MANUAL ON ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT
FOR MOSQUITO CONTROL
with special emphasis on malaria vectors

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

GENEVA
1982

W H O Ofset Publication No. 66

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PRINTED IN SWITZERLAND

CONTENTS

Page

........................................ 7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
I.
Mosquitos. mosquito-borne disease and mosquito control methods: a review . . . . . 11
I1. Environmental management for mosquito-borne disease control . . . . . . . . . . . 28
I11. Environmental modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
IV. Environmental manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
V.
Reduction of man/mosquito contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
V1. Planning environmental management for mosquito control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Preface

................
diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V11 Practical guidelines for the vector control worker

.
Annex 2.

Annex 1

Annex 3

Annex 4

Annex 5

Basic information on mosquito vectors and

List of environmental management measures which have proved to be

useful in the prevention and control of malaria and schistosomiasis

...

174
226

265

Matrix for the study and analysis of the environmental impact of a

reservoir in a water resources development project

. . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Checklist of major steps for the prevention and control of vectorborne diseases at each phase of water resources development projects
Equipment for environmental management

...

272

...................

276

Contributors

Mr J. Carlson, Research ~ydraulicEngineer, US Department of the Interior, Engineering and

Research Center, Colorado, USA.
Mr J. de Araoz, Consultant Engineer, London, UK.

Dr F.E. Gartrell, Consulting Engineer, Jackson, Mississippi, USA.

Dr A.D. Hess, Department of Microbiology, Colorado State University, USA.
Dr C.W. Krus6, Department of Environmental Health, Johns ~opkinsUniversity School of Hygiene
and Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.

Mr C. Kuo, Sanitary Engineer, Equipment Planning and Operations, Division of Vector Biology
and Control, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (associate technical editor).
Mr T. Mather., Senior Officer, Land and Water Development Division, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Dr L. Molineaux, Epidemiologist, Epidemiological Methodology and Evaluation, Malaria Action
Programme, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Mr H.A. Rafatjah, Chief, Equipment Planning and Operations, Division of Vector Biology and
Control, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (senior technical editor).
Dr L.E. Rozeboom, Professor of Epidemiology (retired),
Hygiene and Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.

Johns ~opkinsUniversity School of

Dr A. Smith, Entomologist, Ecology and Control of Vectors, Division of Vector Biology and
Control, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Reviewers
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following persons who, in addition to the
contributors, reviewed the manuscript and made comments:
Mr M. Acheson, Regional Cooperation Officer, Division of Environmental Health, WHO, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Dr 0. Alozie, Chairman/Senior Programme Officer, Division of Environmental Management, United
Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.
Dr P. Beales, Medical Officer, Programme and Training, Malaria Action Programme, W O , Geneva,
Switzerland.

Dr P. BrGs, formerly Chief, Virus Diseases, Division of Communicable Diseases, WHO, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Mr Z.J. Buzo, Consultant Engineer, Armidale, NSW, Australia.
Mr G.P. Chambers, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama, USA.
Dr J. Copplestone, Chief, Pesticides Development and Safe Use, Division of Vector Biology and
Control, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

Dr B.O.L. Duke, Chief, Filarial Infections, Parasitic Diseases Programme, WHO, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Dr B.Z. Diamant, Professor of Environmental Health Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria.
Mr J.O. Espinoza, Sanitary Engineer, WHO Intercountry Team, Ankara, Turkey.
Dr R. Feachem, Senior Lecturer in Tropical Public Health Engineering, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
Dr K. Framji, Secretary General, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New
Delhi, India.
Mr R. Miranda Franco, Sanitary Engineer, Puerto Rico, USA.

Dr G.P. Georghiou, Professor of Entomology, Head, Division of Toxicology and Physiology,

University of California, USA.
Dr F.E. Gonzalez-Valdivieso, Civil Engineer, Venezuela.
Dr N. Gratz, Director, Division of Vector Biology and Control, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Dr H. Grubinger, Honorary Vice-President of the International Commission on Irrigation and
Drainage, and Head, Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland.
Professor M. Holy, Dean, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Prague Technical University,
Czechoslovakia.
Dr V. Ivorra Cano, Medical Officer, Programming and Training, Malaria Action Programme, WHO,
Geneva, Switzerland.
Dr W.R. Jobin, WHO Sanitary Engineer, Blue Nile Health Project, Khartoum, Sudan.
Mr S. Kolta, Sanitary Engineer, WHO Regional Antimalaria Team, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Mr J.N. Lanoix, Sanitary Engineer Consultant, Sarasata, Florida, USA.
Dr T. Lepes, Director, Malaria Action Programme, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Dr D.A. Muir, Medical Entomologist, Interregional Project, Malaria Action Programme, WHO,
Geneva, Switzerland.
Mr T.D. Mulhern, Executive Director, American Mosquito Control Association Inc., Fresno, CA,
USA.
Dr E. Paulini, Universidade Federal de llinas Gerais, Be10 Horizonte, ~razil.
Dr J. Pull, Chief, Epidemiological Methodology and Evaluation, Malaria ~ctionProgramme, WHO,
Geneva, Switzerland.
Dr A.P. Ray, Chief Coordinator, National Malaria Eradication Programme, Delhi, India.
Mr L. Roy, Director, Environmental Health, Research and ~rophylactic,Diagnostic and
Therapeutic Substances, WHO Regional Office for Africa, ~razzaville,Congo.
Dr D.J. Schliessman, Consulting Engineer, Florida, USA.
Dr J.K. Shisler, Assistant Research Professor, New Jersey Agricultural ~xperimentStation,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA.
,

Dr R. Subra, Medical Entomologist, Coastal Field Station, International Centre of Insect

Physiology and Ecology, Mombasa, Kenya.
Dr N. Sustriayu, National Institute of Health Research and Development, Ecology Research
Centre, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Dr R.J. Tonn, Department of Malaria Eradication, Pan American Health Organization, WHO
Regional Office for the Americas, Washington, DC, USA.

Dr W.J.O.M. van Dijk, Regional Malaria Adviser, WHO Western Pacific Regional Office, Manila,
Philippines.

PREFACE
The aim of t h i s Manual i s t o provide information on environmental management t e c h n i q u e s ,
methods and p r a c t i c e s i n t h e c o n t r o l of mosquito v e c t o r s of m a l a r i a and o t h e r d i s e a s e s . It
i s intended i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e t o h e l p v e c t o r c o n t r o l workers t o f a m i l i a r i z e themselves w i t h
t h e s e techniques, methods and p r a c t i c e s , and t o enable them t o c a r r y o u t simple environmental
management works e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e c o n t e x t of primary h e a l t h c a r e a c t i v i t i e s . Secondly t h e
Manual can a s s i s t p l a n n e r s , d e s i g n e r s and c o n s t r u c t o r s of w a t e r r e s o u r c e s development p r o j e c t s
t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e h e a l t h i m p l i c a t i o n s of such p r o j e c t s and t o design and o p e r a t e them i n ways
t h a t w i l l p r e v e n t o r r e d u c e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n and spread of mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s . The
Manual can b e used a s a r e f e r e n c e book i n d a i l y p r a c t i c e , f o r t h e t r a i n i n g of s t a f f , o r f o r
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of s t a f f manuals f o r use i n v e c t o r c o n t r o l programmes and water r e s o u r c e
development p r o j e c t s .
Some l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e scope of t h e Manual were unavoidable because of t h e l a c k of any
comprehensive e x p e r i e n c e of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of environmental management measures t o c o n t r o l
mosquito v e c t o r s of d i s e a s e . Therefore, although t h e p r i n c i p l e s o u t l i n e d a r e u n i v e r s a l l y
sound, adjustments t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s w i l l be r e q u i r e d i n applying them.
Although t h e Manual d e a l s p r i n c i p a l l y w i t h environmental management f o r t h e c o n t r o l of
mosquito v e c t o r s , many of t h e works and o p e r a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d can be e f f e c t i v e l y used a g a i n s t
c e r t a i n o t h e r v e c t o r s . For t h e a s p e c t s of v e c t o r c o n t r o l n o t covered i n t h e p r e s e n t work,
r e f e r e n c e should be made t o o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , s e v e r a l of which a r e included i n t h e f u r t h e r
r e a d i n g l i s t s a t t h e end of t h e c h a p t e r s o r i n Annex 1.
As e x p e r i e n c e accumulates w i t h regard t o environmental management o p e r a t i o n s and works
throughout t h e world, i t may b e found t h a t some s u b j e c t s and d e t a i l s a r e l a c k i n g o r
i n s u f f i c i e n t l y covered i n t h i s Manual. Any such d e f i c i e n c i e s should be pointed o u t by l e t t e r
t o t h e D i v i s i o n of Vector Biology and C o n t r o l , World Health Organization, 1211 Geneva 27,
Switzerland. They w i l l be g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged and included i n any f u t u r e e d i t i o n .

Readers who a r e n o t experienced entomologists a r e sometimes confused by t h e c o r r e c t

p r a c t i c e of a b b r e v i a t i n g t h e g e n e r i c names of mosquito v e c t o r s t o a s i n g l e i n i t i a l l e t t e r .
I n t h i s book, t h e r e f o r e , a d e p a r t u r e from t h e c o r r e c t p r a c t i c e has been made i n o r d e r t o
h e l p them, a t w o - l e t t e r a b b r e v i a t i o n being used f o r some genera: f o r example, &. f o r Aedes
Cx f o r Culex.
and An. f o r Anopheles,
- and g.f o r C u l i s e t a and -

INTRODUCTION
Environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n and manipulation f o r t h e c o n t r o l of mosquito v e c t o r s of
d i s e a s e almost disappeared w i t h t h e development of chemical i n s e c t i c i d e s . A f t e r t h e Second
World War, t h e u s e of such i n s e c t i c i d e s , e s p e c i a l l y a s r e s i d u a l house s p r a y s , was s o
e f f i c a c i o u s i n c o n t r o l l i n g mosquitos and mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s t h a t l i t t l e o r no use was
made of b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l methods of mosquito c o n t r o l . However, s t a r t i n g w i t h Culex
molestus i n I t a l y and Anopheles sacharovi i n Greece, mosquitos of economic and p u b l i c h e a l t h
importance began t o develop r e s i s t a n c e t o i n s e c t i c i d e s and t h i s slowed t h e advances made by
chemical c o n t r o l alone.
Furthermore, environmental concern over r e p e a t e d a p p l i c a t i o n s of
i n s e c t i c i d e s f o r p e s t o r v e c t o r c o n t r o l h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o a d e c r e a s e i n t h e development of
new p u b l i c h e a l t h i n s e c t i c i d e s . The r e c e n t o i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e s have narrowed t h e economic
f e a s i b i l i t y of r e p e a t e d i n s e c t i c i d e a p p l i c a t i o n s . At t h e same time t h e development and
extended a v a i l a b i l i t y of s k i l l e d manpower and e f f i c i e n t excavating and earth-moving equipment
i n c r e a s e d t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of applying l a r g e - s c a l e environmental management measures f o r
mosquito c o n t r o l . The need t o develop i n t e g r a t e d s t r a t e g i e s i n c l u d i n g b o t h o l d and new
methods of mosquito c o n t r o l i s now widely accepted. Environmental management measures
c o n s t i t u t e an e f f e c t i v e component of such s t r a t e g i e s .
It must b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e of environmental management f o r v e c t o r c o n t r o l
i s t h e r e d u c t i o n of t h e abundance of dangerous s p e c i e s . P a s t experience w i t h mosquito v e c t o r s
of d i s e a s e has shown t h a t each s p e c i e s has defined geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n zones and occurs
i n l a r g e numbers only i n c e r t a i n breeding s i t e s w i t h i d e n t i f i a b l e combinations of p h y s i c a l ,
chemical and b i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Environmental management measures thus depend on t h e f u l l e s t understanding of mosquito

ecology and p o p u l a t i o n dynamics a s w e l l a s of mosquito-borne d i s e a s e epidemiology. S t u d i e s
on v e c t o r h a b i t a t s must t h e r e f o r e b e i n t e n s i f i e d i n o r d e r t h a t t h e a t t a c k may be made on
sound b a s e s .
This term, a s a p p l i e d t o m a l a r i a
An important concept i s t h a t of " species s a n i t a t i o n " .
c o n t r o l , means t h a t a t t e n t i o n should b e d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o l o c a l anopheline mosquitos
known t o b e t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a n s m i t t e r s of m a l a r i a . There a r e about 150 s p e c i e s of t h e s e
p o t e n t i a l m a l a r i a v e c t o r s i n t h e world; only some 30 of them a r e considered t o be important
m a l a r i a v e c t o r s , and of t h e 30 only a few w i l l occur l o c a l l y i n any given geographical a r e a
( s e e Table 1 . 2 - Annex 1 ) . What could appear a s an almost impossible t a s k of c o n t r o l l i n g a l l
anopheline mosquitos i s t h u s narrowed down t o a reasonably a t t a i n a b l e g o a l .
How s u c c e s s f u l l y man can i n t e r v e n e i n t h e readjustment of h a b i t a t s depends upon how w e l l
s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y i n t h e f i e l d d e f i n e s t h e key f a c t o r s t h a t r e g u l a t e mosquito p o p u l a t i o n s
and favour t h e b r e e d i n g of one kind of mosquito b u t n o t t h a t of a n o t h e r . The v e c t o r c o n t r o l
worker t h u s must e x p l o r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of economic a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s s o t h a t
t h e impoundments, i r r i g a t i o n , h y d r o e l e c t r i c , f i s h c u l t u r e and o t h e r man-made works, which a r e
l i a b l e t o become mosquito breeding p l a c e s , may b e n e f i t man w i t h o u t producing an undue
abundance of v e c t o r s .
Environmental management measures a r e n o t intended t o r e p l a c e o t h e r methods and
techniques a p p l i e d t o c o n t r o l vector- borne d i s e a s e s b u t r a t h e r t o complement t h e s e and
provide f o r t h e development of " i n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l ' ' s t r a t e g i e s ( s e e Fig. 0-1.).
A t t h e same time, a l t h o u g h some environmental management works and o p e r a t i o n s may i n t h e
long r u n be more e f f e c t i v e and l e s s expensive than o t h e r c o n t r o l measures, i t may b e d i f f i c u l t
economically t o j u s t i f y t h e i r u s e f o r v e c t o r c o n t r o l purposes a l o n e . Often, b e n e f i t s obtained
i n o t h e r f i e l d s , such a s t h e b e t t e r use of w a t e r and land f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l improvement and
e x t e n s i o n d e r i v e d from environmental management measures, p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n .
Sound environmental management, designed t o avoid p o s s i b l e adverse consequences such a s t h e
breeding and m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of d i s e a s e v e c t o r s , should be considered a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of
a l l e n g i n e e r i n g undertakings i n v o l v i n g t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n and manipulation of t h e environment.

Marsh alteration
(ditching, impoundment)

Others

Introduction of exotic
natural enemies

lnundative releases of
natural enemies

1/

7(

manipulations

.Zoo~ro~hvlaxis

Filling, grading
grading
Filling,

& drainage
Barrier
plantings
;::N
:I

Chemosterilants
Developmental inhibitors
WHO 811058

Fig. 0-1. Diagram of t h e components (environmental management,

chemical, b i o l o g i c a l ) and t h e i r p o t e n t i a l c o n s t i t u e n t methods t o
be considered i n an " i n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l " approach t o mosquito
control.
Adapted from: A x t e l l , R.C. P r i n c i p l e s of i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management (IPM) i n r e l a t i o n t o
mosquito c o n t r o l . Mosquito News, 39: 709-718 (1979).

CHAPTER I
MOSQUITOS. MOSQUITO-BORNE DISEASE
A REVIEW

AND MOSQUITO CONTROL METHODS:

CONTENTS
Page

..............................
1.
Mosquitos and t h e i r bionomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction

1.1
1.2

The
3.1
3.2

3.3

3.4
3.5

......................
.

Major mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s and t h e i r epidemiology

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

...
.

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . morphology and l i f e c y c l e of t h e mosquito

Mosquitobionomics
1 . 2 . 1 The environment of t h e immature s t a g e s of t h e mosquito
1 . 2 . 2 The environment and h a b i t s of t h e a d u l t mosquito

...........
.........
........
..

......
......
......
......
..
a v a i l a b l e methods of mosquito c o n t r o l . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical methods . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Residual s p r a y i n g . . . .
3.2.2 L a r v i c i d i n g . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Space s p r a y a p p l i c a t i o n .
B i o l o g i c a l methods . . . . . . .
3.3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Larvivorous f i s h . . . . .
3.3.3 I n v e r t e b r a t e p r e d a t o r s . .
3.3.4 Nematodes . . . . . . . .
3.3.5 Protozoa and fungi . . . .
3.3.6 B a c t e r i a . . . . . . . . .
Genetic c o n t r o l . . . . . . . . .
Malaria
Filariasis
Yellow f e v e r
Dengue haemorrhagic f e v e r
E n c e p h a l i t i s and o t h e r v i r a l d i s e a s e s

Environmental management methods

P e s t (nuisance) mosquitos and t h e i r c o n t r o l

Introduction
The aim of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r o v i d e e n g i n e e r s and o p e r a t o r s of development p r o j e c t s
w i t h some e s s e n t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n on mosquito bionomics and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and t h e r e l a t i o n of
mosquitos t o d i s e a s e
A b e t t e r understanding of t h e s e s u b j e c t s w i l l be u s e f u l t o them and
w i l l f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r collaboration with the health s t a f f

I n r e c e n t y e a r s . c o n s i d e r a b l e environmental changes have taken p l a c e i n many a r e a s a s a

r e s u l t of t h e c r e a t i o n of man-made l a k e s . t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o j e c t s . d e f o r e s t a t i o n . u r b a n i z a t i o n . and o t h e r economic development a c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v i n g land and water use
A s a consequence. t h e c l a s s i c a l breeding h a b i t s of mosquito v e c t o r s and even some a s p e c t s of

t h e i r bionomics may a l s o be changing i n t h e s e a r e a s . I n any new development p r o j e c t o r

a c t i v i t y , t h e r e f o r e , t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of entomologist s t a f f i n a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y team
should be sought i n o r d e r t h a t a p r e c i s e p i c t u r e may b e o b t a i n e d of c u r r e n t v e c t o r bionomics
and behaviour, and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o human ecology and o t h e r p r e v a i l i n g environmental f a c t o r s .
1.

Mosquitos and t h e i r bionomics

1.1

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , morphology and l i f e c y c l e of t h e mosquito

Mosquitos a r e two-winged i n s e c t s belonging t o t h e o r d e r D i p t e r a , family C u l i c i d a e and

subfamily C u l i c i n a e . They a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by having long conspicuous needle- shaped mouthp a r t s comprising t h e p r o b o s c i s which, i n t h e female, i s used f o r sucking blood. Mosquitos a r e
widely d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e world, t h e number of s p e c i e s exceeding 1500 and s e p a r a t e d i n t o two
great divisions or tribes
t h e Anophelini and C u l i c i n i , t h e former b e i n g t h e s m a l l e r t r i b e
but i n c l u d i n g t h e v e c t o r s of human m a l a r i a and f i l a r i a s i s . The C u l i c i n i i n c l u d e v e c t o r s of
v i r a l and f i l a r i a l d i s e a s e s of man and s p e c i e s of v i c i o u s b i t e r s , some of which a r e n o t
i n c r i m i n a t e d i n t r a n s m i s s i o n of human d i s e a s e .

The immature and a d u l t s t a g e s of mosquitos a r e passed i n two completely d i f f e r e n t environments. The immature s t a g e s ( i . e . , eggs, l a r v a e and pupae) r e q u i r e an a q u a t i c environment,
and t h e a d u l t mosquito an a e r i a l and t e r r e s t r i a l one. The f o u r s u c c e s s i v e s t a g e s of development i n t h e l i f e c y c l e of t h e anophelines and c u l i c i n e s a r e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d below and
i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 1-1.

ANOPHELINES
Anopheles

Fis. I .l.

