relationship between the efficiency factor and the conerete strength alone Figure 4 shows the plot of v against a/z for deep beams and for corbels. Also plotted are the efficiency factor expressions given by Eq. 12 for ky =1 and ky = 0.85. Figure 4 shows that Oz +2 yyBuauys ayasouoa snsuas a 10}9uy Sua) aU € (ea) 2f 09 ov 02 (9261) 1 18 yOHEW (S961) sueY 8 ZU (9661) ‘Ie 19 01804 (6661) uisy (661) 421804 (5861) sobagoew 8 sHexorY (g66}) jpsqng (9861'e86L) 12 38 AysmoBoy (8661) Weg *g 181804 syoisjue/ pue YS ‘ye ye ueuysueyewey ($961) ssaig pue ejneg ap (9861) ‘Ie 8 Ijpeqns (L261) ‘1e 39 Januey, (0261) sud. (S661) ‘Ie 8 Bues Obedat 5b a ¢ puebey OoL 08 T T T < z0 v0 90 80 < ob vl + 9°L "7/e SNSIDA 4 AOWDEY ADUOPUJ OY- F se ny ze ge'0=€4 ‘Z} ‘ba ------| be 'Z} *b3 — (9461) ‘Ie 19 yooneW (961) suey pue SUI (9661) 1€ 19 Ja}s04 (6681) usy (266}) 499803 (g961) soBe1g9e WN pue syexory (8661) 1pagns (£861) AysmoBox (9861) vedi pue 489805 (2961) snoisjue, pue YS (g96}) ‘12 18 Ueuysueyewey (S961) ssalg pue elegy ap (9861) ‘Ie 8 lpsang (L264) 12 39 enue; (1261) IsUD (g661) 1219 Buey @ pustiey edat bo amo 6l z0 v0 0 so< ZL vb 20 the a/z ratio (which reflects the strut angle) is a significant factor affecting efficiency factor and is more dominant than the influence of concrete strength, 5. EVALUATION OF EFFICIENCY EQUATIONS In the following analyses of the efficiency equations are compared with data collected from studies for deep beam and corbel specimens failing in a compression or bearing mode (bearing failure being a compression mode by the model defined in Figure 2). In all 135 specimens were identified as having failed in a compression mode from 16 studies Specimens where the boundary conditions meant that the width of the strut could not be accurately determined (such as for the case where confining steel is used over a width greater than the width of the loading plate) or where the results could not be explained by equilibrium were excluded from the sample. For example, data from the tests of Kong and his cohorts over many studies (Kong et al., 1970, Kong and Robins, 1971, Kong et al, 1972, Tan et al., 1995, Kong et al., 1996, Tan et al., 1997a, Tan et al., 1997b, Teng et al, 1998) give consistently high efficiency factors. In some of their tests the bearing stresses on the concrete from the loading or reaction plates were greater than twice the conerete uniaxial compressive strength. This is difficult to comprehend other than to assume that triaxial con yement was in the bearing zones, although in the many of their tests no confinement reinforcement was detailed. In the tests by Kong et al, stiff bearing plates were used externally on semi-circular rollers with steel plates bedded to the concrete with cement mortar. This boundary condition appears to have provided significant triaxial confinement. Further, in a number of tests in the studies by Kong et al. there is insufficient main tension reinforcement to carry the moment at the mid span developed by the failure load. For example, for equilibrium Kong and Robins’ (1971) beam L1-20 (see Figure 5) requires a tension force in the bottom longitudinal steel of 108 KN but the capacity provided was just 65 KN. Beam 21 189 kN 189 kN an r 254—ey ae Reaction required for equilibrium Figure 5 — Kong et al. (1971) beam L1-20 showing the external reactions required for equilibrium, L1-20 had no horizontal web reinforcement contributing to the tension capacity of the member. The only feasible explanation that the writers can suggest for many of the beams not failing in a tension mode is that the supports provided the necessary equilibrating forces through friction. Given the substantive nature of the questions raised in the review of the Kong et al. data, no data from these tests were included in the data pool developed for this study ‘The correlation between the efficiency factor calculated by the models given by Eqs. 5 to 24 and those obtained from experimental data for deep beams and corbels failing in a compression mode are shown in Figures 6 and 7. Figure 6 shows the results of the analyses versus the calculated efficiency factors for the modified AS3600 (1994) model and the Macgregor (1997) model where the concrete strength is the primary modelling parameter. In 16, 18 odevEsp oaorexp 1.4| Mean = 082 1.4 [Mean #059 cov eev 041 12 12 § B41 S14 = 2 Fos G08 3 te} g a Bos = Eos| aa ees rn 3 aaa 5 > Soa os we aL oz o2 0 a2 04 06 08 1 12 14 48 0 a2 04 08 08 4 42 ta 16 vlexp) tex) Figure 6 — Correlation between experimental data and efficiency factor models for models based solely on concrete strength (legend as for Figure 3). Figure 7 the data is plotted for the multi-parameter models of Chen (1988), Batchelor and Campbell (1986) and Warwick and Foster (1993) and the models developed based on the MCFT. In addition to the data plots, Figures 6 and 7 show the ratios of the efficiency factors calculated from the models to that determined from the experimental data and the