I
I

CULlClNES
Aedes

Culex

Chief d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s of Anophelines and C u l i c i n e s

(a.f., a i r f l o a t s ;
ab., abdomen; an., antenna; br., mouth brush; e . , eye; h.h., hooked ( o r
g r a p n e l ) h a i r s ; n.o., notched organ; pa., m a x i l l a r y palp;
p.h., palmate ( o r f l o a t ) h a i r s ;
pr., p r o b o s c i s ; 1 sg., 1 s t abdominal segment; 8 sg., 8 t h abdominal segment; s i . , siphon;
sp., s p i r a c l e s ; t h . , thorax; tr., r e s p i r a t o r y trumpets; w.s., water s u r f a c e ) .

a.$., a n a l g i l l s ;

(From: Marshall, J . F . ,
F i g . 13, p . 1 3 ) .

The B r i t i s h Mosquitoes, 1938 ( r e p r i n t e d 1966, Johnson R e p r i n t Corp.),

Anophelines l a y t h e i r eggs s e p a r a t e l y over t h e s u r f a c e of w a t e r , each egg having l a t e r a l

a i r f l o a t s t o keep i t a f l o a t . C u l i c i n e s of t h e genus Culex and Mansonia l a y t h e i r eggs on t h e
w a t e r , i n a boat-shaped mass r e f e r r e d t o a s an egg r a f t ; whereas t h o s e of t h e genus Aedes
a r e l a i d s e p a r a t e l y , o f t e n i n d r y hollows o r c o n t a i n e r s which become flooded a f t e r r a i n .
These "dry-laid" eggs a r e a b l e t o r e t a i n t h e i r v i a b i l i t y w i t h o u t w a t e r f o r very long p e r i o d s .
Larva
Eggs of mosquitos g e n e r a l l y h a t c h a f t e r two o r t h r e e days i n c o n t a c t w i t h w a t e r . The
l a r v a i s about 1.5 mmlong when newly hatched and about lOmm long when f u l l y grown. During
growth t h e l a r v a c a s t s i t s s k i n f o u r t i m e s , t h e s t a g e s between s u c c e s s i v e moults b e i n g known
a s i n s t a r s . The l a r v a of a mosquito i s made up of head, t h o r a x and abdomen- the l a s t being
composed of n i n e d i s t i n c t segments. A mosquito l a r v a b r e a t h e s through two o r i f i c e s , c a l l e d
s p i r a c l e s ; t h o s e of t h e anopheline b e i n g s i t u a t e d on t h e e i g h t h abdominal segment s o t h a t ,
i n o r d e r t o b r e a t h e , t h e l a r v a r e s t s i n a h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r .
I n c u l i c i n e l a r v a e , t h e s p i r a c l e s a r e s i t u a t e d a t t h e end of a t u b u l a r organ, c a l l e d t h e
siphon, which extends from t h e e i g h t h abdominal segment. S i n c e t h e s p i r a c l e s must l i e i n t h e
plane of t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e , t h e c u l i c i n e l a r v a must hang down from t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e by t h e
t i p of i t s siphon i n o r d e r t o b r e a t h e . An e x c e p t i o n i s t h e genus Mansonia, i n which t h e
siphon i s h i g h l y modified f o r p i e r c i n g and adhering t o stems of a q u a t i c p l a n t s from which a i r
i s drawn f o r b r e a t h i n g purposes.
Pupa
The pupa i s a non- feeding s t a g e , of s e v e r a l days d u r a t i o n , providing f o r t h e morphological
and p h y s i o l o g i c a l changes r e q u i r e d f o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e l a r v a t o t h e a d u l t .
The g e n e r a l appearance of t h e pupa i s of a comma w i t h an exaggerated "dot" and small
"tail".
The "dot" i s occupied by t h e head and t h o r a x while t h e " t a i l " encases t h e abdomen
which t e r m i n a t e s i n a p a i r of paddles. The pupa i s mobile and a b l e t o d i v e r a p i d l y when
d i s t u r b e d . When q u i e s c e n t , t h e pupa r e s t s a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r , suspended by a l a r g e
a i r c a v i t y w i t h i n i t s body. Breathing i s c a r r i e d o u t , a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r , by a p a i r
of r e s p i r a t o r y trumpets extending from t h e t h o r a c i c a r e a . I n g e n e r a l , c u l i c i n e pupae can be
d i s t i n g u i s h e d from anopheline pupae by t h e i r considerably l o n g e r r e s p i r a t o r y trumpets.
Adult
The a d u l t mosquito emerges, t h o r a x f i r s t , from t h e pupal s k i n , by swallowing a i r t o
i n c r e a s e t h e i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e pupal s k i n and then t o e n a b l e t h e mosquito t o extend
i t s s o f t limbs i n t o t h e a d u l t form. A f t e r emergence, t h e a d u l t mosquito r e s t s f o r a few
minutes on t h e d i s c a r d e d pupal s k i n f o r i t s wings t o expand and harden p r i o r t o f l i g h t . The
proboscis t a k e s l o n g e r t o harden and i s too s o f t , d u r i n g t h e f i r s t day a f t e r emergence, f o r
t h e female t o t a k e a blood meal. The a d u l t s of b o t h sexes f e e d on p l a n t j u i c e s but only t h e
female f e e d s on blood. Egg development i s dependent on a blood meal f o r almost a l l anophelines
and most c u l i c i n e s . I n some s p e c i e s t h e f i r s t b a t c h of eggs can be l a i d w i t h o u t a blood meal
(autogeny). While t h e r e a r e p r e c i s e morphological d i f f e r e n c e s between anophelines and
c u l i c i n e s , which a r e o u t s i d e t h e scope of t h i s manual, t h e former may g e n e r a l l y be d i s t i n guished from t h e l a t t e r by t h e appearance of t h e wings. With t h e e x c e p t i o n of s p e c i e s of t h e
subgenus Anopheles, t h e anopheline wing i s g e n e r a l l y p a t t e r n e d w i t h dark and p a l e a r e a s whereas
t h e c u l i c i n e wing i s unpatterned and has a uniformly p l a i n appearance. Another v i s u a l d i s t i n c t i o n i s t h a t , a t r e s t , t h e body of an anopheline mosquito forms an a n g l e n e a r l y v e r t i c a l w i t h
t h e s u r f a c e w h i l e t h a t of a c u l i c i n e mosquito l i e s almost p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e a s shown i n
Fig. 1-1.

1.2

Mosquito bionomics

Bionomics d e a l s w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a given s p e c i e s and i t s environment. An

understanding of mosquito bionomics i s t h e r e f o r e of key importance i n t h e epidemiology of
mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s and i n planning methods of mosquito c o n t r o l . C l i m a t i c f a c t o r s p l a y
an important p a r t i n s p e c i e s d i s t r i b u t i o n , behaviour, s u r v i v a l and v e c t o r i a l s t a t u s . Water
i s an e s s e n t i a l component of t h e mosquito environment and whether i t i s running, s t a n d i n g ,
c l e a n o r p o l l u t e d , sweet o r b r a c k i s h , shaded o r s u n l i t , f r e q u e n t l y determines which s p e c i e s
of mosquito breeds i n i t . The environments of t h e immature s t a g e s and a d u l t mosquito a r e
i n t e r d e p e n d e n t s i n c e t h e a d u l t mosquito must have a c c e s s t o water f o r egg l a y i n g . The a d u l t
mosquito environment i s , however, l a r g e l y a e r i a l and t e r r e s t r i a l , t h e former environment being
necessary f o r mating and d i s p e r s a l and t h e l a t t e r p r o v i d i n g h a b i t a t s f o r f e e d i n g , r e s t i n g and
completion of t h e c y c l e of o v a r i a n development from blood meal t o egg l a y i n g . The environments of t h e i m a t u r e s t a g e s of t h e a d u l t mosquito a r e considered i n more d e t a i l below.
1.2.1

The environment of t h e immature s t a g e s of t h e mosquito

The environment of t h e immature s t a g e s of t h e mosquito i s a q u a t i c , w i t h i t s mobile s t a g e s

( i . e . , l a r v a and pupa) dependent on atmospheric a i r f o r b r e a t h i n g and t h e r e f o r e t y p i c a l l y
spending much of t h e i r l i v e s suspended from t h e s u r f a c e f i l m of t h e a q u a t i c environment.
There i s an optimal range of w a t e r temperatures f o r growth of t h e immature s t a g e s of t h e
mosquito. This range i s lower f o r s p e c i e s l i v i n g i n temperate t h a n i n t r o p i c a l zones and
v a r i e s somewhat between d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s l i v i n g i n t h e same geographical zone: t h u s
temperature i s one of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t l i m i t s t h e geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n of a s p e c i e s .
Within t h e s e optimal r a n g e s , however, t h e r e i s a l a r g e l y d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between temperat u r e and growth. For example, mosquitos b r e e d i n g i n t h e t r o p i c a l zone, i n w a t e r a t 230-270C,
u s u a l l y complete t h e i r a q u a t i c growth w i t h i n two weeks. Moderately f r e q u e n t r a i n f a l l u s u a l l y
i n c r e a s e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p r o l i f i c b r e e d i n g , b u t r e p e a t e d and heavy r a i n f a l l causes
s e v e r e f l o o d i n g r e s u l t i n g i n a temporary f l u s h i n g o u t of breeding p l a c e s and r e d u c t i o n i n
mosquito p o p u l a t i o n . The d e p t h t o which l i g h t p e n e t r a t e s t h e water i n which t h e mosquito i s
breeding i s g e n e r a l l y n o t an important f a c t o r s i n c e t h e immature s t a g e s l i v e l a r g e l y a t t h e
deterw a t e r s u r f a c e , b u t t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e b r e e d i n g p l a c e i s shaded o r exposed t o
mines which s p e c i e s of mosquito i n h a b i t a p a r t i c u l a r w a t e r body. Hedges, p l a n t e d t o g i v e
shade over b r e e d i n g p l a c e s , o r c l e a r i n g of f o r e s t s t o allow sun t o p e n e t r a t e have been
s u c c e s s f u l l y used f o r environmental c o n t r o l of s e v e r a l m a l a r i a v e c t o r s (Anopheles minimus and
An. b a l a b a c e n s i s ) .
Unless i s l a n d s of v e g e t a t i o n a r e p r e s e n t t o p r o v i d e l o c a l breeding s i t e s ,
mosquito l a r v a e a r e n o t found on open s u r f a c e s of l a r g e bodies of deep f r e s h water ( e . g . ,
l a k e s , ponds, r i v e r s o r r e s e r v o i r s ) b u t a r e confined t o t h e i r s h e l t e r e d shallow edges. The
immature s t a g e s of some s p e c i e s (An. gambiae s . 1 . ) a r e found throughout t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e of
swamps and of shallow temporary r a i n w a t e r p o o l s . Some s p e c i e s (An. f u n e s t u s ) breed i n c l e a r
f r e s h w a t e r w i t h v e r t i c a l v e g e t a t i o n whereas o t h e r s a r e adapted t o breeding i n b r a c k i s h w a t e r
(An. sundaicus) o r h i g h l y p o l l u t e d w a t e r (Culex q u i n q u e f a s c i a t u s = Cx p i p i e n s f a t i g a n s ) . The
a q u a t i c environment o f some s p e c i e s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t s . For example,
Mansonia l a r v a e a r e l i n k e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e of f r e s h w a t e r l e t t u c e ( P i s t i a ) and Aedes
simpsoni w i t h a x i l l a r y breeding i n banana p l a n t s . Other s p e c i e s (Ae. a e g y p t i , Eretmapodites
c h r y s o g a s t e r ) breed i n g r e a t numbers i n small c o n t a i n e r s such a s o l d t i n s , t y r e s and coconut
husks.

sun

Thus w h i l e mosquitos, a s a group, a r e found breeding i n an almost i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y of

s i z e s and types of w a t e r body, each s p e c i e s i s g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n types of
breeding p l a c e s . I n some s p e c i e s , however, breeding i s r e s t r i c t e d t o a narrow range of
h a b i t a t s w h i l e o t h e r s breed r e a d i l y i n a wide range of water- types. The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n given
i n Annex 1 a t t e m p t s t o i d e n t i f y t h e major and most common mosquito v e c t o r s , t h e i r b i o l o g y and
breeding h a b i t a t s , and t o i n d i c a t e , f o r each t y p e , t h e most s u i t a b l e environmental management
measures f o r c o n t r o l .

1.2.2

The environment and h a b i t s of t h e a d u l t mosquito

Mating
Mating u s u a l l y occurs w i t h i n 24-48 hours a f t e r emergence. I n some s p e c i e s t h e males form
a swarm, f r e q u e n t l y l o c a t e d o v e r c o n t r a s t i n g o r s h a r p l y d e f i n e d p o i n t s , e . g . , t h e top of a
t r e e , s t a k e o r r o c k , o r over t h e c o r n e r of a b u i l d i n g . Swarming u s u a l l y occurs a t dawn o r i n
t h e evening, b u t may be s e e n i n sh'aded a r e a s i n t h e middle of t h e day. Females e n t e r i n g t h e
swarm a r e s e i z e d and t h e p a i r drops o u t of t h e swarm. A f t e r insemination, t h e spermatozoa
a r e s t o r e d i n t h e female mosquito, i n an organ c a l l e d t h e spermatheca, and drawn on f o r
f e r t i l i z a t i o n of a l l t h e eggs produced throughout t h e remainder of i t s l i f e (monogamy).
Dispersal
The a d u l t mosquito of most s p e c i e s does n o t f l y g r e a t d i s t a n c e s and t h e male i s a much
weaker f l y e r than t h e female. Thus t h e presence of a l a r g e number of a d u l t male mosquitos
i n d i c a t e s t h a t breeding p l a c e s of t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s a r e c l o s e by. I n normal atmospheric
circumstances, most i n d i v i d u a l mosquitos of t r o p i c a l s p e c i e s a p p a r e n t l y f l y w i t h i n a range of
1-3 km, although t h e r e a r e records of a few s p e c i e s o r o c c a s i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l mosquitos
t r a v e l l i n g much f u r t h e r . C e r t a i n temperate- zone s p e c i e s t r a v e l 4-5 km and t h e r e a r e r e c o r d s
of t h o s e t h a t t r a v e l l e d up t o 10 km. D i s p e r s a l i s l a r g e l y downwind and s t r o n g winds can c a r r y
mosquitos v e r y much g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s than normal. For example, t h e r e i s a r e p o r t of
Anopheles p h a r o e n s i s , i n Egypt, being windborne, up t o 280 km from t h e n e a r e s t breeding
places.%
D i s p e r s a l of mosquitos through human agency has occurred s i n c e t h e e a r l i e s t times
but w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g number of v e h i c l e s ( b o a t s , buses, t r a i n s and a i r c r a f t ) , t h e t h r e a t of
p a s s i v e d i s p e r s i o n of v e c t o r s p e c i e s i s much g r e a t e r today, and e f f e c t i v e countermeasures
such a s v e h i c l e d i s i n f e c t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d .
Biting habits
Many of t h e h a b i t s of a d u l t mosquitos a r e l i n k e d t o t h e i r being both cold-blooded and
p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y i l l - f i t t e d t o w i t h s t a n d very dry environments. F l i g h t , h o s t s e e k i n g , and
feeding g e n e r a l l y t a k e p l a c e i n a warm humid environment. Species t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
open t e r r a i n and s u n l i t h a b i t a t s f l y and feed between t h e hours of dusk and dawn when t h e a i r
i s more humid. Many of t h e s e s p e c i e s have a peak of b i t i n g a c t i v i t y i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f of
t h e n i g h t when r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t i e s a r e a t t h e i r h i g h e s t . For example, i n An. gambiae s.1.
and An. f u n e s t u s , t h e p r i n c i p a l v e c t o r s of m a l a r i a i n A f r i c a , t h e peak of b i t i n g occurs about
an hour b e f o r e dawn. Many s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h dense v e g e t a t i o n a l h a b i t a t s such a s
f o r e s t s o r p l a n t a t i o n s , where daytime h u m i d i t i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r t h a n i n open t e r r a i n ,
f l y and feed d u r i n g d a y l i g h t hours. Their peaks of b i t i n g a c t i v i t y v a r y widely between
d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s and may occur i n d a y l i g h t hours (Aedes simpsoni) o r s h o r t l y a f t e r dusk
(Ae. a f r i c a n u s ) . Mosquitos which feed i n s i d e houses a r e d e s c r i b e d a s endophagic and t h o s e
t h a t f e e d outdoors a s exophagic. The e x a c t f e e d i n g p a t t e r n of mosquitos indoors v a r i e s w i t h
d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s and circumstances b u t u s u a l l y mosquitos e n t e r houses t o feed i n t h e e a r l y
hours of t h e n i g h t .
Host p r e f e r e n c e
The environment of t h e a d u l t female mosquito i n c l u d e s a h o s t . I f t h e p r e f e r r e d h o s t i s
man, t h e mosquito i s r e f e r r e d t o a s a n t h r o p o p h i l i c ; i f animal, a s z o o p h i l i c ; and i f t h e r e
i s no f i x e d p r e f e r e n c e , a s an i n d i s c r i m i n a t e b i t e r . I n t h e absence of t h e p r e f e r r e d h o s t ,
some s p e c i e s ( e . g . , An. gambiae s . 1 . ) a r e f a c u l t a t i v e f e e d e r s and w i l l feed r e a d i l y on

a
Garrett- Jones,
pharoensis Theobald.

The p o s s i b i l i t y of a c t i v e long- distance m i g r a t i o n s by Anopheles

C.
B u l l e t i n of t h e World Health Organization, 27: 299-302 (1962).

another h o s t . I n Europe, changes i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s l e a d i n g t o improved r u r a l housing

and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s e p a r a t e b u i l d i n g s f o r housing c a t t l e and p i g s have d i v e r t e d m a l a r i a
v e c t o r s away from man and l e d them t o f e e d on domestic animals.2,
Res t i n e h a b i t s
Species t h a t e n t e r houses f o r feeding a t n i g h t and f o r r e s t i n g i n t h e daytime a r e
d e s c r i b e d a s endophagic and e n d o p h i l i c , a s compared w i t h exophagic and e x o p h i l i c mosquitos
which feed and r e s t outdoors. The s i t i n g , d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of houses can g r e a t l y
i n f l u e n c e t h e e x t e n t t o which houses can be e n t e r e d and used a s r e s t i n g p l a c e s by mosquitos,
and c o n s t i t u t e a n important a s p e c t of environmental management. For example, governments and
communities of developing c o u n t r i e s tend t o b u i l d "low-cost housing" away from swamps and
more i n d i v i d u a l s have houses w i t h w e l l - f i t t i n g doors and screened windows. The p a t t e r n of
mosquito r e s t i n g i n s i d e houses i s a l s o changing w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of c e i l i n g s t o bedrooms and
t h e wider u s e of cupboards, thereby removing many a d v e n t i t i o u s r e s t i n g p l a c e s on c l o t h e s (and
o t h e r a r t i c l e s ) hanging from n a i l s and l e n g t h s of s t r i n g f i x e d along w a l l s . The widespread
use of corrugated i r o n s h e e t s i n s t e a d of g r a s s f o r r o o f i n g houses i n r u r a l a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y
i n A f r i c a , has f o r c e d mosquitos t o s e e k indoors s u i t a b l e r e s t i n g p l a c e s because t h e roofs u r f a c e s a r e unbearably h o t i n t h e daytime.
I n a r e a s where s p e c i e s a r e l a r g e l y e n d o p h i l i c , t h e r e i s n e v e r t h e l e s s an outdoor r e s t i n g
component of males, r e c e n t l y emerged females, gravid females and females t h a t have r e c e n t l y
l a i d eggs. Where t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s l a r g e l y e x o p h i l i c , a g r e a t number of r e c e n t l y blood- fed
mosquitos a r e found among t h e outdoor r e s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n . The v e g e t a t i o n a l h a b i t a t s of exop h i l i c mosquitos vary g r e a t l y according t o s p e c i e s and geographical a r e a and they range from
s p a r s e xerophytes t o t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t ecotypes. The p r i n c i p a l h o s t s may be c a t t l e , w i l d
mammals, o r b i r d s w i t h man p l a y i n g t h e r o l e of an a c c i d e n t a l h o s t . Outdoor r e s t i n g mosquitos
a r e u s u a l l y widely d i s t r i b u t e d over l a r g e a r e a s and t h e i r environmental management i s
g e n e r a l l y more d i f f i c u l t t h a n f o r e n d o p h i l i c mosquitos whose females a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d d u r i n g
p a r t of t h e i r l i v e s i n t o d i s c r e e t u n i t s , i . e . , houses o r o t h e r man-made s h e l t e r s . Outdoor
r e s t i n g p l a c e s of mosquitos a r e g e n e r a l l y s h e l t e r e d , shaded, and humid and i n c l u d e e a r t h
banks, c r e v i c e s i n t h e ground, caves, spaces under b r i d g e s , dense v e g e t a t i o n and t h e bases
of t r e e t r u n k s . While some s p e c i e s u s e a v a r i e t y of r e s t i n g p l a c e s , o t h e r s p r e f e r s p e c i f i c
s i t e s . I n t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s i t i s common p r a c t i c e t o c l e a r v e g e t a t i o n around houses t o
reduce t h e n u i s a n c e of mosquitos b i t i n g people outdoors. P l a n t s (such a s p l a n t a i n and
bananas) t h a t p r o v i d e b r e e d i n g and r e s t i n g s i t e s f o r Aedes mosquitos a r e p r o h i b i t e d w i t h i n
some towns. I n t h e wet season t h e growth of v e g e t a t i o n l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e d outdoor r e s t i n g
i n some s p e c i e s such a s Anopheles gambiae s . 1 .
The c o l l e c t i o n of outdoor r e s t i n g mosquitos
i s o f t e n much e a s i e r i n t h e dry season, however, because of t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e
r e l a t i v e l y few remaining n a t u r a l r e s t i n g s i t e s . I n some a r e a s where outdoor r e s t i n g s i t e s
a r e g r e a t l y reduced i n t h e d r y season, houses a r e e x t e n s i v e l y used s e a s o n a l l y a s r e s t i n g
p l a c e s by mosquitos t h a t have f e d outdoors on c a t t l e . It can thus be a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t t h e
e x t e n t of endophily, endophagy, exophily and exophagy v a r i e s w i t h i n t h e same s p e c i e s ,
according t o environmental c o n d i t i o n s .
Gonotrophic c y c l e
Mosquitos e n t e r houses through open windows, doors, eaves gaps, and gaps i n w a l l s .
A f t e r e n t e r i n g , some s p e c i e s r e s t i n s i d e t h e house f o r a p e r i o d of 2-3 hours b e f o r e f e e d i
indoors on man and t h e n , gorged
w i t h t h e blood meal, r e s t indoors f o r 24-48 hours u n t i l t
blood has been d i g e s t e d and t h e o v a r i e s c o n t a i n mature eggs, i . e . , t h e y a r e gravid. The
g r a v i d mosquito t y p i c a l l y l e a v e s t h e house a t dusk i n s e a r c h of a s u i t a b l e a q u a t i c s i t e f o r

- Roubaud, E.

Les c o n d i t i o n s de n u t r i t i o n des Anopheles e n France. A. maculipennis e

181
l e r a l e du b E t a i l dans l a prophylaxie du paludisme. Annales de 1 ' I n s t i t u t P a s t e u r ,
(1920).
b
Wesenberg-Lund, C . C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e b i o l o g y of t h e Danish C u l i c i d a e . Kongelige
Danske videnskabernes s e l s k a b s s k r i f t e r , 7: 1-110 (1921).

34:

egg l a y i n g . Mosquitos t h a t e n t e r b u t a r e unsuccessful i n o b t a i n i n g a blood meal g e n e r a l l y

l e a v e t h e following dawn.
Seasonal prevalence
I n c e r t a i n a r e a s , mosquitos a r e s e a s o n a l l y exposed t o a h o s t i l e environment c r e a t e d by
extremes of c l i m a t e . I n temperate zones, w i n t e r temperatures a r e survived by some form of
h i b e r n a t i o n . I n t h e c o l d e r p a r t s of t h e temperate zone, h i b e r n a t i o n i n Aedes spp. i s i n the
egg s t a g e and t h e r e may be only one g e n e r a t i o n a year. I n t h e l e s s cold p a r t s of t h e
temperate zone, most c u l i c i n e s spend t h e midwinter months i n t h e l a r v a l s t a g e . The female
a d u l t s of some, e . g . , Culex p i p i e n s , h i b e r n a t e i n s h e l t e r e d p l a c e s such a s c e l l a r s o r outb u i l d i n g s , s u r v i v i n g on body f a t . Adults of o t h e r s p e c i e s such a s Anopheles a t r o p a r v u s
h i b e r n a t e p a r t i a l l y , t a k i n g a n o c c a s i o n a l blood meal o f f man o r domestic animal, i n d o o r s ,
during a warm s p e l l , b u t i n t h e s e circumstances o v a r i a n development does n o t follow a f t e r t h e
blood meal. This p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n i s described a s gonotrophic d i s s o c i a t i o n . Some
t r o p i c a l s p e c i e s (An. gambiae s.1.) a r e a b l e t o s u r v i v e i n h o t , dry and a p p a r e n t l y w a t e r l e s s
a r e a s i n p a r t s of A f r i c a towards t h e end of t h e dry season, b u t t h e means by which they do s o
a r e n o t y e t known.
E x t r i n s i c i n c u b a t i o n ~ e r i o dand mosauito lonrrevitv
Since t h e mosquito i s cold- blooded, t h e c l i m a t e i n which i t l i v e s g r e a t l y a f f e c t s i t s
c a p a b i l i t y f o r d i s e a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n by i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r a t e of development of t h e p a r a s i t e
w i t h i n t h e v e c t o r and t h e l o n g e v i t y of t h e mosquito.
M a l a r i a l and f i l a r i a l p a r a s i t e s undergo a developmental c y c l e w i t h i n t h e mosquito h o s t
during which t h e former, but n o t t h e l a t t e r , p a r a s i t e s m u l t i p l y . Viruses m u l t i p l y w i t h i n t h e
mosquito h o s t b u t do n o t appear t o undergo any c y c l i c a l change. For a l l t h r e e groups t h e r e i s
a p e r i o d between t h e h o s t mosquito's f i r s t i n f e c t i o u s blood meal and i t s f i r s t f e e d t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e i n f e c t i o n . This i n t e r v a l i s known a s t h e e x t r i n s i c i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d and v a r i e s i n
length i n response t o t h e temperature of t h e h o s t mosquito's environment. For example,
development of t h e m a l a r i a p a r a s i t e s , Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax, i s i n d e f i n i t e l y
r e t a r d e d a t 19OC and 1 5 ' ~ r e s p e c t i v e l y and below; and i n P. falciparum i t i s completed i n
10 days a t 3 0 ' ~ and i n 27 days a t 200C (Macdonald 1957)a. - ~ a o and ~ ~ e n ~ found
a r k t h a t mean
temperatures below 24OC and 340C i n h i b i t e d growth of t h e f i l a r i a l p a r a s i t e Wuchereria
b a n c r o f t i i n Culex q u i n q u e f a s c i a t u s Say (=_Cx p. f a t i g a n s Wiedemann) and Khalil e t a l . 2 found
t h a t t h e f i l a r i a l l a r v a e matured i n 20 days a t 23-24OC and i n 14 days a t 29-31c. F u r t h e r
d e t a i l s on t h e e x t r i n s i c i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d of W. b a n c r o f t i a r e given by ~ a s a . d ~ a v i s efound
t h a t t h e e x t r i n s i c i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d of t h e African Asibi s t r a i n of yellow f e v e r v i r u s i n
Aedes a e g y p t i was 4 days a t 37OC, and 18 days a t 21c. The mosquitos were n o t i n f e c t i v e a f t e r
a p e r i o d of 30 days a t 18OC.

a
Nacdonald,

G.

The epidemiology and c o n t r o l of m a l a r i a , London, Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

1957.
b
Rao, S.S.

& Iyengar, M.O.T.

S t u d i e s on i n c i d e n c e of season on development of F i l a r i a
759-768 (1930).
b a n c r o f t i i n Culex f a t i g a n s . Indian j o u r n a l of medical r e s e a r c h ,

17:

- K h a l i l , M. e t a l . On t h e transmission of f i l a r i a s i s b a n c r o f t i i n Egypt. J o u r n a l of
t h e Egyptian Medical A s s o c i a t i o n ,
317-322 (1932).
d
- Sasa, M. Human f i l a r i a s i s . A g l o b a l survey of epidemiology and c o n t r o l , ~ a l t i m o r e ,
U n i v e r s i t y Park P r e s s , 1976.
e
- Davis, N.C. The e f f e c t of v a r i o u s temperatures i n modifying t h e e x t r i n s i c i n c u b a t i o n
163-176
p e r i o d of yellow f e v e r v i r u s i n Aedes a e g y p t i . American j o u r n a l of hygiene,
(1932).

15:

16:

While some species of mosquito live longer than others, temperature and humidity affect
their survival. Except at extremely high or low humidities, when mosquitos are unable to
regulate their water loss, longevity is in general greater at the higher ranges of humidity
and lower ranges of temperature. Anopheles culicifacies was found to survive about 10 days
at a 60-65% relative humidity and at 30-35OC, compared with 30 days at 80-90% relative
humidity and 27-30Oc.a
Resistance to insecticides
During the last 35 years, control of mosquitos and other insects of public health
importance has been largely achieved by means of synthetic chemical insecticides. Their use
on a vast and increasing scale has led to the widespread development of insecticide resistance
which has been defined as "the development of an ability in a strain of insects to tolerate
doses of toxicants which would prove lethal to the majority of individuals in a normal population of the same speciesfl.b The number of insecticide-resistant arthropods of public health
importance has risen from 2 in 1946 to 155 in 1980, and insecticide-resistant mosquitos from
7 in 1957 to 98 in 1980. Resistance has appeared to chlorinated hydrocarbon, organophosphate
and carbarnate insecticides. As there are few alternative groups of chemical insecticides to
fall back on, it has become urgent to develop alternative means of mosquito control.
Insecticide resistance is inherited and is induced through selection of individual
insects that survive dosages of insecticides which kill the susceptible individuals. The
mechanism of inheritance varies with different insect groups and different insecticides. It
can be of a simple mendelian character attributable to a single gene allele, or of a complex
nature involving oligogens or multiple-gene interaction. The physiological basis of
resistance also varies with species and insecticides, and may arise through enhanced metabolism of the insecticide, reduced penetration of the insecticide into the insect, or reduced
nerve sensitivity.
C

2.

Major mosquito-borne diseases and their epidemiology-

2.1

Malaria

Malaria is responsible for high infant mortality rates among many populations in the
tropical and subtropical climates of the world. Also of great concern is its chronic effect
of debility and general impairment of wellbeing that obviously hinders the economic and social
progress of cornunities where malaria is widespread.
Malaria parasites are protozoa of the genus Plasmodium and there are four main species,
Plasmodium falciparum(malignant tertian malaria) , P. v i v a (benign tertian), P. malariae
(quartan) and P. ovale, the latter species being relatively uncommon. After receiving an
infective bite, there is an incubation period in the patient which varies from 10-40 days
depending on the species of Plasmodium. Towards the end of the incubation period the patient
may suffer headaches, limb-pains, backache, slight nausea or even vomiting. The incubation
period terminates with the onset of the disease which is characterized by a paroxysm which
develops in three well-defined stages, the cold stage or chill, the hot or fever stage and
the sweating stage. The paroxysm is caused by massive destruction of the red corpuscles and
release from them of toxins into the blood stream. If untreated, the paroxysms develop a

-a Russell, P.F.

& Rao, T.R. Observations on longevity of Anopheles culicifacies

imagines. American journal of tropical medicine, 22: 517-533 (1942).
b
-WHO Technical Report Series, No. 125, 1957 (Insecticides: seventh report of the
Expert Committee).

-C See also

Annex 1.

periodicity, occurring every three days in P. falciparum, P. vivax and P. ovale, and every
four days in P. malariae. Malignant tertian is the most serious form of human malaria since
it is more likely than the other forms to give rise to fatal complications. However,
P. falciparum does not survive in the human body longer than two years whereas P. malariae
is capable of surviving undetected for more than twenty years and then suddenly manifesting
itself.
After invading the red corpuscles of the blood, the malaria parasites develop into
numerous noninfective trophozoites and a smaller number of infective male and female
gametocytes. When a mosquito vector bites an infected person and ingests blood containing
male and female gametocytes, a complex cycle of development and multiplication of the malaria
parasite takes place, at the end of which the salivary glands of the mosquito contain infective sporozoites ready for injection into another person at the next bite.
The cycle of transmission of malaria is exclusively between man and vector mosquito, with
man acting as sole intermediate host and reservoir of the parasite and the mosquito as the
definitive host. The epidemiology of the disease depends upon a great many factors including
the habits of man and of the vector mosquito, the species of parasite and the environment.
The rate of transmission is influenced by the efficiency of the vector (i.e., the ease with
which it acquires and develops an infection), the size of the reservoir of infection (i.e.,
number of infected individuals), and the "vectorial capacity" which is a function of the
density of the vector, the rate at which it feeds on man, the length of survival of the
infected vector mosquitos, and the duration of the incubation period in the vector.
Table 1.1 (Annex 1) presents a list of the Anopheles mosquitos most commonly incriminated
in malaria transmission and their chief preferences in breeding habitats; they are grouped
according to geographical distribution.
Table 1.2 (Annex 1) presents an alphabetical list of Anopheles species that are important
in malaria transmission, with a summary of information on the adult mosquito habits and on
larval habitats.
2.2

Filariasis

Mosquito-borne filariasis in man includes a group of diseases caused by filarial nematodes. The immature and adult worms invade the lymphatic system. ~icrofilariaeare found in
the blood and there may be eosinophilia. The number and location of the parasites (and
whether they are alive or dead) influence the clinical manifestations of the disease.
Repeated infections may lead to illness and incapacity for work arising from filarial fever,
inflammation and enlargement of the lymph nodes and vessels (adenolymphangitis), incompetence
of the lymphatic valves, obstruction of the lymph-flow and varicose dilation of the lymphatic
vessels. In the inguinal and testicular regions this frequently leads to hydrocele. Long
exposure to repeated infections, usually over several years, can lead to extensive lymphatic
obstruction and a massive increase in lymphatic and fibrous tissue in the limbs, thereby
giving rise ultimately to the characteristic deformity known as "elephantiasis".
The species of filarial worms involved are Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi and
B. timori. W. bancrofti has an extensive geographical distribution and is found in nearly all
tropical countries. Its transmission cycle is man-mosquito-man (i e. , non-zootic)
B. malayi
is known only from south and east Asia. Its nocturnally subperiodic form, found in the jungle
swamps of West Malaysia, is zoonotic and the transmission cycle involves other vertebrates
such as monkeys, domestic and wild cats, civets and pangolins in forested areas. B. timori
is a distinct, apparently non-zootic species, found on the Lesser Sunda Islands in Eastern
Indonesia.

In the developmental cycle of W. bancrofti, man is the definitive host in which the adult
female filarial worm, after copulation with the male worm in the human body, gives birth to
numerous microfilariae which enter the peripheral circulation. When taken up in a blood meal
by the mosquito intermediate host, the microfilariae develop primarily in the thoracic
muscular tissues of the mosquito until they reach the infective stage, and then they enter the

proboscis of the vector. When the mosquito bites man, the infective stage larvae are deposited
from the proboscis onto the skin and penetrate the wound inflicted by the mosquito. After
penetration, the male and female filariae enter and grow in the lymphatics. The developmental
cycles of the Brugia spp. are similar except that other vertebrates, as well as man, may act
as definitive hosts

The microfilariae in the peripheral blood vessels exhibit nocturnal periodicity in

W. bancrofti infections throughout most of their geographical distribution, with high densities
appearing in the bloodstream at night and very low densities or none in the daytime. In some
places the microfilarial periodicity in W. bancrofti infections is less marked and is known as
subperiodic. In the South Pacific islands it is diurnally subperiodic. In parts of Thailand
it is nocturnally subperiodic. Similarly, B. malayi is nocturnally periodic in most parts of
tropical Asia, but the jungle form, found in the swampy areas of West Malaysia, is nocturnally
subperiodic. The microfilariae of B. timori are nocturnally periodic. The phenomenon of
microfilarial periodicity is not fully understood but appears to be linked with the bitingcycle of the vector mosquitos.
The epidemiology of the disease is influenced by topography, climate, social conditions,
and degree of exposure to infective mosquitos. The incidence is highest in coastal and flat
areas in tropical latitudes but low in mountainous areas. Advanced levels of filarial disease
are generally found only in areas with very high densities of the vector mosquito where the
inhabitants have had long exposure to repeated infections. Some 59 species of mosquito have
been reported as natural vectors of bancroftian filariasis, the most important of which are
indicated in Tables 1.3 and 1.4 (see Annex 1). Culex quinquefasciatus (= Cx p. fatigans) is
the principal vector in urban situations. It breeds in polluted waters such as cesspits,
stagnant water in ditches and drains, and in tanks, barrels and all sorts of containers. It
is strongly anthropophilic and bites man indoors and outdoors. This species, and its
association with bancroftian filariasis, is presenting a mounting problem in many urban situations where installations such as standpipes, latrines and drains are not properly maintained.
Transmission of brugian filariasis occurs in all combinations from animal to animal or man,
from man to man or animal. The major vectors are the swamp-breeding species of Mansonia. In
East Indonesia, B. timori is transmitted by Anopheles barbirostris

Filariasis vector control is usually supplementary to chemotherapeutic control with

diethylcarbamazine nitrate. It is carried out on a limited scale by house spraying with
residual contact insecticides and by means of ultra-low-volume formulations of insecticides
applied indoors and outdoors. The widespread resistance of adult Cx quinquefasciatus to
organochlorine and other synthetic insecticides does, however, stress the need to look at
other means of control, particularly environmental ones.
Table 1.3 (see Annex 1) gives the principal mosquito-borne filarial parasites of man,
their geographical distribution and preferred types of environment, notes on the epidemiology
of the disease, and the mosquitos most commonly involved in its transmission. Table 1.4
presents a list of the important mosquito vectors in alphabetical order, with a summary of
information on the adult mosquito's habits and on larval habitats.
2.3

Yellow fever

Yellow fever is an acute, often fatal, disease caused by an arbovirus. The disease is
characterized by severe headaches, aches in the bones, and fever followed by a deep jaundice,
internal haemorrhages and vomiting.
Like most viral diseases transmitted by mosquitos, yellow fever has an animal reservoir.
Jungle monkeys are the normal reservoirs of the virus. In South and Central America the
Haemagogus mosquito which occasionally bites man, is a major monkey-to-monkey vector. However,
in Africa, monkey-to-monkey transmission is maintained by the forest mosquito, Aedes africanus,
and from monkey to man typically by Ae. simpsoni which breeds profusely in plantain and banana
plantations at the periphery of the forest, in the vicinity of man. Subsequent transmission
follows a man-Aedes-man cycle in which Ae. aegypti can play a major role in an urban environment. As Ae. aegypti breeds near human habitations in plant axils, potholes and artificial

c o n t a i n e r s of a l l s o r t s and s i z e s , t h e d i s e a s e (which i s normally confined t o f o r e s t and r u r a l

a r e a s ) can become an urban h e a l t h problem and even b u r s t i n t o epidemic p r o p o r t i o n s .
The development of e f f e c t i v e vaccines and t h e i r massive a p p l i c a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t s of mosquito c o n t r o l programmes i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t , have reduced t h e
d i s e a s e t o a f r a c t i o n of i t s o v e r a l l g l o b a l importance h a l f a c e n t u r y ago. The t h r e a t of a
sudden epidemic remains e v e r p r e s e n t , however, and measures have t o be t a k e n t o cope w i t h
t h i s e v e n t u a l i t y . Programmes of chemical c o n t r o l of Aedes mosquitos have somewhat s u f f e r e d
from t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered w i t h o t h e r v e c t o r mosquitos; t h e r e i s thus a corresponding
need t o i n s t i g a t e a l t e r n a t i v e methods of c o n t r o l .