corresponding coefficient of variation, The following observations are made from Figures 6 and 7 and from the analyses: * Models based primarily on conerete strength show a poor correlation against the experimental data with a large scatter in the plots and high coefficients of variation The multi-parameter efficiency factor models proposed by Batchelor and Campbell (1986) and Chen (1988) give a poor corre! n with experimental values of efficiency factor exhibiting a large scatter in the data and high coefficients of variation. Of the three multi-parameter models investigated only the Warwick and Foster (1993) model 18 18 14 14 12 Z12 = zt : é x 2 2 go “08 * ost , Bos s moe oat gos : 5 rere oe > 02 o2t Ke oo > ° , ° 002 04 08 08 1 42 ta 02 04 08 08 1 42 14 16 v(exp) v(exp) 16 ModelExp qt} |iesn = 086 g “J [cov =0.24 > 312 3 8 ot P a4 é BP % > ek 3 + 308 ‘ a Sos a * 3 z ; 2 > Eos Eos has = e = * ca Fos Bos all 2 02 02 F lL 02 04 06 08 1 42 14 16 0 02 04 06 08 1 12 14 18 (exp) view) 18 18 ModelExp ModelExp 14} Mean = 0.89 = 1.4] |tean = 1104 z = 212 % g4 > 5 a Eos Sos 2 Soa 2 S02 ais é 002 04 06 08 1 12 14 16 002 04 08 08 1 42 14 16 v(exp) v(exp) igure 7 ~ Correlation between experimental data and efficiency factor models for multi -parameter models and models based on the MCFT (legend as for Figure 3). 24 showed some correlation with the experimental data with a mean Yeafe/Vexp of 1.02 and coefficient of variation of 0.24. © The three models based on the MCFT relationships give a reasonable correlation with the experimental data and have the lowest scatter of results with coefficients of variation of 0.22~0.24. © Boundary conditions are of significant importance in obtaining reliable data and if the scatter in the data plots is to be reduced experimentalists must detail the boundaries with considerable care, 6. CONCLUSIONS Strut-and-tie modelling provides the designer with a simple, yet powerful, tool for the design of non-flexural reinforced concrete members. The flow of forces in such members is idealized as a truss consisting of concrete struts and stecl reinforcement ties connected at nodes. For members failing in a compression mode the model requires the determination of a factor (the efficiency factor) to calculate the capacity of the concrete struts. The efficiency actor is included to account for the limited ductility of the concrete, the effects of the transverse tension fields (and other factors) and is used to calibrate the strut-and-tie model with experimental data, Various models have been developed for evaluating the efficiency factor; however, such models have yet to receive wide acceptance. The investigation undertaken in this report reviewed the various models available for the efficiency factor with two new variations proposed. The models analysed fall into three general categories 1) models based on the conerete strength, 2) multi-parameter models and 3) models based loosely on MCFT relationships 25 In this study, the results do not support a strong effect of the concrete strength on the determination of the effectiveness factor and it was found that models based solely on the conerete strength did not correlate well with the experimental data for non-flexural members failing in a compression mode. The multi-parameter models of Batchelor and Campbell (1986) and Chen (1988) also did not correlate well with the experimental data The study showed that strut angle was the most significant parameter influencing the efficiency factor and the results indicated that models based on the strut angle (or shear span to depth ratio a/2) give the best prediction for the efficiency factor. The multi-parameter model of Warwick and Foster (1993) and the models described as the MCFT models showed the best correlation against the experimental data. Lastly, in reviewing the experimental data it was found that the influence of the boundary effects are of considerable importance in the determination of the mode of failure and in influencing the degree of scatter of the results. If a more refined model is to be developed data is needed where the boundary conditions are defined such that they do not influence the failure load or failure mode of the structural element. 26 7. REFERENCES Alshegeir, A., and Ramirez, J.A., (1990). “Analysis of disturbed regions with strut-and-tie models”, Struct. Eng. Report No. CE-STR-90-1, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind. AS3600, (1994). “Concrete Structures”, Standards Association of Australia ASCE-ACI Committee 445 on Shear and Torsion, (1998). “Recent approaches to shear design of structural concrete”, J. of Struct. Eng., ASCE, 124(12), December, 1375-1417. Asin, M., (2000). “The behaviour of reinforced concrete continuous deep beams”, Delfi University Press, Delfi, The Netherlands, Batchelor, D.V.B., and Campbell, T.1, (1986). “Effectiveness factor for shear in concrete beams”, J. of Struct. Eng., ASCE, 112(6), June, 1464-1477, Braestrup, M.W., (1996). “Discussion on the design of non-flexural members with normal and high strength concretes”, ACT Struciural Journal, 93(6), 739-741 Chen, G, (1988), “Plastic analysis of shear in beams, deep beams and corbels”, Report R 237, Technical Ui versity of Denmark, Dept. of Structural Eng, Copenhagen. 