2.4

Dengue haemorrhagic f e v e r

Dengue haemorrhagic f e v e r i s an a c u t e f e b r i l e d i s e a s e of low f a t a l i t y , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

high f e v e r , i n t e n s e muscular and j o i n t p a i n s and prolonged i n c a p a c i t a t i o n . The c a u s a t i v e
agent i s a v i r u s r e l a t e d t o t h a t of yellow f e v e r
No r e s e r v o i r o t h e r t h a n man i s known. The primary v e c t o r i s t h e cosmopolitan Aedes
a e g y p t i but o t h e r Aedes (such a s Ae. a l b o p i c t u s and some members of t h e Ae. s c u t e l l a r i s group)
have been i n c r i m i n a t e d . The v e c t o r can a c q u i r e t h e i n f e c t i o n from an i n f e c t e d person up t o
3 days a f t e r appearance of t h e i n i t i a l symptoms, and t h e e x t r i n s i c i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d may be a s
s h o r t a s 8 day S .
Explosive epidemics of dengue haemorrhagic f e v e r have occurred i n urban s i t u a t i o n s i n
which Ae. a e g y p t i has been t h e v e c t o r . The d i s e a s e has been countered by chemical i n s e c t i c i c k s
b u t t h e r e i s a need t o develop a l t e r n a t i v e methods of c o n t r o l i n c l u d i n g environmental ones.

2.5

E n c e p h a l i t i s and o t h e r v i r a l d i s e a s e s

Other mosquito-borne v i r u s e s i n c l u d e t h e n e u r o t r o p i c v i r u s e s t h a t a t t a c k t h e c e n t r a l
nervous system of t h e i r h o s t s causing e n c e p h a l i t i s . There a r e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l e n c e p h a l i t i s
v i r u s e s i n t h e USA, Western equine, S t . Louis and E a s t e r n equine. Japanese B v i r u s i s
p r e v a l e n t i n t h e Far E a s t and Murray Valley v i r u s i n A u s t r a l i a . R i f t Valley f e v e r i s widespread i n A f r i c a . The e n c e p h a l i t i s v i r u s e s g i v e r i s e t o inflammatory d i s e a s e s of t h e b r a i n
and s p i n a l cord w i t h s i g n s and symptoms which a r e s i m i l a r b u t vary i n s e v e r i t y and r a t e of
p r o g r e s s : t h e s e i n c l u d e high f e v e r , s t u p o r , d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , coma, tremors and s p a s t i c
p a r a l y s i s . Japanese B v i r u s may g i v e r i s e t o a high c a s e f a t a l i t y r a t e , h i g h e r than m a l a r i a .
The t h r e e e n c e p h a l i t i s v i r u s e s of t h e USA a r e p r i m a r i l y p a r a s i t e s of b i r d s w i t h Culex
t a r s a l i s b e i n e" a n i m ~ o r t a n tv e c t o r of Western eauine and S t . Louis e n c e ~ h a l i t i s . E a s t e r n
equine i s t r a n s m i t t e d from b i r d t o b i r d by C u l i s e t a melonura b u t Aedes s o l l i c i t a n s p l a y s a
s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n c a r r y i n g t h e i n f e c t i o n t o h o r s e s and man. I n t h e Far E a s t , Japanese B
v i r u s i s p r i m a r i l y a p a r a s i t e of mammals, and p i g s can p l a y an important r o l e i n t h e
epidemiology of t h e d i s e a s e . Extensive human outbreaks, t r a n s m i t t e d by Cx t r i t a e n i o r h y n c u s
and Cx q u i n q u e f a s c i a t u s (= Cx p. f a t i g a n s ) , can occur. Murray Valley v i r u s i s e n z o o t i c i n
many mammals and b i r d s i n n o r t h - e a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a and i s t r a n s m i t t e d by Cx a n n u l i r o s t r i s .
Eighteen s p e c i e s of mosquitos have been i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of R i f t Valley f e v e r
and, i n a r e c e n t major e p i z o o t i c of t h i s d i s e a s e i n Egypt, Cx p i p i e n s was d e t e c t e d a s t h e
major v e c t o r .
There a r e .many o t h e r v i r a l d i s e a s e s t r a n s m i t t e d by mosquitos and Table 1 . 5 ( s e e Annex 1 )
p r e s e n t s a l i s t of t h e more important ones, t h e i r geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n , summary n o t e s on
t h e i r epidemiology, and t h e most common v e c t o r s p e c i e s involved i n t h e transmission. Table
1.6 ( s e e Annex 1) p r e s e n t s a l i s t of t h e important mosquito v e c t o r s of a r b o v i r a l d i s e a s e s i n
a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r w i t h a summary of i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e h a b i t s and l a r v a l h a b i t a t s of t h e
a d u l t mosquitos.

3.

The a v a i l a b l e methods of mosquito c o n t r o l

3.1

Introduction

The p r e v e n t i o n and c o n t r o l of a number of important v e c t o r - t r a n s m i t t e d , communicable

d i s e a s e s of man r e l y h e a v i l y on measures f o r t h e c o n t r o l of t h e v e c t o r p o p u l a t i o n s . Usually
such measures r e p r e s e n t t h e most e f f e c t i v e and o f t e n most f e a s i b l e and economical means of
d i s e a s e p r e v e n t i o n and c o n t r o l . I n t h e c a s e of c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s (such a s trypanosomiasis,
f o r which e f f e c t i v e and s a f e drugs a r e s t i l l t o be developed), v e c t o r c o n t r o l i s a t p r e s e n t
p r a c t i c a l l y t h e only s a f e and e f f e c t i v e method of l a r g e - s c a l e c o n t r o l .
I n mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s , v e c t o r c o n t r o l may be d i r e c t e d t o c o n t r o l l i n g t h e breeding
of v e c t o r s and t h u s reducing t h e v e c t o r p o p u l a t i o n . This may be achieved by applying chemical
l a r v i c i d e s , by i n t r o d u c i n g b i o l o g i c a l a g e n t s i n t h e breeding h a b i t a t s , o r by implementing
environmental management works and o p e r a t i o n s .
Vector c o n t r o l may a l s o b e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a d u l t mosquitos. The g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e i s
s i m i l a r l y an adequate r e d u c t i o n i n t h e mosquito v e c t o r p o p u l a t i o n . However, i n c e r t a i n
o p e r a t i o n s (such a s indoor r e s i d u a l o r space spraying) t h e c o n t r o l measures may be more
s e l e c t i v e and d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t only t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e mosquito p o p u l a t i o n t h a t e n t e r s , f e e d s
on man and r e s t s i n d o o r s . I n t h i s c a s e , mosquito l o n g e v i t y i s reduced and t h e mosquitos d i e
b e f o r e they can become i n f e c t i v e and t r a n s m i t t h e d i s e a s e t o man.
The methods of mosquito c o n t r o l may be used f o r ( a ) p r e v e n t i n g t h e occurrence of d i s e a s e s ,
(b) s u p p r e s s i n g epidemics, o r ( c ) c o n t r o l l i n g a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g endemic mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s .
They a r e u s u a l l y a p p l i e d i n combination, i n a balanced mix of v a r i o u s methods, i n t e g r a t e d t o
s u i t l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s and needs and r e s o u r c e s and t o e n s u r e t h e maximum c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s and
b e n e f i t . For d i s e a s e p r e v e n t i o n and c o n t r o l , t h e methods of mosquito c o n t r o l fonn a segment
of t h e g e n e r a l i n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y where a n t i p a t h o g e n i c measures, e . g . , d r u g s ,
v a c c i n a t i o n , e t c . , a r e a l s o included.
The a v a i l a b l e methods of mosquito c o n t r o l a r e u s u a l l y c l a s s i f i e d i n t o chemical, b i o l o g i c a l
and environmental, depending on whether t h e c o n t r o l of v e c t o r s i s attempted through t h e use
of chemicals o r b i o l o g i c a l a g e n t s , o r by management of t h e environment.

3.2

Chemical methods

The use of i n s e c t i c i d e s f o r t h e c o n t r o l of m a l a r i a and o t h e r vector- borne d i s e a s e s

acquired g r e a t impetus w i t h t h e advent of DDT and o t h e r organochlorine compounds i n t h e l a t e
1940s. Their use i n p u b l i c h e a l t h i n c r e a s e d i n e x t e n t and i n t e n s i t y w i t h t h e worldwide
programme of m a l a r i a e r a d i c a t i o n which was i n i t i a t e d i n 1956/57. The r e s i d u a l i n s e c t i c i d a l
e f f e c t of some of t h e s e chemicals made i t p o s s i b l e t o s u s t a i n an a t t a c k on t h e m a l a r i a v e c t o r s
by means of t h e p e r i o d i c indoor s p r a y i n g of houses ( s e e s e c t i o n 3.2.1 below).
The development of mosquito r e s i s t a n c e t o some r e s i d u a l i n s e c t i c i d e s , and t h e e l u s i v e
behaviour o f c e r t a i n mosquito v e c t o r s have diminished t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of r e s i d u a l s p r a y i n g
and hence t h e e x t e n t of i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . Faced w i t h t h i s problem and i n l i n e w i t h t h e univ e r s a l acceptance of t h e p r i n c i p l e s and advantages of a n i n t e g r a t e d approach, p l a n n e r s and
o p e r a t o r s of v e c t o r c o n t r o l programmes have d i r e c t e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o o t h e r methods of
mosquito c o n t r o l silch a s l a r v i c i d i n g , t h e space a p p l i c a t i o n of p e s t i c i d e s u s i n g ultra-lowvolume (ULV) techniques o r thermal fogging, and t h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n of environmental management
and b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l measures t o supplement r e s i d u a l spraying.
I n t h e c o n t r o l of c e r t a i n mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s such a s dengue haemorrhagic f e v e r and
t h e e n c e p h a l i t i d e s , r e l i a n c e i s a t p r e s e n t p l a c e d mainly on a e r o s o l a p p l i c a t i o n of p e s t i c i d e s
For o t h e r s , e . g . , urban yellow f e v e r , l a r v i c i d i n g a l s o has a
(ULV, fog, m i s t , e t c . ) .
prominent p l a c e . I n a n t i m a l a r i a programmes, t h e r e i s s t i l l heavy r e l i a n c e on r e s i d u a l i n s e c t i c i d e a p p l i c a t i o n s i n d o o r s , w h i l e l a r v i c i d i n g i s i n c r e a s i n g l y being used, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n urban
environments. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of o t h e r methods of mosquito c o n t r o l has been slow.

The advantages of chemical methods of mosquito c o n t r o l a r e t h a t they can be organized

w i t h i n a s h o r t p e r i o d of time, a r e e f f e c t i v e , and can produce quick r e s u l t s a t reasonably low
c o s t . Hence they a r e extremely e f f e c t i v e i n d e a l i n g w i t h emergencies, d i s e a s e outbreaks and
t h e p r o t e c t i o n of s p e c i f i c p o p u l a t i o n groups, e.g., labour f o r c e , m i g r a n t s , new s e t t l e r s , e t c .
They a l s o have a s p e c i a l p l a c e i n mosquito- borne d i s e a s e c o n t r o l programmes, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t
t h e o u t s e t t o reduce endemicity and t o allow o t h e r c o n t r o l measures t o develop and p l a y an
effective role i n the integrated strategy.
It should b e emphasized t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of chemicals f o r mosquito c o n t r o l should be
planned w i t h c a r e and based on adequate knowledge of v e c t o r bionomics and d i s e a s e epidemiology,
a s most chemicals a r e t o x i c t o man and a r e c o s t l y . More i m p o r t a n t l y , only a l i m i t e d number of
s a f e and e f f e c t i v e p e s t i c i d e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r p u b l i c h e a l t h use; t h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y s o f o r
t h o s e w i t h long r e s i d u a l e f f e c t . The long-term r e p e a t e d a p p l i c a t i o n of p e s t i c i d e s may induce
v e c t o r r e s i s t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e y a r e a l s o used i n a g r i c u l t u r e ; i f used o u t d o o r s , t h e r e
w i l l a l s o be u n d e s i r a b l e environmental i m p l i c a t i o n s . Therefore, t h e use of chemicals should
be combined w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s i v e use of non-chemical methods.
I n t h e following s e c t i o n s chemical c o n t r o l methods a r e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d .
3.2.1

Residual s p r a y i n g

Residual s p r a y i n g i s s t i l l t h e most e f f e c t i v e and f e a s i b l e method f o r t h e chemical control

of mosquito v e c t o r s of m a l a r i a . For t h e c o n t r o l of o t h e r mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s , t h e u s e of
t h i s method i s r a t h e r l i m i t e d .
The technique c o n s i s t s i n s p r a y i n g i n s e c t i c i d e s t h a t have a p e r s i s t e n t e f f e c t on a l l
t h e i n s i d e w a l l s and c e i l i n g s of houses, b a r n s ,
s u r f a c e s where mosquitos a r e l i k e l y t o r e s t
storerooms, s t a b l e s , e t c . , and t h e undersides of roof eaves and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l p r o j e c t i o n s ,
beds, t a b l e s and o t h e r f u r n i t u r e . The p e r s i s t e n t o r r e s i d u a l e f f e c t v a r i e s w i t h t h e k i n d of
i n s e c t i c i d e , i t s f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e dosage a p p l i e d , t h e t y p e of s u r f a c e s sprayed, and t h e
c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . The d u r a t i o n of t h e r e s i d u a l e f f e c t u s u a l l y v a r i e s from a few weeks t o
over a y e a r . The a t t a c k i s mainly d i r e c t e d t o those e n d o p h i l i c mosquito v e c t o r s which
f r e q u e n t human h a b i t a t i o n s , and b i t e and r e s t indoors. These v e c t o r s , w h i l e r e s t i n g on t h e
sprayed s u r f a c e s , come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i n s e c t i c i d e and should d i e b e f o r e they become
i n f e c t i v e and a b l e t o t r a n s m i t t h e d i s e a s e .

For t h e e r a d i c a t i o n of m a l a r i a , which i m p l i e s t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n of t r a n s m i s s i o n f o r a
s u f f i c i e n t number of y e a r s , t h e s p r a y i n g coverage of t h e s t r u c t u r e s (mentioned above) should
aim a t being t o t a l , complete and s u f f i c i e n t . Actual p r a c t i c e i n many s i t u a t i o n s has shown
t h a t t h e s e requirements a r e d i f f i c u l t t o f u l f i l , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n has
been s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t e r r u p t e d i n most s i t u a t i o n s . Where such t r a n s m i s s i o n has n o t been
i n t e r r u p t e d , i t was c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced and t h e a d d i t i o n of o t h e r measures helped t o f u r t h e r
reduce o r even i n t e r r u p t i t .
Residual i n s e c t i c i d e s a r e u s u a l l y a p p l i e d by means of a hand compression s p r a y e r . Up t o
t h e p r e s e n t , t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e groups of p e s t i c i d e s have been used i n indoor s p r a y i n g i n
a n t i m a l a r i a programmes.
Organochlorine compounds
The most common a r e DDT, d i e l d r i n , and HCH; they a r e a p p l i e d i n s o l u t i o n , emulsion o r
suspension a s a w a t e r - d i s p e r s i b l e powder. Water- dispersible powders have proved t o be t h e
most convenient f o r f i e l d u s e a s they may be mixed w i t h w a t e r i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s immediately
b e f o r e a p p l i c a t i o n . They have a l s o proved t o have a l o n g e r r e s i d u a l e f f e c t , e s p e c i a l l y on
porous s u r f a c e s such a s mud w a l l s .
DDT was t h e i n s e c t i c i d e most widely used i n a n t i m a l a r i a p r o g r a m e s u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1970s.
D i e l d r i n i s a very e f f e c t i v e i n s e c t i c i d e b u t i s more expensive t h a n DDT, and i t s h i g h e r
t o x i c i t y t o man has precluded i t s use i n p u b l i c h e a l t h programmes.

HCH i s l e s s t o x i c than d i e l d r i n , i t s r e s i d u a l e f f e c t i s s h o r t e r , and i t has an a i r b o r n e

i n s e c t i c i d a l e f f e c t . The compound has n o t been used widely i n l a r g e - s c a l e a n t i m a l a r i a
programmes mainly because d i e l d r i n was p r e f e r r e d and, once a r e s i s t a n c e t o d i e l d r i n was
produced, t h e r e was a c r o s s r e s i s t a n c e t o HCH a s w e l l .

Organophosphorus compounds
The development o f v e c t o r r e s i s t a n c e t o organochlorine compounds l e d t o t h e use of t h e
organophosphorus and carbamate groups a s s u b s t i t u t e s . They a r e more expensive, a r e u s u a l l y
more t o x i c t o man, and o f t e n have a s h o r t e r r e s i d u a l e f f e c t than t h e organochlorine compounds
used i n p u b l i c h e a l t h programmes. These t h r e e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e t o h i g h e r o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s ,
more frequent c y c l e s of a p p l i c a t i o n , g r e a t e r bulk t o be t r a n s p o r t e d , and more c o s t l y s a f e t y
measures and equipment.
'

Among t h i s group of compounds, malathion i s t h e i n s e c t i c i d e most widely used i n a n t i m a l a r i a programmes. Vector r e s i s t a n c e t o malathion has been r e p o r t e d i n a number of c o u n t r i e s .
F e n i t r o t h i o n i s another organophosphorus compound of longer r e s i d u a l e f f e c t than
malathion b u t of h i g h e r c o s t and t o x i c i t y . I t s use i n r e s i d u a l spraying i s i n c r e a s i n g .
Carbarnate compounds
Propoxur i s a carbamate compound t h a t i s h i g h l y t o x i c t o mosquitos and has an a i r b o r n e
e f f e c t . It has been used s i n c e 1979 i n l a r g e - s c a l e a n t i m a l a r i a programmes i n C e n t r a l America
and s i n c e 1978 i n I r a n . However, i t s high c o s t l i m i t s i t s use.

3.2.2

Larviciding

The e a r l i e s t chemical c o n t r o l of mosquitos was d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e l a r v a l s t a g e . By t h e

end of t h e l a s t century t h e f i r s t l a r v i c i d i n g technique was developed. Crude kerosene and
d i s t i l l e d petroleum o i l s were applied t o mosquito breeding s i t e s . The a r s e n i c a l , P a r i s Green,
i s another o l d 1arvici.de s t i l l used on a v e r y l i m i t e d s c a l e i n some a n t i m a l a r i a programmes.
Both P a r i s Green and o i l s were l a r g e l y replaced by newer and more e f f e c t i v e compounds a f t e r
t h e Second World War.

Temephos i s a commonly used l a r v i c i d e ; i t s low mammalian and f i s h t o x i c i t y , i t s lower

c o s t compared t o o i l s , and i t s e f f i c a c y a t lower dosages a r e f a c t o r s i n favour of i t s use i n
many mosquito c o n t r o l programmes.
Fenthion and chlorpyriphos a r e a l s o used a s l a r v i c i d e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a g a i n s t c u l i c i n e s
breeding i n p o l l u t e d w a t e r s ; t h e i r t o x i c i t y i s h i g h e r and they must t h e r e f o r e be used w i t h
c a r e and c a u t i o n .
Some o f t h e new l a r v i c i d e s a r e s h o r t - l i v e d and they break down i n water w i t h i n a few
days. Liquid l a r v i c i d e s a r e a p p l i e d on water by various types of ground and a e r i a l s p r a y i n g
equipment; granules and d u s t s may be a p p l i e d by hand o r by d i f f e r e n t types of d i s p e r s a l
equipment. Generally, compounds i n emulsion- concentrate formulations have proved t o be most
convenient f o r l a r v i c i d i n g . The d a i l y supply of c o n c e n t r a t e s can be e a s i l y c a r r i e d i n a small
b o t t l e and can be d i l u t e d w i t h water from t h e breeding pl.ace and a p p l i e d . Compounds i n
granules o r d u s t s involve t h e t r a n s p o r t of a considerable weight and s o t h e i r use i s l i m i t e d
t o s i t u a t i o n s where they a r e a b s o l u t e l y necessary o r where t r a n s p o r t i s easy.

3.2.3

Space spray a p p l i c a t i o n

The a t t a c k on t h e a d u l t mosquito by applying atomized i n s e c t i c i d e d r o p l e t s i n indoor

spaces where mosquitos may be f l y i n g o r r e s t i n g i s n o t new. The " F l i t " gun has been a household t o o l f o r mosquito c o n t r o l f o r over h a l f a century. The more r e c e n t household type of
a e r o s o l d i s p e n s e r i s a g r e a t improvement. The mist produced contains minute d r o p l e t s t h a t
remain a i r b o r n e f o r p e r i o d s long enough t o k i l l f l y i n g mosquitos. Fyrethrum and p y r e t h r o i d
compounds, dichlorovos, and s i m i l a r i n s e c t i c i d e s a r e widely used i n a e r o s o l s .

Techniques have been developed f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of i n s e c t i c i d e s t o open spaces. The

p r i n c i p l e i s t h e same a s f o r indoor a p p l i c a t i o n - namely, t h e production of a mist o r f o g of
s u f f i c i e n t i n s e c t i c i d a l e f f i c a c y t o d e s t r o y a d u l t mosquitos i n t h e i r r e s t i n g and f l y i n g a r e a s .
I n p r a c t i c e , t h e s e techniques u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d equipment, s k i l l e d manpower, and
a high degree of o r g a n i z a t i o n and managerial e f f i c i e n c y . These c o n s t r a i n t s and t h e h i g h
o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s preclude t h e r o u t i n e and wide use of space a p p l i c a t i o n techniques, making
them a p p r o p r i a t e only f o r urban a r e a s , emergency s i t u a t i o n s due t o epidemics, o r p l a c e s where
o t h e r simpler methods a r e inadequate. I n r u r a l a r e a s they may be a supplement t o o t h e r more
permanent types of c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s .
The ultra-low-volume (ULV) technique of space a p p l i c a t i o n of i n s e c t i c i d e s i s t h e most
r e c e n t development i n t h i s f i e l d . It c o n s i s t s i n applying h i g h l y concentrated o r t e c h n i c a l
(undiluted) compounds t o t h e a i r i n t h e form of minute l i q u i d p a r t i c l e s . By reducing t h e
volume and t h e weight of t h e i n s e c t i c i d e p e r u n i t of a r e a t r e a t e d , o p e r a t i o n a l l o g i s t i c s and
c o s t s a r e considerably reduced.
Malathion, pyrethrum compounds and naled a r e commonly used i n m i s t , fog o r ULV a p p l i c a tions

3.3

B i o l o g i c a l methods

3.3.1

Introduction

B i o l o g i c a l methods of mosquito c o n t r o l b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t i n t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of n a t u r a l
enemies of t h e mosquitos and of b i o l o g i c a l toxoids t o achieve an e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l .
For many y e a r s i t has been observed t h a t c e r t a i n p l a n t s , i n v e r t e b r a t e p r e d a t o r s (such a s
Toxorhynchites), and v e r t e b r a t e animals (such a s f r o g s , f i s h and ducks) feed on mosquito eggs
and l a r v a e o r i n g e s t them w h i l e picking on o t h e r food. Except f o r f i s h , t h e s e agents have
n o t y e t been used on an o p e r a t i o n a l s c a l e i n mosquito c o n t r o l programmes, and i t i s only
r e c e n t l y t h a t comprehensive s t u d i e s have been undertaken of t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i t y a s e f f e c t i v e
b i o l o g i c a l agents f o r mosquito c o n t r o l .
To be e f f e c t i v e , b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l agents should be used i n a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e number.
Usually t h e indigenous s p e c i e s should be given f i r s t p r i o r i t y . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of e x o t i c
s p e c i e s c a l l s f o r c a u t i o n s i n c e unexpected adverse e f f e c t s on l o c a l f i s h and on t h e environment have r e s u l t e d from such i n t r o d u c t i o n s i n t h e p a s t .
3.3.2

Larvivorous f i s h

The Gambusia f i s h i s a voracious e a t e r of mosquito l a r v a e and, i f introduced i n

s u f f i c i e n t numbers i n p o o l s , ponds and marshes, i t can d e s t r o y l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of mosquito
eggs, l a r v a e and pupae. The f i s h a r e s m a l l , a r e capable of p e n e t r a t i n g v e g e t a t i v e p r o t e c t i v e
cover, and can s u r v i v e i n t h e absence of mosquito l a r v a e a s a source of food. They m u l t i p l y
r a p i d l y (200-300 p e r female). They need no s p e c i a l h a b i t a t f o r o v i p o s i t i o n s i n c e they a r e
viviparous a s w e l l a s r e s i s t a n t t o wide ranges of water temperature and water q u a l i t y .
Another l a r v i v o r o u s f i s h connnonly used f o r mosquito c o n t r o l i s t h e guppy ( P o e c i l i a r e t i c u l a t a ) .
3.3.3

Invertebrate predators

I n v e r t e b r a t e p r e d a t o r s play an important r o l e i n t h e n a t u r a l r e g u l a t i o n of mosquito

populations. Most of them, however, have b i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s preventing t h e i r mass
production f o r b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l purposes. One o u t s t a n d i n g exception i s r e p r e s e n t e d by
mosquitos of t h e genus Toxorhynchites, whose s e v e r a l s p e c i e s can be mass-produced.
Toxorhynchites females do n o t b i t e a t a l l , and t h e l a r v a e have predatory h a b i t s . Toxorhync h i t e s a r e promising enough f o r t h e c o n t r o l of Aedes mosquitos breeding i n p l a n t a x i l s , t r e e
h o l e s , c u t bamboos, abandoned c o n t a i n e r s and s i m i l a r s i t e s . More i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d ,
however, b e f o r e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f e a s i b i l i t y of v e c t o r c o n t r o l campaigns based on Toxorhync h i t e s r e l e a s e s can be e s t a b l i s h e d .

3.3.4

26

Nematodes

A l a r g e number of mermithid s p e c i e s from mosquitos have been described. S e v e r a l of t h e s e

have a broad enough mosquito h o s t spectrum t o c o n s t i t u t e promising b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l agents
and a t l e a s t one of t h e s e , Romanomermis c u l i c i v o r a x , has been mass produced f o r l a r g e - s c a l e
e v a l u a t i o n i n t h e temperate and t r o p i c a l zones. The p o t e n t i a l of t h e mermithids f o r t h e
c o n t r o l of ground pool and r i c e f i e l d mosquitos could be r a t h e r h i g h , wherever they can r e c y c l e
a t o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l s once introduced.
3.3.5

Protozoa and f u n g i

A number of protozoa1 and fungal agents a f f e c t i n g mosquitos a r e under e v a l u a t i o n t o

determine t h e i r p o t e n t i a l under l a b o r a t o r y conditions and i n small- scale f i e l d t r i a l s . Each
of t h e s e agents can be mass produced e i t h e r through w e l l known fermentation methods o r a t
l e a s t through c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y processes. Many problems r e l a t e d t o i n d u s t r i a l production,
s h e l f l i f e and formulations need t o be solved, however, b e f o r e t h e most promising of these
agents become o p e r a t i o n a l .

3.3.6

Bacteria

Some spore- forming b a c t e r i a , and i n p a r t i c u l a r c e r t a i n s t r a i n s of B a c i l l u s t h u r i n g i e n s i s

and B. s p h a e r i c u s , produce b a c t e r i a l t o x i n s which a r e l e t h a l t o mosquito l a r v a e b u t a r e
innocuous t o most non- target a q u a t i c organisms and t o v e r t e b r a t e s . They t h e r e f o r e c o n s t i t u t e
environmentally s a f e l a r v i c i d e s . Larvicide formulations derived from t h e s e r o t y p e H-14 of
B. t h u r i n g i e n s i s a r e on t h e verge of i n d u s t r i a l production and those based on t h e s t r a i n 1593
of B. sphaericus might be marketed soon afterwards. Several o t h e r promising s t r a i n s have
r e c e n t l y been i s o l a t e d . The development of a v a r i e t y of s a f e l a r v i c i d e s might o b v i a t e t h e
consequences of r e s i s t a n c e t o conventional chemical i n s e c t i c i d e s .
3.4

Genetic c o n t r o l

Several g e n e t i c methods of mosquito c o n t r o l a r e being s t u d i e d under l a b o r a t o r y conditions,

and a few, i n c l u d i n g r e l e a s e of s t e r i l e males t o reduce f e r t i l i t y i n a l o c a l t a r g e t population,
have been t e s t e d i n f i e l d t r i a l s . S t e r i l e males f o r mass r e l e a s e can be produced by t h e use
of c h e m o s t e r i l a n t s , by r a d i a t i o n causing chromosomal t r a n s l o c a t i o n s , o r through s p e c i f i c
cross- breeding which produces s t e r i l e hybrids.
Another method makes use of cytoplasmic i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y . Attempts a r e being made t o
produce s t r a i n s which a r e c a r r y i n g favourable genes (e.g., r e f r a c t o r y o r non- susceptible t o
d i s e a s e a g e n t s ) . Means e x i s t t o i n t r o d u c e t h e s e favourable genes i n t o a harmful l o c a l populat i o n , and i t may be p o s s i b l e t o r e p l a c e t h e l o c a l population by a favourable one through cytoplasmic i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y .
It i s too e a r l y t o judge t h e success of g e n e t i c methods of mosquito c o n t r o l . Success
depends t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on t h e r e s u l t s of t r i a l s a t p r e s e n t underway o r planned i n t h e
coming y e a r s .

3.5

Environmental management methods

These methods a r e d e a l t with i n subsequent chapters.

4.

P e s t (nuisance) mosquitos and t h e i r c o n t r o l

The term " pest mosquito" i s applied t o a l l those mosquitos which, without n e c e s s a r i l y
t r a n s m i t t i n g pathogenic organisms, a r e of h e a l t h importance because, by repeated b i t i n g , they
have adverse e f f e c t s on p h y s i c a l e f f i c i e n c y , mental r e s t , comfort and enjoyment of l i f e .
P e s t mosquitos a r e of medical importance s i n c e t h e i r b i t e s may produce l o c a l p a i n , edema,
d e r m a t i t i s , i t c h i n g and systemic r e a c t i o n s , and may open t h e way t o secondary i n f e c t i o n s ,
d i r e c t l y o r through rubbing and s c r a t c h i n g . I n some cases the i t c h i n g may l a s t f o r days with

consequent r e s t l e s s n e s s , l o s s of s l e e p , reduced e f f i c i e n c y and nervous i r r i t a t i o n .

The economic e f f e c t s of p e s t mosquitos i n c l u d e l o s s of manpower o u t p u t , l o s s e s i n m i l k ,
meat and, i n d i r e c t l y , crop production, and l o s s e s i n t h e development and e x p l o i t a t i o n of
r e c r e a t i o n a l grounds and a r e a s . For t h e s e reasons and because some p e s t mosquitos may become
d i s e a s e v e c t o r s , t h e i r c o n t r o l i s needed.
Only t h o s e developed c o u n t r i e s where d i s e a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n by mosquitos i s no l o n g e r of
primary h e a l t h s i g n i f i c a n c e c a n a f f o r d s p e c i f i c programmes t o c o n t r o l t h e p e s t mosquito
population. Most developing c o u n t r i e s w i l l continue t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e i r e f f o r t s a g a i n s t
v e c t o r mosquitos. One of t h e advantages of environmental management i s t h a t , by reducing and
suppressing t h e b r e e d i n g h a b i t a t s of v e c t o r mosquitos, i t a l s o reduces t h e p o p u l a t i o n of p e s t
mosquito s p e c i e s t h a t u s e t h e same h a b i t a t s f o r breeding.
Measures a g a i n s t p e s t mosquitos a r e d i r e c t e d t o t h e egg, l a r v a and a d u l t s t a g e s by
applying t h e techniques used a g a i n s t v e c t o r mosquitos. Operations a r e dependent on s p e c i f i c
needs determined from r e p o r t s of complaints, e s t a b l i s h e d nuisance l e v e l s , r o u t i n e surveys,
f o r e c a s t s of floodwater e l e v a t i o n s i n a r e s e r v o i r , proximity of breeding a r e a s t o p l a c e s of
human a c t i v i t y , u s e and occupation.
Table 1.7 of Annex 1 p r e s e n t s t h e important s p e c i e s of t h e most common p e s t mosquitos,
i n c l u d i n g epidemiological d a t a , t h e i r g e n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , a d u l t h a b i t s , and breeding habitats.
Table 1.8 of Annex 1 p r e s e n t s a l i s t of t h e p r i n c i p a l p e s t mosquito s p e c i e s , c l a s s i f i e d
according t o t h e s i t e where t h e y a r e most a c t i v e o r cause most problems, t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n
geographical r e g i o n s , t h e i r p r e f e r r e d time f o r b i t i n g , t h e i r usual types of breeding h a b i t a t s ,
and l i f e c y c l e .

CHAPTER I1
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR MOSQUITO-BORNE DISEASE CONTROL

CONTENTS

Page
l.
2.

3.

4.
5.

1.

.....................
Advantages of environmental management measures . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interrelationships with agriculture and other developments . . . . . .
Ecological impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Present status and future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition and classification

28
29
30
30
30

Definition and classification

The WHO Expert Committee on Vector Biology and control% in 1979 defined environmental
management activities as follows:
Environmental management for vector control: The planning, organization,
carrying out and monitoring of activities for the modification and/or manipulation
of environmental factors or their interaction with man with a view to preventing
or minimizing vector propagation and reducing man-vector-pathogen contact.
This approach, which should be carried out prudently and skilfully, is
naturalistic and involves an attempt to extend and intensify natural factors
which limit vector breeding, survival and contact with man.
Environmental management for mosquito control covers a wide range of works and operations
(see checklist in Annex 2) which can be further classified and defined as follows:
(a) Environmental modification: "A form of environmental management consisting in any
physical transformation that is permanent or long-lasting of land, water and vegetation, aimed
at preventing, eliminating or reducing the habitats of vectors without causing unduly adverse
effects on the quality of the human environment." Environmental modification includes
drainage, filling, land levelling and transformation and impoundment margins. Although these
works are usually of a permanent nature, proper operation and adequate maintenance are
essential for their effective functioning.
(b) Environmental manipulation: "A form of environmental management consisting in any
planned recurrent activity aimed at producing temporary conditions unfavourable to breeding
of vectors in their habitats." Water salinity changes, stream flushing, regulation of the

a
-WHO Technical Report Series, No. 649, 1980(Environmental management for vector control:
Fourth report of the WHO Expert Committee on Vector Biology and Control).

water l e v e l i n r e s e r v o i r s , dewatering o r f l o o d i n g of swamps o r boggy a r e a s , v e g e t a t i o n

removal, shading and exposure t o s u n l i g h t a r e examples of environmental manipulation
activities.
(c) Modification o r manipulation of human h a b i t a t i o n o r behaviour: "A form of environmental
management t h a t reduced man-vector-pathogen contact" . Examples of t h i s k i n d of approach
i n c l u d e t h e s i t i n g of s e t t l e m e n t s away from v e c t o r s o u r c e s , mosquito p r o o f i n g of houses,
p e r s o n a l p r o t e c t i o n and hygiene measures a g a i n s t v e c t o r s , and p r o v i s i o n of such i n s t a l l a t i o n s
a s mechanical b a r r i e r s and f a c i l i t i e s f o r w a t e r supply, wastewater and e x c r e t a d i s p o s a l ,
laundry, b a t h i n g and r e c r e a t i o n t o p r e v e n t o r discourage human c o n t a c t w i t h i n f e s t e d w a t e r s .

2.

Advantages of environmental management measures

With proper p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n and maintenance, environmental management o p e r a t i o n s can

p r e v e n t , reduce o r e l i m i n a t e mosquito breeding. They o f f e r a number of advantages o v e r o t h e r
methods of v e c t o r c o n t r o l .
(a) They a r e e f f e c t i v e . Environmental management uses methods and techniques which i n t h e
p a s t have proved e f f e c t i v e i n e l i m i n a t i n g breeding s i t e s o r i n reducing mosquito a c c e s s t o
man.
(b) They have long- term e f f e c t s .
y e a r s , w i t h p e r i o d i c maintenance.

Once t h e works a r e implemented, they remain e f f e c t i v e f o r

(c) Their long- range c o s t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y low. Although t h e i n i t i a l c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e may

be h i g h , t h e i r e f f e c t s a r e n o t u s u a l l y confined t o v e c t o r c o n t r o l ( s e e below). Therefore a
comprehensive view of long- range c o s t s may show t h a t they a r e c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h t h o s e of o t h e r
mosquito c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s .
(d) The c o s t of s m a l l - s c a l e management o p e r a t i o n s i s u s u a l l y w i t h i n t h e budgetary l i m i t s of
mosquito-borne d i s e a s e c o n t r o l programmes. I n organized programmes, even an a l l o c a t i o n of a
small percentage of t h e p r o g r a m e budget w i l l be adequate t o produce a p p r e c i a b l e r e s u l t s over
a number of y e a r s . Long-term e f f e c t s may r e l e a s e r e s o u r c e s f o r expansion t o a d d i t i o n a l a r e a s .
( e ) A d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t s may be c o n s i d e r a b l e , and mutually b e n e f i c i a l t o a g r i c u l t u r e and
h e a l t h . B e t t e r u s e of water and l a n d i n r u r a l a r e a s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e improvement and
e x t e n s i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s , land p r e s e r v a t i o n , e t c . ; b e t t e r housing and r e c r e a t i o n a l
and s a n i t a r y f a c i l i t i e s i n urban a r e a s can c o n t r i b u t e t o s o c i a l development and h i g h e r
s t a n d a r d s of l i v i n g .
( f ) The adverse environmental impact may be s l i g h t . Environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n and manipul a t i o n can o f t e n be a p p l i e d without causing s e r i o u s adverse e f f e c t s on environmental q u a l i t y .
Their a p p l i c a t i o n needs only r o u t i n e s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s such a s t h o s e r e l a t e d t o t h e u s e
(g)
of machinery. The p r o t e c t i o n of t h e l a b o u r f o r c e from t h e hazards a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e of
some chemical p e s t i c i d e s i s n o t r e q u i r e d .
(h) They can e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n and c o n t r o l of o t h e r vector- borne and
water- associated d i s e a s e s such a s s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s , o n c h o c e r c i a s i s and d i a r r h o e a 1 d i s e a s e s .
The disadvantages of environmental management o p e r a t i o n s a r e mainly t h e i r h i g h c a p i t a l
c o s t , t h e l e n g t h of t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r completion, and t h e complexity of important works which
r e q u i r e r e s o u r c e s beyond t h o s e of most mosquito-borne d i s e a s e c o n t r o l programmes. However,
small- scale o p e r a t i o n s a r e f e a s i b l e , can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n i n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s ,
and a p p l i e d i n combination w i t h o t h e r methods of v e c t o r and d i s e a s e c o n t r o l .
The a p p l i c a t i o n of environmental management measures should always be preceded by
thorough e c o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s t o t a k e maximum advantage of n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s and t o avoid
unnecessary environmental changes.

3.