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Foster, S.J., and Gilbert, RI, (1998). “Experimental studies on high strength conerete deep beams”, ACI Structural Journal, 95(4), July-August, 382-390. Foster, S.J., Powell R.E., and Selim, HS., (1996). “Performance of high-strength concrete corbels”, ACT Structural Journal, 93(5), September, 555-563. Kaufmann, W., and Marti, P., (1998). “Structural concrete: cracked membrane model”. J. Struct. Eng., ASCE, 124(12), December, 1467-1475, Kong, F.K and Robins, P.J. and Cole D.F., (1970). “Web reinforcement effects on deep beams”, ACI Journal, 12, December, 1010-1017. Kong, F.K., and Robins, P.J., (1971). “Web reinforcement effects on lightweight concrete deep beams”, ACI Journal, 68(47), July, 514-520. Kong, F.K., Robins. P.J., Kirby, D.P.,and Short, D.R., (1972). “Deep beams with inclined web reinforcement”, 4C/ Journal, 69(3), March, 172 -176. Kong, FK., Teng, S., tension reinforcement on the behavior of light weight concrete deep beams”, ACI ingh, A., and Tan,K.H., (1996). “Effect of embedment length of Structural Journal, 93(1), January, 21-29 Kriz, L.B., and Raths, C.H., (1965), “Connections in precast concrete structures - strength of corbels”, PCI Journal, 10(1), February, 16-61 MacGregor, J.G., (1997). Reinforced Concrete - Mechanics and Design, 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 28 Manuel, R.F., Slight, B.W., and Suter, G-T., (1971). “Deep beam behavior affected by length and span variations”, ACI Journal, 68(12), December, 954-958, Marti,P., (1985). “Basic tools of reinforced concrete beam design”, ACI Journal, Jan Feb, 46-56. Mattock, A.H., Chen, K.C. and Soonsung, K., (1976). “The behaviour of reinforced concrete corbels", PCI Journal, 21(2), Mar-Apr, 52-77. Nielsen M.P., Braestrup, M.W., Jensen, B.C., and Bach, F., (1978). “Concrete plasticity, beam shear in joints - punching shear”, Special Publication, Danish Society for Structural Science and Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, 129 pp. Ramakarishnan, V. and Ananthanarayana, Y., (1968). “Ultimate strength of deep beams in shear”, ACT Journal, 65(2), February, 87-98. Ricketts, D. R., and MacGregor, (1985). “Ultimate behaviour of continuous deep reinforced concrete beams”, Structural Engineering Report No. 126, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, January. Rogowsky D.M. and MacGregor J.G., (1983). “Shear strength of deep reinforced concrete continuous beams”, Structural Engineering Report No.110, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, November, 178 pp. Rogowsky D.M., MacGregor J.G. and Ong, (1986). “Tests on reinforced concrete deep beams” ACI Journal, 83(4) July-August, 614-623 Schlaich, J., Schafer, K., and. Jennewein, M., (1987). “Toward a consistent design of structural conerete”, PCI Journal, May-June, 74-150. Smith K.N. and Vantsiotis, A.S., (1982). “Shear strength of deep beams", ACI Journal, May- June, 79(22), 201-213. Subedi, N.K., (1998). “Reinforced concrete two-span continuous deep beams”, Proc. Inst. of Civ. Engrs and Bldgs, February, 12-25. Subedi, N.K., Vardy A.E., and Kubota, N., (1986). “Reinforced concrete deep beams - some test results”, Magazine of Concrete Research, 38(137), December, 206-219 Tan, K.H., Kong, F.K., Teng, S., and Guan, L., (1995). “High strength concrete deep beams with effective span and shear span variations” ACI Structural Journal, 92(4), July, 395-405. Tan, K.H., Kong, F.K., Teng, S., and Weng, L.W., (1997a). “Effect of web reinforcement on high strength conerete deep beams”, ACI Structural Journal, 94(5), September, 572-582 Tan, K.H.,Teng, S., Kong, F.K., and Lu., H.Y., (1997b). “Main tension steel in high strength concrete deep beams and short beams”, ACI Structural Journal, 94(6), November, 752-768. Teng, S., Kong, F.K., and Poh, S.P., (1998). “Shear strength of reinforced and prestressed concrete deep beams - Part II the supporting evidence”, Jnsin Civ, Engrs Structs & Bldgs., May, 124-143 Vecchio, F.J. and Collins, M.P., (1993). “Compression response of cracked reinforced concrete”, J. Struct. Eng., ASCE, 119(12), 3590-3610. Vecchio, FJ. and Collins, M.P., (1986). “The modified compression field theory for reinforced concrete elements subjected to shear”, ACI Journal, March-April, 219-231 Warwick, W.B. and Foster, S.J., (1993). “Investigation into the efficiency factor used in non- flexural reinforced concrete member design", UNICIV Report No.R-320, School of Civil Engineering, UNSW, Kensington, Sydney, Australia, July. 30 APPENDIX A Dimensional Details of Non-Flexural Specimens Identified as having Failed in a Compression Mode Lee zt | (oet. 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