I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e and o t h e r developments

Development a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e r e l a t e d t o l a n d and w a t e r , may i n f l u e n c e t h e

presence and d e n s i t y of mosquito v e c t o r s b o t h p o s i t i v e l y and n e g a t i v e l y . For example, t h e
impoundment of w a t e r by t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a dam w i l l f l o o d numerous i s o l a t e d p o t e n t i a l o r
e x i s t i n g b r e e d i n g s i t e s and t h u s o b v i a t e t h e need f o r d i f f i c u l t and expensive o p e r a t i o n s t o
keep t h e a r e a c l e a r o f mosquitos. A t t h e same time, t h e r e s e r v o i r w i l l produce a long shorel i n e where a q u a t i c and semi- aquatic v e g e t a t i o n w i l l t h r i v e and may become a f a v o u r a b l e s i t e
f o r mosquito p r o d u c t i o n . The reduced flow i n t h e r i v e r beddownstream of t h e dam may cause
t h e formation of s h a l l o w pools and puddles where mosquitos can b r e e d u n l e s s t h e comprehensive
p r e v e n t i v e measures d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I11 a r e b u i l t i n t o t h e system.
The d r a i n i n g of marshes f o r l a n d r e c l a m a t i o n may have a p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e by reducing
t h e p o p u l a t i o n s of c e r t a i n mosquito s p e c i e s , b u t u n l e s s t h i s work i s c a r r i e d o u t e f f e c t i v e l y
o v e r a wide a r e a , t h e e f f e c t may be t o s h i f t mosquito breeding from one h a b i t a t t o a n o t h e r .
The opening up of l a n d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o r e x t e n s i o n of i r r i g a t i o n i s
f r e q u e n t l y 01lowed by a n i n c r e a s e i n mosquito breeding i n i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s and d r a i n a g e
d i t c h e s , and i n t h e i n c i d e n c e of mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s . The proper d e s i g n , o p e r a t i o n and
maintenance of t h e s e systems w i l l c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n of such breeding
and produce economic b e n e f i t s .
Many major water r e s o u r c e development p r o j e c t s i n t r o p i c a l and s u b t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s may
n o t achieve t h e i r s o c i a l and economic o b j e c t i v e s because of t h e r e l a t e d i n c r e a s e i n i n c i d e n c e
of p a r a s i t i c d i s e a s e s which s e r i o u s l y impair t h e h e a l t h and p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

4.

E c o l o g i c a l impacts

Environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n and manipulation c o n s i s t b a s i c a l l y i n modifying t h e topog r a p h i c a l , h y d r o l o g i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n s i n mosquito h a b i t a t s s o a s t o r e n d e r them

u n s u i t a b l e f o r mosquito breeding. Environmental management f o r mosquito c o n t r o l , w h i l e i t
makes t h e b e s t u s e o f m a t e r i a l s and n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s e x i s t i n g i n t h e environment, cannot be
expected t o be e n t i r e l y f r e e from environmental impact, and t h i s needs s t u d y a t t h e design
stage

The e c o l o g i c a l impact of environmental management may, i n p r i n c i p l e , be f o r e c a s t by

a n a l y s i n g t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s l i k e l y t o be produced by each of t h e proposed
works and o p e r a t i o n s . However, t h e r e a r e no common c r i t e r i a f o r t h e measurement of e c o l o g i c a l
e f f e c t s t h a t would g i v e v a l u e s f o r a q u a n t i t a t i v e assessment of impacts. This a l s o a p p l i e s t o
h e a l t h b e n e f i t s and d e t r i m e n t s which, although c l e a r l y and g e n e r a l l y p e r c e p t i b l e , sometimes
cannot be s u b j e c t e d t o q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s .
The d i f f i c u l t y o f a s s e s s i n g e c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s does n o t imply t h a t t h e s e e f f o r t s should
n o t continue. A p p r a i s a l s based on f a c t s and unbiased judgement can produce u s e f u l d a t a t o
guide p l a n n e r s and decision-makers. A degree of s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n may be needed i n r a t i n g
t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s .
For t h e s t u d y of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t may be involved i n t h e a n a l y s i s of impact on an
e c o l o g i c a l system, t h e u s e of a format o r m a t r i x may be h e l p f u l . A sample of a m a t r i x prepared
f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e e c o l o g i c a l impact of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a dam and r e s e r v o i r i s
p r e s e n t e d i n Annex 3. This can a l s o b e adapted t o a n a l y s e t h e e c o l o g i c a l impacts of v e c t o r
c o n t r o l measures b e i n g a p p l i e d by a m a l a r i a c o n t r o l programme.

5.

P r e s e n t s t a t u s and f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s

Much i s known about environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n s and i t s e f f i c a c y i n c o n t r o l l i n g mosquito

production. Major works i n v o l v i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e p a t t e r n of l a n d , w a t e r and veget a t i o n , c a r r i e d o u t mostly f o r o t h e r purposes, have c o n t r i b u t e d i n many a r e a s t o t h e r e d u c t i o n
of mosquito breeding. I n some o t h e r a r e a s , however, e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t when t h e h e a l t h
i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e environmental changes produced by t h e p r o j e c t have n o t r e c e i v e d timely

attention, an intensification of vector-borne diseases has resulted.

Major environmental management works, such as the construction of dikes and levees,
drainage of swamps and marshes, correction and straightening of waterways, and construction
of flood control and diversion structures, are the responsibility of specialized agencies
with appropriate financial and organizational resources. Such works are planned for flood
protection, land reclamation, navigation, irrigation, fish production, etc., and require
substantial investment. Fortunately the agencies responsible for development projects,
particularly those dealing with water resources, are becoming increasingly conscious of the
need to prevent the occurrence and intensification of vector-borne diseases.
Programmes for the control of mosquito-borne diseases can benefit much from these develop
ment schemes if vector control specialists are allowed to collaborate in preconstruction
surveys, planning, design, construction and operation. They can propose realistic modifications so that such schemes can contribute to the reduction and elimination of mosquito sources.
Small-scale environmental management operations are sometimes within the scope of
malaria control programmes, and can be carried out as part of the general control strategy.
At present only a few health programmes make use of these methods in their operations. Other
available methods which produce quick results have been preferred. However, the concept of
integrated control is now more widely accepted and put into practice. Environmental modification operations can be adjusted to suit programme requirements and resources, and offer a
practical contribution to integrated mosquito control strategies. Their use is expected to
expand in the near future.
As in any other human activity, proven methods are doomed to failure if they do not meet
the required standard of performance because of lack of intelligent planning, clear understanding, conscientious application and firm perseverance.

CHAPTER I11
ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATION

CONTENTS
Page

....... . ......... ........... .

Irrigation
.............................
Natural streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drainage for agriculture and land reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drainage for mosquito control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Land filling and grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Settlement of population and protection of work force . . . . . . . .
Equipment for environmental management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Impoundments

Further reading list

......................... .

33

43
65

70
83

102
107
110

114

IIIA.

IMPOUNDMENTS

Contents

Page
1.
2.
3.

4.

1.

..........................
Mosquito problems i n impoundments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reservoir d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 General r2marks on d e s i g n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 S p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r mosquito c o n t r o l . . . . . . . . . . . .
Environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n measures f o r mosquito c o n t r o l . . . . . . . .
4.1 Reservoir s i t e c l e a r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 General c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2
Special s i t u a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2.1
Clearing on s h o r e l i n e s s u b j e c t t o e r o s i o n . . . . .
4.1.2.2
C l e a r i n g a t heads of b i g h t s and i n d e n t a t i o n s . . .
4.2 D r a i n a g e o f r e s e r v o i r m a r g i n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 D e e p e n i n g a n d f i l l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Diking and dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction....

33
34
35
35
36
37
37
37
37
37
39
39
39
41

Introduction

Water a v a i l a b i l i t y i s uneven both i n space and i n time. R a i n f a l l and runoff a r e q u i t e

v a r i a b l e from p l a c e t o p l a c e , year t o y e a r , and season t o season. Even i n t h e temperate zone,
some p l a c e s have too much r a i n f a l l and o t h e r p l a c e s l i t t l e o r no r a i n f a l l . There i s t h u s a
need t o develop some man-made w a t e r r e s o u r c e management.
A key f a c t o r i n water management i s s t o r a g e . Impoundments a r e r e s e r v o i r s f o r t h e s t o r a g e
of runoff behind man-made dams. They c o l l e c t excess runoff during r a i n y seasons f o r subsequent r e l e a s e f o r power g e n e r a t i o n , water supply, i r r i g a t i o n and o t h e r b e n e f i c i a l u s e s . I n
some i n s t a n c e s , they e n a b l e f l o o d water t o b e h e l d back t o avoid downstream damage.
A r e c e n t review of r e s e r v o i r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t 14 l a r g e man-made l a k e s a r e
l o c a t e d i n t r o p i c a l and s u b t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s i n Asia, A f r i c a and L a t i n America. The V o l t a ,
Nasser, Kariba and Cabora Bassa l a k e s i n A f r i c a a r e among t h e l a r g e s t i n t h e world and
s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s i s i n c r e a s i n g a l a r m i n g l y i n e x t e n t and i n t e n s i t y among t h e populations
s e t t l e d nearby. The c u r r e n t o i l p r i c e s have i n c r e a s e d t h e economic advantage of hydropower
g e n e r a t i o n , and s t u d i e s p r e d i c t t h a t a l a r g e number of r e s e r v o i r s w i l l b e b u i l t i n t r o p i c a l
A f r i c a i n t h e 1980s. These p r o j e c t s may r e s u l t i n f u r t h e r spread of w a t e r - r e l a t e d d i s e a s e s
u n l e s s a p p r o p r i a t e p r e v e n t i v e measures a r e taken.

Impoundments may be c o n s t r u c t e d i n such a way a s t o minimize v e c t o r breeding along t h e i r

shores, and p r e c a u t i o n s should be taken i n designing them t o t h a t end. The s h o r t a g e of
t r a i n e d engineers, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e developing c o u n t r i e s , i s one of t h e reasons why good
p r i n c i p l e s of r e s e r v o i r d e s i g n have g e n e r a l l y been n e g l e c t e d .

2.

Mosquito problems i n impoundments

The f l o o d i n g of a v a s t a r e a a s t h e r e s u l t of a dam can have a b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t i n

c o n t r o l l i n g mosquito production. The l a r g e number of i s o l a t e d and s c a t t e r e d breeding s i t e s
i n t h e b a s i n , s o d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y and t r e a t w i t h l a r v i c i d e s b e f o r e impoundment, a r e
submerged when t h e a r e a i s flooded t o form t h e r e s e r v o i r . Thus innumerable small b u t d i f f i c d t
problems a r e exchanged f o r one l a r g e b u t c l e a r l y d e f i n e d problem which may be e a s i e r t o manage.
It has been r e p e a t e d l y observed t h a t , i n t h e absence of f l o a t i n g mats of v e g e t a t i o n ,
mosquitos do n o t b r e e d i n t h e deep waters f a r from t h e r e s e r v o i r margins. Nor i s t h e r e any
s i g n i f i c a n t mosquito breeding along t h e s t e e p , main s h o r e l i n e exposed t o wave wash. The
a r e a s of t h e impoundment s u b j e c t t o mosquito problems l i e w i t h i n p r o t e c t e d b i g h t s , hollows
and i n d e n t a t i o n s of t h e s h o r e l i n e . The water i n such p l a c e s is u s u a l l y shallow and f i l l e d
w i t h a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n and f l o a t i n g m a t e r i a l where mosquito l a r v a e f i n d t h e n e c e s s a r y protect i o n from c u r r e n t s , wave a c t i o n and wind a s w e l l a s e s s e n t i a l food and cover from n a t u r a l
enemies.

The magnitude of t h e mosquito problem i n impounded waters i s i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e

l e n g t h of t h e marshy s h o r e l i n e . A s an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e importance of any r e s e r v o i r
a s a source of mosquito breeding, a "marsh p o t e n t i a l l ' a has been d e r i v e d a s a parameter based
on t h e f o l l o w i n g formula:
S h o r e l i n e length(m) X

2
A e s e r v o i r area(m )

3
Reservoir volume (m )
The u n i t i n which marsh p o t e n t i a l i s expressed i s (from t h e above formula) m
m-I ( r e c i p r o c a l m e t r e ) .

-3
m , I.e.,

For shallow run- of- the- river r e s e r v o i r s w i t h a small mean depth (volume/area) o r where
t h e number and s i z e of b i g h t s and i n d e n t a t i o n s caused by streams and r a v i n e s produce a very
For a deep r e s e r v o i r w i t h
long s h o r e l i n e , t h e marsh p o t e n t i a l may be a s high a s 18 t o 20m-l.
Obviously t h e
s t e e p s l o p e s i n a mountainous a r e a , t h e marsh p o t e n t i a l may be 2 t o 3m-l.
former s i t u a t i o n has a much g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r c r e a t i n g mosquito problems t h a n t h e l a t t e r .
Another g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t t h e marshy margins of t h e r e s e r v o i r a r e n o t uniformly
d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e whole s h o r e l i n e . If t h e r e s e r v o i r i s divided i n t o t h r e e p o r t i o n s , a s
i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. IIIA-1, t h e middle p o r t i o n w i t h shallow a r e a s , emerging i s l a n d s and
e x t e n s i v e s h o r e l i n e w i l l produce more mosquitos than t h e p o r t i o n n e a r t h e dam, u s u a l l y deep
and enclosed between s t e e p margins w i t h much wave a c t i o n and e r o s i o n , o r t h a n t h e d i s t a n t
p o r t i o n a t t h e t a i l of t h e r e s e r v o i r , where w a t e r may be shallow b u t contained by t h e n a t u r a l
banks of t h e r i v e r . A t t h e d e s i g n s t a g e of t h e r e s e r v o i r , when s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r t h e
l o c a t i o n and h e i g h t of t h e dam a r e proposed, one c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n should be t h e
r e l a t i v e l e n g t h of t h e p r o s p e c t i v e s h o r e l i n e , a s t h e s h o r t e r i t i s t h e lower w i l l be t h e
p o t e n t i a l f o r mosquito breeding.
The p o t e n t i a l f o r mosquito breeding should be k e p t i n mind a l s o when s e l e c t i n g s i t e s f o r
r e l o c a t i n g t h e communities from a r e a s t h a t w i l l be submerged when t h e impoundment i s f u l l and
f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g new s e t t l e m e n t s . The problem of v i l l a g e s i t i n g i s d e a l t w i t h i n Chapter V,
Reduction of man/mosquito c o n t a c t .

- Developed by C.W. Kruz6 i n r a t i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r s of t h e Tennessee Valley A u t h o r i t y

a g a i n s t t h e p o t e n t i a l mosquito c o n t r o l c o s t .

mox. elsv.

m1n.slev.

Lmln. elev.

SECTION A-A

SECTION B-8

STEEP SHORELINE
DEEP WATER

FLAT MARGINS WITH

E X 1ENSIVE SHALLOW
WATER AREAS

Fig. I I I A - 1 .

SECTION C-C
RESERVOIR WIT HIN
NATURAL RIVER BANK

Generalized view of an impoundment showing t h e g r e a t e s t mosquito

production p o t e n t i a l i n t h e middle t h i r d of t h e a r e a of impounded
water where shallow water and p r o t e c t e d a r e a s , o f t e n invaded w i t h
v e g e t a t i o n , provide t h e optimum h a b i t a t f o r pond-breeding
anophelines

3.

Reservoir d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n
General remarks on d e s i g n

The d e s i g n of r e s e r v o i r s involves a group of p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n c l u d i n g h y d r o l o g i s t s ,

g e o l o g i s t s , c i v i l and s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r s , and s o i l mechanics s p e c i a l i s t s . The d e s i g n must
be based on thorough knowledge o f :
(a) The hydrology of t h e r i v e r b a s i n . Hydrological d a t a a r e e s s e n t i a l i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e
dependable y i e l d of t h e watershed which i s a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i n any impoundment p r o j e c t .

(b) The geology of t h e r i v e r b a s i n . The c h a r a c t e r of t h e s u b s o i l a t t h e proposed dam s i t e i s

of primary importance s i n c e on i t depends t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e dam foundations. The permea b i l i t y of t h e s o i l i n t h e a r e a t h a t i s t o b e flooded i s a l s o important a s i t w i l l p r o v i d e an
i n d i c a t i o n of t h e water- holding p r o p e r t y of t h e proposed r e s e r v o i r .
( c ) The topography of t h e catchment a r e a , i n g e n e r a l , and of t h e a r e a t o be flooded by t h e
r e s e r v o i r , i n p a r t i c u l a r . The l a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n on t h e r i v e r b a s i n i s t h e most d e c i s i v e
f a c t o r i n r e s e r v o i r d e s i g n ; i t should b e such a s t o permit t h e impoundment of w a t e r w h i l e
inundating t h e l e a s t a r e a of land and using t h e minimum of m a t e r i a l f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
t h e dam. This i s one of t h e c r i t e r i a f o r dam s i t i n g .
(d) The w a t e r requirements. The s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y of t h e r e s e r v o i r and t h e corresponding dam
h e i g h t a r e determined on t h e b a s i s of t h e e s t i m a t e d w a t e r requirements f o r t h e v a r i o u s i n t e n ded purposes of t h e p r o j e c t . I f f l o o d c o n t r o l i s one of t h e purposes, t h e p r o j e c t w i l l b e
designed f o r a given s t a t i s t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y of storms and consequent f l o o d flows, and t h e
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y must be adequate f o r t h e r e q u i s i t e c o n t r o l of such s i t u a t i o n s .
When c a l c u l a t i n g t h e volume of w a t e r t o b e s t o r e d i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , t h e following l o s s e s
must b e allowed f o r : seepage l o s s through t h e bed of t h e flooded b a s i n ; w a t e r l o s s due t o
e v a p o r a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a r e a s of h o t and d r y c l i m a t e ; and l o s s of s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y due
t o r e s e r v o i r sedimentation.
3.2

S p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r mosquito c o n t r o l

Reservoirs i n mountainous a r e a s do n o t o f f e r a s e r i o u s mosquito c o n t r o l problem i f c e r t a i n

measures a r e a p p l i e d p r i o r t o impoundment and proper maintenance i s c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r w a r d s .
Reservoirs i n f l a t t e r r a i n p r e s e n t more d i f f i c u l t i e s . Inundated f l a t lands a r e u s u a l l y
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e r t i l e s o i l and p l a n t growth, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h o s e margins p r o t e c t e d from
wind and wave a c t i o n . The s m a l l e s t lowering of t h e w a t e r l e v e l uncovers a wide marginal zone
because of t h e v e r y s l i g h t s l o p e s along t h e s h o r e l i n e . It i s t h e r e f o r e obvious t h a t f o r
mosquito c o n t r o l , t h e following i t e m s of work should be given s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n and need
t o b e provided f o r i n t h e budget d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n and subsequent phases of t h e p r o j e c t :
(a) Proper p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r s i t e , and i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e c l e a r i n g of t r e e s and
o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n , t o e n s u r e a c l e a n w a t e r s u r f a c e a t a l l e l e v a t i o n s between h i g h and low operat i n g w a t e r l e v e l s . This i s a l s o good e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e .
(b) The n e c e s s a r y p r o v i s i o n s f o r f l u c t u a t i n g t h e w a t e r l e v e l i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , whenever
f e a s i b l e , d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n of t h e p r o j e c t . Water- level f l u c t u a t i o n a s an environmental manipuAny s p e c i a l
l a t i v e measure f o r mosquito c o n t r o l i s d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter I V Y s e c t i o n 1.3.
requirement f o r s p i l l w a y c o n t r o l g a t e s f o r t h i s purpose should be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e dam and
r e s e r v o i r design.
(c) S u i t a b l e marginal d r a i n a g e t o avoid l e a v i n g i s o l a t e d pools along t h e r e s e r v o i r margins
when t h e water l e v e l h a s f l u c t u a t e d .
(d) Permanent works, where economically f e a s i b l e , t o e l i m i n a t e v a s t shallow a r e a s on t h e
margins of t h e r e s e r v o i r c l o s e t o h i g h p o p u l a t i o n a r e a s .
(e) An e f f e c t i v e programme f o r s h o r e l i n e and d r a i n a g e maintenance, v e g e t a t i o n growth c o n t r o l ,
and d r i f t removal a f t e r t h e r e s e r v o i r h a s been f i l l e d .
Environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n methods f o r mosquito c o n t r o l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l a t i o n t o
items ( a ) , ( c ) and (d) above, a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n .

4.

Environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n measures f o r mosauito c o n t r o l

These measures of environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n a r e mostly d i r e c t e d t o t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of

t h e r e s e r v o i r s i t e and t o t h e s h o r t e n i n g and improvement of t h e r e s e r v o i r s h o r e l i n e . Mosquito
problems i n impoundments a r e g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e s h o r e l i n e zone ( s e e s e c t i o n 2 above).
I f t h e s h o r e l i n e i s s h o r t e n e d by works t o produce s t r a i g h t e r alignments and a t t h e same time
improved t o r e n d e r i t l e s s favourable t o v e g e t a t i o n growth and mosquito breeding, t h e chances
of s u c c e s s f u l mosquito c o n t r o l w i l l be enhanced.
4.1

Reservoir s i t e c l e a r i n g

4.1.1

General c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

P a s t e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h e adverse e f f e c t s of f a i l u r e t o c l e a r s i t e s of man-made l a k e s .

The b a s i n must b e c l e a r e d o r o t h e r w i s e prepared p r i o r t o f i l l i n g s o t h a t a c l e a n w a t e r s u r f a c e
w i l l r e s u l t a t a l l e l e v a t i o n s of t h e o p e r a t i n g zone. This i n v o l v e s removal of t r e e s , underbrush, v i n e s , f e n c e s , b r i d g e s , houses, b a r n s , sheds, e t c . , which otherwise would d i s i n t e g r a t e
and decay, and perhaps f l o a t , d r i f t t o t h e s h o r e , and accumulate a t t h e heads of b i g h t s and
i n d e n t a t i o n s where such f l o t s a m encourages a q u a t i c p l a n t growth and mosquito production. For
mosquito c o n t r o l purposes it i s n o t necessary t o c l e a r t h e deeper p o r t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r
where a l l timber would b e permanently and completely submerged.
With r e g a r d t o t h e c l e a r i n g of t r e e s and o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n , compromises may have t o be
made t o meet d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s i n g from p r o j e c t purpose, topography, expected wide drawdown
range, and c o s t . A t t h e d e s i g n s t a g e of t h e r e s e r v o i r , f i e l d surveys and s t u d i e s should be
c a r r i e d o u t t o f o r e c a s t p o s s i b l e changes i n t h e ecology of t h e f u t u r e margins and t h e i r
e f f e c t on mosquito production. I f , a s a compromise, c l e a r i n g has t o be s e l e c t i v e , t h e
f i n d i n g s of such surveys can s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r d e l i n e a t i n g t h e a r e a s t o be c l e a r e d .
Another c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r s e l e c t i v e c l e a r i n g i s t h e d i s t a n c e from human h a b i t a t i o n . I n
g e n e r a l , a r e a s f a r away from v i l l a g e s and w i t h d i f f i c u l t a c c e s s i b i l i t y a r e n o t a s i m p o r t a n t
a s t h o s e l o c a t e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y of human a c t i v i t i e s . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e n o t i o n of " v i c i n i t y "
should be i n t e r p r e t e d as w i t h i n t h e f l i g h t range of t h e confirmed o r suspected l o c a l mosquito
v e c t o r s . For p r a c t i c a l purposes, however, i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o allow f o r a range of 1.5-2 km
from t h e human h a b i t a t i o n i n o r d e r t o provide a r e a s o n a b l e degree of p r o t e c t i o n ( s e e a l s o
Chapter V , s e c t i o n 1 ) .
Advantage should be taken of t h e timber and o t h e r s a l v a g e a b l e m a t e r i a l of commercial
value i n t h e b a s i n . Where a market e x i s t s and t h e t r e e s and o t h e r m a t e r i a l can be t r a n s p o r t e d
w i t h o u t e x c e s s i v e c o s t s , t h e i r s a l e may o f f s e t s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e c o s t of c l e a r i n g . The
remaining b r u s h and waste m a t e r i a l s must be p i l e d and burned.
The c o n s t r u c t i o n and subsequent t o t a l f i l l i n g of a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r w i l l t a k e a number of
y e a r s and t h e r e f o r e t h e c l e a r i n g o p e r a t i o n may span s e v e r a l seasons. By c a r e f u l s c h e d u l i n g
of c l e a r i n g o p e r a t i o n s , regrowth p r i o r t o f l o o d i n g may be minimized i n t h e shallow margins of
t h e r e s e r v o i r which p r e s e n t t h e more s e r i o u s p o t e n t i a l mosquito problems. Reclearing j u s t
p r i o r t o f l o o d i n g may be r e q u i r e d i n c r i t i c a l a r e a s . A c a r e f u l l y planned s h o r e l i n e m a i n t e n m e
programme a f t e r impoundage i s i m p e r a t i v e i n many r e s e r v o i r s f o r e f f e c t i v e mosquito c o n t r o l .
4.1.2
4.1.2.1

Special s i t u a t i o n s
C l e a r i n g on s h o r e l i n e s s u b j e c t t o e r o s i o n

One of t h e most s t r i k i n g changes along t h e margin of newly impounded r e s e r v o i r s occurs

on t h e banks exposed t o wave wash from a wide expanse of w a t e r . Depending upon t h e e x t e n t of
t h e open w a t e r and t h e g e o l o g i c a l formation of t h e bank, t h e s l o p e of t h e bank r e c e i v i n g t h e
brunt of t h e wave e r o s i o n transforms i n t o a c l i f f r i s i n g from an e r o s i o n t e r r a c e o r beach.
I n time, t h i s beach w i l l become s t a b i l i z e d a t a s l o p e of about 8 : l a t t h e most common operating
water- level of t h e impoundment, and d u r i n g t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n p e r i o d a band of t r e e s above t h e
c l e a r i n g l i n e may f a l l i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r .

It is good practice to determine in advance the margins where erosion will take place and
to remove the trees that risk falling into the lake prior to impoundage. Fig. IIIA-2 gives
the empirical formula for estimating the limits of additional clearing for erosion along
reservoir margins exposed to wide expanses (wave fetch) of water.
Some of the newer African impoundments, such as the Volta dam, are more than 32 km wide
in certain places and on the steeper exposed shorelines it may be necessary to cut trees out
of a zone 30 m beyond the reservoir high-level line.

Maximum Wave Height = .0137 (fetch)Oe5, m

Ultimate Beach Width = 8 X Max.Wave Height, m
Distance for Extended Clearing = D, m
D = C X 0.11

fetch^^'^

COS

where C = 0 . 5 Rock Outcrop

1.0 Firm Clay
1.5 Gravely Loam
2 . 0 Sandy Loam
oc= slope of shoreline, degrees

Fig. IIIA-2. Clearing for erosion.

NOTE: The pre-impoundage clearing of timber must extend

beyond the basic clearing line in anticipation of bank
erosion which varies with the exposure to wase wash,
bank slope and soil conditions.

4.1.2.2

Clearing a t heads of b i g h t s and i n d e n t a t i o n s

I n r e s e r v o i r s f o r f l o o d c o n t r o l o r having f l o o d c o n t r o l a s one of t h e i r p u r p o s e s , heavy

mats of logs and o t h e r f l o a t i n g d e b r i s may be trapped i n t h e heads of b i g h t s and i n d e n t a t i o n s
a f t e r f l o o d s . I f they a r e h e l d o r f a i l t o s t r a n d , they w i l l p r o t e c t a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n and
I n f l o o d s t o r a g e zones t h a t a r e n o t t o t a l l y c l e a r e d of t i m b e r , an
msquito larval habitats.
a r e a a t t h e heads of b i g h t s and i n d e n t a t i o n s should be c l e a r e d back a t l e a s t 8 m from t h e
c l e a r i n g l i n e t o provide necessary space f o r s t r a n d i n g and subsequent p i l i n g and burning of
accumulated d r i f t .
4.2

Drainage of r e s e r v o i r margins

Marginal drainage must be provided f o r i n t h e zone between t h e maximum and minimum w a t e r

l e v e l s of t h e r e s e r v o i r . This means t h a t a l l d i s c e r n i b l e depressions l y i n g i n t h i s zone,
which could form i s o l a t e d pools s u f f i c i e n t l y permanent t o produce mosquitos when t h e w a t e r i s
lowered, should be connected w i t h t h e main body of t h e r e s e r v o i r by s u i t a b l e d r a i n a g e
s t r u c t u r e s . The myriad of small puddles, h o o f p r i n t s and t h e l i k e which can dry up i n a few
days through e v a p o r a t i o n do n o t r e q u i r e marginal drainage. Areas t h a t remain i n a permanent
boggy c o n d i t i o n due t o t h e e x i s t e n c e of subsurface s p r i n g s a l s o need t o be d r a i n e d . Chapter
I I I E d e a l s i n d e t a i l with drainage f o r mosquito c o n t r o l .

4.3

Deepening and f i l l i n g

Where a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n i s t o be p r o t e c t e d , t h e shallow margins of a r e s e r v o i r (with a

high mosquito production p o t e n t i a l ) can be made u n s u i t a b l e f o r mosquito breeding through
topographical a l t e r a t i o n . Such a l t e r a t i o n may be accomplished by (a) f i l l i n g t h e marginal
problem zones t o a l e v e l above t h e maximum water l e v e l of t h e impoundment, (b) deepening t h e
problem zone t o a depth below t h e lower l i m i t of marginal growth i n v a s i o n , o r ( c ) a combinat i o n of (a) and (b). Normally, t h e most economical procedure would be (c) which helps
balance t h e q u a n t i t i e s of c u t and f i l l and reduces t h e d i s t a n c e s t h e e a r t h has t o be moved
without decreasing t h e s t o r a g e volume of t h e r e s e r v o i r . The deepening a t t h e s h o r e l i n e zone
t o l m o r more w i l l reduce t h e growth of a q u a t i c p l a n t s and expose t h e edge t o wave a c t i o n ;
both w i l l discourage mosquito breeding.

A deepening and f i l l i n g o p e r a t i o n i s u s u a l l y combined

e a r t h from land p r o j e c t i o n s t o f i l l i n d e n t a t i o n s o r bays.
favourable mosquito breeding s i t e s a t shallow margins, t h e
and s t r a i g h t e r s h o r e l i n e s , d i r e c t l y reducing t h e l e n g t h of

w i t h s h o r e l i n e reshaping, by t a k i n g
Thus, i n a d d i t i o n t o e l i m i n a t i n g
operation w i l l r e s u l t i n s h o r t e r
t h e p o t e n t i a l breeding s i t e s .

Good topographical maps a r e r e q u i r e d f o r planning and designing a c u t - a n d - f i l l p r o j e c t .

Contours at 30 cm i n t e r v a l s i n maps of t h e proposed improvement a r e a a r e n e c e s s a r y i f t h e
earthwork involved i s t o b e a c c u r a t e l y estimated. D e t a i l e d p l a n s should be developed u s i n g
maps t o a s c a l e of about 1/5000, and should i n d i c a t e , among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e c u t - a n d - f i l l
a r e a s and t h e new s h o r e l i n e . I t w i l l b e a d v i s a b l e t o permit f i e l d adjustments i n t h e c o u r s e
of t h e work t o d e a l w i t h any unusual o r unforeseen c o n d i t i o n s t h a t might develop.
Conventional e a r t h m o v i n g equipment such a s t r a c t o r - s c r a p e r s , b u l l d o z e r s o r g r a d e r s may
be used i n t h e c u t - a n d - f i l l o p e r a t i o n , except i n boggy c o n d i t i o n s where a d r a g l i n e may be
s u i t a b l e (see subchapter I I I H , s e c t i o n s 3 and 4 ) . Drainage works may be i n s t a l l e d i n marshy
a r e a s t o improve ground c o n d i t i o n s ahead of t h e main o p e r a t i o n .
Cut- and- fill measures were used e x t e n s i v e l y f o r t h e f i r s t time by t h e Tennessee V a l l e y
Authority (TVA) i n t h e Kentucky r e s e r v o i r where they a r e an important p a r t of t h e permanent
s h o r e l i n e improvement programme. A p l a n and p r o f i l e of t h e TVA deepening- and- filling p r o j e c t
a r e shown i n Figs. IIIA- 3 and IIIA- 4.

Fig. IIIA-3. Plan map of a cut-and-fill project- Eagle Creek,

Kentucky Reservoir.*

18'to 26' .,.

.,.

Varies

Original Ground Line

.l

Mosquito Breeding Problem Area

Fig. IIIA-4. Diagrammatic cross section of a cut-and-fill project."

*Reproduced from: Malaria control on impounded waters. Washington, DC,
United States Public Health Service, Tennessee Valley Authority, 1947.
The capital investment for a deepening-and-filling operation is high; however, very
little maintenance is required afterwards. With the low interest rates prevailing at the time
(1947), TVA estimated that the expected savings in mosquito control costs (the difference
between the total costs without and with the deepening-and-filling operation) would be more
than enough to amortize the investment during the expected life of the project. This estimated cost comparison, together with pertinent data from one of the TVA Kentucky reservoir
deepening-and-filling projects, is shown in Table IIIA-1. Even though conditions have change4
similar savings would be possible today.

Table IIIA-1.

Eagle Creek deepening- and- filling p r o j e c t summary,

Kentucky Reservoir, Tennessee River*

Length of shore line before filling.. .......................... .miles

Length of shore line after filling.. ........................... .miles
Mosquito problem area filled.. ............................. . . a c e
Mosquito problem area deepened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. a c e

11.5

2.9
78.8
76.3

. . . . . a c r e 15.5.1
Total prol~lemarea eliminated.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
.
Popnlation within l-mile zone.. ..................................
365
57
Population density per square mile.. ..............................
Earth moved in deepening and filling.. ................. .cuhic yards 128,000
Cost of project including clearing, eucav;~tion,etc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550,500
Annual costs:
hlosquito control without deepening antl filling:
1. Larviciding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1,900
2. Growth remov;~l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,600
3. Drainage mainte~lnnce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
4,000
hlosquito control wilh tlecpening and filling:
I . Larr i(i(lc7i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$ 300
2. Growth removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100
3. Drainage maintenance ................................. 200
4. Interest on capital investment @ 3 p e r c e n t . . ............ 1,500
5. Annual amortization cost for 25-year period @ 3 percent 1,400

- 3.500

Estimated annual sal ings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

500

"Reproduced from: Malaria c o n t r o l on impounded w a t e r s . Washington, DC,

United S t a t e s P u b l i c Health S e r v i c e , Tennessee Valley Authority, 1947.

4.4

Diking and dewatering

Where deepening and f i l l i n g would i n v o l v e major earth-moving o p e r a t i o n s , i t may be

necessary t o c o n s i d e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of b u i l d i n g d i k e s o r l e v e e s t o i s o l a t e l a r g e shallow
bays f o r reclamation by dewatering. Such a r e a s , i f remaining inundated, could provide
numerous mosquito breeding p l a c e s which would be extremely d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l .
I n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e dewatered a r e a from e x c e s s i v e runoff and f l o o d i n g , a c t i o n should,

if p o s s i b l e , be taken t o channel drainage from t h e upland watershed e i t h e r through o r around

t h e a r e a . A d r a i n a g e system should a l s o be i n s t a l l e d w i t h i n t h e a r e a t o c o l l e c t and convey
t h e s u r f a c e runoff t o a pumping s t a t i o n of adequate c a p a c i t y , s u i t a b l y l o c a t e d a t t h e lower
end of t h e a r e a and a d j a c e n t t o t h e dike. It is a d v i s a b l e t o i n c l u d e a g a t e - c o n t r o l l e d
gravity- flow s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e drainage of t h e diked a r e a i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r when t h e w a t e r
l e v e l i n t h e l a t t e r i s low enough. Spillways of adequate c a p a c i t y should a l s o be provided t o
p r o t e c t t h e d i k e from b e i n g overtopped during a n t i c i p a t e d ( o r unexpected) h i g h water i n t h e
dewatered a r e a .
The c h a r a c t e r of t h e s o i l i s an important c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n and
maintenance of d i k e s , d i t c h e s and s p i l l w a y s . A g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e underlying
formation i s necessary t o determine whether seepage may be expected i n t h e dewatered a r e a .
The accumulation of r e l a t i v e l y minor seepage from a ' l a r g e a r e a might r e s u l t i n e x c e s s i v e
pumping c o s t s and a f f e c t t h e economics of t h e p r o j e c t .
For mosquito c o n t r o l purposes, i t would be a c c e p t a b l e i f t h e a r e a could be dewatered
w i t h i n 5-7 days a f t e r flooding. However, i f t h e dewatered a r e a i s used f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
purposes, t h e dewatering schedule should t a k e account of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l requirements, and
t h e pumping s t a t i o n should be designed accordingly.

Diking and dewatering were used r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e l y f o r mosquito c o n t r o l i n t h e Kentucky

r e s e r v o i r by t h e Tennessee Valley Authority. A g e n e r a l p l a n and a c r o s s s e c t i o n of a TVA
dewatering p r o j e c t a r e shown i n Fig. IIIA-5. The method h a s been used i n t h e Netherlands,
b u t n o t f o r mosquito c o n t r o l alone. It has a l s o been widely used i n a g r i c u l t u r a l d r a i n a g e and
f l o o d p r o t e c t i o n p r o j e c t s . Although i t provides c o n s i d e r a b l e b e n e f i t s i n mosquito c o n t r o l ,
t h i s method should b e viewed r a t h e r i n terms of o t h e r advantages such a s land reclaimed o r
p r o t e c t e d , o r improved a g r i c u l t u r a l r e t u r n s . For example, economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h r e e
of t h e l a r g e r TVA p r o j e c t s i n Kentucky was based p r i n c i p a l l y on reduced c o s t s f o r t h e
p r o t e c t i o n of highway and r a i l r o a d f i l l s t r a v e r s i n g t h e a r e a s . Furthermore, a l l 10 of t h e TVA
d i k i n g and dewatering p r o j e c t s o r i g i n a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d f o r mosquito c o n t r o l a r e now o p e r a t e d
p r i m a r i l y i n s u p p o r t of w i l d l i f e i n t e r e s t s , b u t w i t h o u t l o s s of t h e o t h e r b e n e f i t s mentioned
above.

Pumping Station Equipment

15,MX)

349.0

353.0

Mosquito Breeding Problem Area

Dwabred Area

B%zEsl
Uncleand Ana

Max Flood Surcharge El 375

-----

Maximum

&quRoOntro)

F i g . IIIA-5.

E1359

El363
s

..... .:.-

-RESERVOIR
-... .- -.

General p l a n and s e c t i o n a l view of a diked and dewatered

a r e a of Big Sandy River of t h e TVA Kentucky r e s e r v o i r .
The flow of Big Sandy River i s d i v e r t e d around t h e a r e a
s o t h a t only a modest pumping c a p a c i t y i s r e q u i r e d w i t h i n i t .

Reproduced from: Malaria c o n t r o l on impounded w a t e r s . Washington, DC,

United S t a t e s P u b l i c Health S e r v i c e , Tennessee Valley A u t h o r i t y , 1947.

IIIB

IRRIGATION

Contents

Page

.
2.

..............................
Types of water conveyance s t r u c t u r e s f o r i r r i g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Open c a n a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Pipe c o n d u i t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.
I r r i g a t i o n methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Uncontrolled o r "wild" f l o o d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 B o r d e r - s t r i p f l o o d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . 3 Contour check f l o o d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 B a s i n f l o o d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Furrow i r r i g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 S u b i r r i g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 S p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1 Mechanized s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.2 Localized s p r i n k l e r ( t r i c k l e o r d r i p ) i r r i g a t i o n . . . . . .
4.
Mosquito problems i n i r r i g a t i o n systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 In canals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction

..................
.....................
Design of i r r i g a t i o n systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
5.1 General remarks o n d e s i g n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 S p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r mosquito c o n t r o l . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.
Canal l i n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1 Paved o r hard s u r f a c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Exposedmembrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Coveredmembrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 . 3 Compactedearth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 E a r t h and chemical s e a l a n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
4.3

6.5

.
8.
7

On t h e l a n d a d j a c e n t t o c a n a l s
In the cultivated fields

S e r v i c e l i f e and comparative c o s t s

................

............................
Gatesandsiphons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Curvesincanals

43
44
44
44
45
45
46
46
46
46
47
47
48
50
51
51
51
52
52
52
54
56
57
57
57
58
59
60
60
63
64

Introduction

I r r i g a t i o n i s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of w a t e r t o t h e ground p r i m a r i l y f o r m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s o i l
moisture c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e most s u i t e d t o p l a n t growth and crop production

I r r i g a t i o n produces i n c o n t e s t a b l e b e n e f i t s b u t a l s o b r i n g s w i t h i t t h e c o n s t a n t menace of
d i s e a s e and d i s a b i l i t y . I n numerous t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s t h e i n c r e a s e of such major d i s e a s e s a s
m a l a r i a and s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s can be t r a c e d t o t h e development of i r r i g a t i o n .
Many of t h e h e a l t h hazards connected w i t h i r r i g a t i o n can b e prevented o r a t l e a s t reduced
by measures taken i n t h e planning, design, c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n systems.
I f i r r i g a t i o n e n g i n e e r s and p l a n n e r s a r e informed about t h e environmental c o n d i t i o n s t h a t
favour t h e b r e e d i n g of d i s e a s e v e c t o r s , they w i l l b e a b l e t o avoid o r minimize t h e c r e a t i o n of
such c o n d i t i o n s . Likewise, v e c t o r c o n t r o l o p e r a t o r s w i l l b e n e f i t by a c q u i r i n g a c l e a r e r
p i c t u r e of t h e systems, methods and techniques of i r r i g a t i o n , t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y , scope and
limitations

2.

Types of w a t e r conveyance s t r u c t u r e s f o r i r r i g a t i o n

2.1

Open c a n a l s

The e a r t h c a n a l i s s t i l l t h e most commonly used s t r u c t u r e f o r conveyance of water f o r

i r r i g a t i o n . It i s one of t h e o l d e s t and s i m p l e s t e n g i n e e r i n g works f o r w a t e r r e s o u r c e s
development.
The c r o s s - s e c t i o n of e a r t h c a n a l s i s u s u a l l y t r a p e z o i d a l , w i t h t h e s i d e s as s t e e p a s t h e
m a t e r i a l w i l l s t a n d when exposed t o flowing w a t e r . The s l o p e of t h e s i d e s ( r a t i o of h o r i z o n t a l t o v e r t i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s ) v a r i e s from 3 : l t o 1:l depending on t h e c o n s i s t e n c y of t h e
s o i l . The c e n t r a l s e c t i o n o r bed of t h e c a n a l i s h o r i z o n t a l i n a newly dug channel.
E a r t h c a n a l s should b e s t a b l e , i . e . , they should maintain t h e i r o r i g i n a l shape s o t h a t
t h e i r water- carrying c a p a c i t y i s n o t a l t e r e d . I d e a l l y , n e i t h e r d e p o s i t i o n of sediment nor
s c o u r i n g should t a k e p l a c e i n t h e c a n a l . As a h i g h flow v e l o c i t y s c o u r s t h e channel and a low
v e l o c i t y allows s i l t d e p o s i t i o n , c a n a l s a r e i n p r a c t i c e u s u a l l y designed w i t h a water v e l o c i t y
between t h e two extremes. Water v e l o c i t y i n c a n a l s i s d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 4.2 of Chapter V I I .
The major advantage of e a r t h c a n a l s i s t h e i r low i n i t i a l c o s t and t h e i r s i m p l i c i t y of
c o n s t r u c t i o n . Where a l a b o u r f o r c e i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , c a n a l digging provides employment
f o r a l a r g e number of u n s k i l l e d workers.
The disadvantages of e a r t h c a n a l s a r e :
high seepage and conveyance w a t e r l o s s e s , and t h e r e s u l t a n t waterlogging of a d j a c e n t lanG
(b) danger of bank breakage caused by overtopping, e r o s i o n and animal burrowing; ( c ) p r o f u s e
growth of a q u a t i c weeds which r e t a r d s t h e flow and g i v e s r i s e t o heavy maintenance c o s t s ;
(d) low o p e r a t i n g v e l o c i t i e s r e q u i r i n g l a r g e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a s , thus a wide s t r i p of land
i s occupied;
(e) d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l s e c t i o n , reducing t h e c a p a c i t y and r e q u i r i n g
f r e q u e n t trimming and reshaping;
( f ) t h e need f o r b r i d g e s t o p r e v e n t d e s t r u c t i o n of s e c t i o n .
(a)

These disadvantages may be reduced o r overcome by l i n i n g e a r t h c a n a l s . The s u b j e c t of

c a n a l l i n i n g , i n c l u d i n g i t s advantages and economics, i s d e a l t w i t h i n d e t a i l i n s e c t i o n 6 of
t h i s subchapter.
2.2

Pipe c o n d u i t s

P i p e s o r c l o s e d c o n d u i t s a r e sometimes used f o r conveyance of water f o r i r r i g a t i o n .

While a piped system may be more expensive i n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s , a d e c i s i o n i n favour of an
open channel system should be based on a sound economic a n a l y s i s . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e
t h a t , mainly because of t h e smoothness of i t s s u r f a c e , a c o n c r e t e p i p e of 0.6 m diameter h a s
about t h e same w a t e r - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y by g r a v i t y a s a c a n a l 1 . 4 m wide a t t h e water s u r f a c e
l e v e l , 0.5 m deep, and 0 . 3 m wide a t t h e bottom,providing t h e s l o p e and o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a r e
t h e same. The c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e p i p e l i n e , when working under p r e s s u r e , can be f u r t h e r
i n c r e a s e d w i t h o u t producing undue s t r e s s e s t h a t may cause leakage a t t h e j o i n t s . I f t h e r e i s
a need t o convert e x i s t i n g c a n a l s , i t may prove economical t o r e p l a c e them w i t h c l o s e d
conduits r a t h e r t h a n t o l i n e them i n open s e c t i o n s .

P i p e s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r w a t e r conveyance when w a t e r must be pumped, whether t o overcome

d i f f e r e n c e s i n ground e l e v a t i o n s o r t o l i f t i t from underground sources.
P r e s s u r e piped systems a r e b u r i e d a t a s u f f i c i e n t depth t o p r o t e c t them from damage by
ploughs and o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l equipment, s o t h a t t h e land s t r i p above may be used f o r crop
production. I r r i g a t i o n w a t e r i s d e l i v e r e d where needed through conveniently spaced r i s e r
p i p e s f i t t e d w i t h v a l v e s ; t h e system may a l s o b e combined w i t h s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n ( s e e
s e c t i o n 3.7 below).
The advantages of b u r i e d p i p e l i n e s a r e : (a) t h e l a y o u t i s n o t r e s t r i c t e d by topographic
configuration, slopes, streams, roads, i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , e t c . ;
(b) t h e conveyance system does
n o t t a k e away any land from c u l t i v a t i o n ; (c) t h e movement over t h e land i s f r e e from
o b s t r u c t i o n ; and (d) t h e r e i s no mosquito b r e e d i n g ( o r a q u a t i c p l a n t s ) t o c o n t r o l .
The p r i n c i p a l disadvantage of p i p e c o n d u i t s i s t h a t t h e w a t e r used has t o be f a i r l y f r e e
of sediment. Underground w a t e r u s u a l l y p r e s e n t s no problem, b u t t u r b i d s u r f a c e w a t e r may need
s e t t l i n g b e f o r e i t i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e p i p e network. P e r i o d i c f l u s h i n g of p i p e l i n e s may
be necessary t o remove accumulated sediment.
3.

I r r i g a t i o n methods

Various i r r i g a t i o n methods have been devised t o meet p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s i n topography,

water supply, c r o p s , customs and a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s . The most common methods ( s e e
F i g . IIIB-1) a r e d e s c r i b e d below.

Canal or lateral,

c So c i e
(Adapted from: Am~ e r ian
0f
ion of Agronomy. Irri g a ta g r i c u l t u r a l land.S (A .graniomy
s e r i e s , No. l l ) , 1967 9 P. 867

Fig. I I I B - 1 .
3.1

Various methods of app y i n g water t o f i e l d c r o p s .

Uncontrolled o r "wild" f l o o d i n g

This i s t h e o l d e s t method a p p l i e d t o even and f l a t l a n d s . The land r e q u i r e s t h e minimum

of p r e p a r a t i o n ; t h e w a t e r t h a t overflows from t h e supply c a n a l runs f r e e l y over t h e s u r f a c e
i n an e r r a t i c way. I f t h e flow o v e r t h e land i s t o o r a p i d , i n s u f f i c i e n t w a t e r w i l l p e r c o l a t e ;
i f t h e water i s h e l d t o o long, much of i t w i l l seep beyond t h e r o o t zone. I n e i t h e r c a s e ,
w a t e r l o s s e s a r e s o g r e a t t h a t w i l d f l o o d i n g i s s u i t a b l e only where w a t e r i s abundant a n d c h e a p

This method was p r a c t i s e d 5000 y e a r s ago i n Egypt by d i v e r t i n g t h e annual h i g h flow of

t h e N i l e t o c o v e r v a s t t r a c t s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l c u l t i v a t i o n . It had t h e advantage t h a t t h e
r i c h loam of t h e N i l e w a t e r remained on t h e ground when t h e f l o o d receded, thus f e r t i l i z i n g
t h e s o i l and i n c r e a s i n g t h e top s o i l l a y e r of a r a b l e l a n d y e a r by y e a r .
3.2

Border- strip flooding

The method of b o r d e r - s t r i p i r r i g a t i o n c o n t r o l s t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f l o o d i n g w a t e r from

t h e supply c a n a l a s i t flows slowly towards t h e o p p o s i t e end .of t h e f i e l d , which i s d i v i d e d
i n t o p a r a l l e l s t r i p s by b u i l d i n g borders on t h e edges and i n t e r m e d i a t e low l e v e e s . The
s u r f a c e between l e v e e s i s t r a n s v e r s e l y l e v e l , s o t h a t t h e advancing s h e e t of w a t e r covers t h e
e n t i r e w i d t h of t h e s t r i p , b u t l o n g i t u d i n a l l y has a s l i g h t and uniform s l o p e t h a t allows t h e
even movement of t h e w a t e r s h e e t . Slopes should p r e f e r a b l y vary between 0.2 and 0.4 %
although t h e method h a s been used f o r a wider range of s l o p e s .
The w i d t h of s t r i p s u s u a l l y v a r i e s from 9 t o 18 m and t h e i r l e n g t h from 100 t o 400 m.
Rather impervious s o i l s , o v e r l a i d by compact loams, permit long and broad s t r i p s ; h i g h l y
permeable s u b s o i l s , sandy and g r a v e l l y , a r e b e t t e r i r r i g a t e d using s h o r t and narrow s t r i p s .
Each s t r i p i s u s u a l l y connected t o t h e supply c a n a l by a g a t e ; siphon tubes can a d v a n t a g e o ~ l y
be used when t h e r e i s enough d i f f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n between t h e supply c a n a l and t h e s t r i p .
3.3

Contour check f l o o d i n g

This method c o n t r o l s t h e flow of water by d i v i d i n g t h e land i n t o a r e a s o r checks of 0.5

t o 1.5 h e c t a r e s by means of check l e v e e s b u i l t along t h e contour l i n e s of t h e t e r r a i n and
c r o s s l e v e e s , t r a n s v e r s e l y t o t h e check l e v e e s . The l a n d enclosed by t h e f o u r l e v e e s should
be l e v e l l e d . The a r e a of each check depends on t h e p o r o s i t y of t h e s o i l ; i n permeable s o i l s ,
checks should b e s m a l l e r t o ensure t h e i r r a p i d f i l l i n g which i s necessary f o r uniform water
d i s t r i b u t i o n . Levees a r e u s u a l l y 0.25 m h i g h and 1.80 m wide a t t h e base. On s t e e p s l o p e s
t h e ground i s graded t o a s e r i e s of l e v e l t e r r a c e s ; i n g e n t l y s l o p i n g l a n d , t h e l a y o u t can
form a r e g u l a r p a t t e r n of square checks.
3.4

Basin f l o o d i n g

This method i s e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r t o contour check f l o o d i n g . I t i s b e s t adapted t o

s o i l s having moderate- to- slow i n t a k e r a t e s and moderate- to- high water- holding c a p a c i t i e s ,
and t o smooth, g e n t l e and uniform land s l o p e s where good l a y o u t s f o r b a s i n s can be made.
The b a s i n f l o o d i n g method may be used f o r i r r i g a t i n g o r c h a r d s . Under f a v o u r a b l e
c o n d i t i o n s of s o i l and s l o p e s e v e r a l t r e e s a r e enclosed by l e v e e s t o form a b a s i n . Each b a s i n
may be f i l l e d i n d i v i d u a l l y from d i t c h e s between a l t e r n a t e rows of t r e e s o r from b a s i n t o b a s i n
i n a line.
3.5

Furrow i r r i g a t i o n

This method does n o t depend on t h e o v e r a l l f l o o d i n g of l a n d , b u t makes use of both

v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l p e r c o l a t i o n . Only from o n e - f i f t h t o one- half of t h e whole s u r f a c e i s
wetted. The furrow method t h u s reduces l o s s e s by e v a p o r a t i o n , h i n d e r s t h e puddling of heavy
s o i l s , and allows farming a c t i v i t i e s almost immediately a f t e r i r r i g a t i o n . Nearly a l l crops
p l a n t e d i n rows a r e s u i t a b l e f o r furrow i r r i g a t i o n .
Furrow i r r i g a t i o n i s a d a p t a b l e t o g r e a t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e ground s l o p e . Slopes of 0.5 t o
3 % a r e most s u i t a b l e ; b u t many types of s o i l can be watered w i t h furrow s l o p e s of 3 t o 6 %.
Furrow i r r i g a t i o n h a s been t r i e d s u c c e s s f u l l y i n ground w i t h s l o p e s up t o 1 5 %, b u t c a r e f u l
a t t e n t i o n must be given t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n o r c o r r e c t i o n of e r o s i o n . I n s t e e p ground, furrows
a r e dug f o l l o w i n g t h e contour of t h e ground b u t w i t h a s l o p e of 0.5 t o 3 % t o e n s u r e uniformity
i n w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n t h i s s o r t of t e r r a i n , t h e supply c a n a l w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y be on a
s t e e p g r a d i e n t and w i l l u s u a l l y r e q u i r e l i n i n g . Movable b a f f l e s may be used t o d i v e r t t h e
flow i n t o t h e furrows. I n some s i t u a t i o n s t h e supply c a n a l may have t o be r e p l a c e d by a

p i p e c a r r y i n g w a t e r under p r e s s u r e and d e l i v e r e d through valves.

The depth of t h e furrow depends on t h e depth of t h e r o o t zone of t h e crop concerned,
t h e n a t u r e of t h e s o i l , and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l equipment used. I n o r d i n a r i l y permeable s o i l s ,
furrows vary from 0.07 t o 0.15 m deep; i n s o i l s of low p e r m e a b i l i t y , furrows should be from
0.20 t o 0.30 m deep.
Furrow s p a c i n g must allow f o r t h e l a t e r a l growth of t h e p l a n t , t h e need f o r a i r c i r c u l a t i o n between p l a n t s , and convenience i n c u l t i v a t i o n and h a r v e s t i n g . For o r d i n a r y crops of
low t o medium h e i g h t , furrow s p a c i n g ranges from 0.50 t o 1.00 m. I n o r c h a r d s , furrows may
be spaced from 0.90 t o 1.80 m. When t h e t o p s o i l has a h i g h c a p i l l a r i t y o r when t h e s u b s o i l
i s impermeable, furrows may be spaced a s f a r a s 3.00 t o 3.50 m.
The l e n g t h of t h e furrow i s determined by s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y , and i s o f t e n i n t h e range
of 100 t o 200 m. Very l o n g furrows cannot be i r r i g a t e d uniformly s i n c e i t t a k e s time f o r t h e
water t o reach t h e lower end, which may thus be u n d e r - i r r i g a t e d while t h e upper end w i l l be
over- irrigated.
Furrows of small c r o s s s e c t i o n a r e u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d a s c o r r u g a t i o n s .
3.6

Subirrigation

This method c o n s i s t s i n applying w a t e r beneath t h e ground s u r f a c e s o t h a t i t r e a c h e s t h e

r o o t zone by c a p i l l a r y movement. For t h e s u c c e s s f u l p r a c t i c e of t h i s method, s p e c i a l
topographic and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s such a s t h e following a r e r e q u i r e d :
(a) l a r g e t r a c t s of lowl y i n g land w i t h a uniform and moderate s l o p e of about 0.2 %;
(b) a t o p s o i l of permeable loam
o r sandy loam which p e r m i t s f r e e l a t e r a l movement of w a t e r ; (c) a r e l a t i v e l y impervious subs o i l a t a depth of about 1.80 m o r more, which p r e v e n t s t h e p e r c o l a t i o n of w a t e r t o t h e lower
s t r a t a ; and (d) a groundwater t a b l e a t a l e v e l such t h a t only a small r i s e w i l l e n a b l e t h e
s o i l of t h e r o o t zone t o be moistened by c a p i l l a r i t y .
S u b i r r i g a t i o n demands t h a t t h e f l u c t u a t i o n of t h e groundwater t a b l e should be c l o s e l y
followed by means of piezometers o r i n s p e c t i o n w e l l s . Accurate c o n t r o l of t h e w a t e r supply
i s e s s e n t i a l t o prevent waterlogging and accumulation of s a l t s due t o e x c e s s i v e supply and t o
avoid p l a n t w i l t i n g due t o w a t e r d e f i c i t .
S u b i r r i g a t i o n can b e a p p l i e d e i t h e r through a system of deep and narrow d i t c h e s (0.60 t o
0.90 m X 0.30 m a t t h e b a s e ) where t h e s o i l i s c o n s i s t e n t and allows almost v e r t i c a l s i d e s ,
o r through a p e r f o r a t e d o r open- jointed p i p e system, o r through a combination of b o t h . Under
f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , i t can be a p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f i c i e n t method of w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n .
3.7

Sprinkler i r r i g a t i o n

This method c o n s i s t s i n applying w a t e r t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground a s an even s p r a y .

S p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n can be e f f e c t i v e where o t h e r i r r i g a t i o n methods a r e i m p r a c t i c a l o r
uneconomical. It i s i n d i c a t e d i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e l a n d topography i s s o i r r e g u l a r o r
h i l l y t h a t l e v e l l i n g would b e too c o s t l y , where t h e ground i s too s t e e p o r e a s i l y e r o d a b l e ,
where t h e cover of f e r t i l e s o i l i s too shallow t o a l l o w i t s proper g r a d i n g , where e x c e s s i v e l y
porous s o i l does n o t h o l d w a t e r a t t h e r o o t zone, o r where t h e supply of w a t e r i s inadequate
f o r e f f i c i e n t and even d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Turbid w a t e r s a r e o b j e c t i o n a b l e f o r s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n because t h e a b r a s i v e a c t i o n of
s i l t a c c e l e r a t e s t h e wear of pump p r o p e l l e r s , n o z z l e o r i f i c e s , b e a r i n g s and h i n g e s , and d e b r i s
can o b s t r u c t t h e d e l i v e r y of w a t e r by clogging t h e s p r i n k l e r nozzles. Where t h e use of
t u r b i d waters i s unavoidable, a p p r o p r i a t e t r e a t m e n t by s c r e e n i n g and by s e d i m e n t a t i o n must be
provided. Canal w a t e r , when used f o r s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n , must be d i v e r t e d t o shallow tanks
o r boxes f o r a p e r i o d of s e t t l e m e n t b e f o r e b e i n g pumped. It must always be borne i n mind t h a t
such i n s t a l l a t i o n s a s g r i t chambers, s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k s , d e t r i t u s b a s i n s , d i s t r i b u t i o n boxes
o r pump sumps a r e p o t e n t i a l s i t e s of mosquito breeding which may very e a s i l y t u r n i n t o a c t i v e

f o c i of mosquito p r o d u c t i o n . These i n s t a l l a t i o n s should be examined once a week, and should

b e d r a i n e d and d r i e d f o r a day o r s o , o r t r e a t e d w i t h l a r v i c i d e s whenever mosquito l a r v a e
a r e present.
3.7.1

Mechanized s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n

One of t h e e a r l i e r types of mechanized s p r i n k l e r was t h e r o t a t i n g boom w i t h a diameter of

40 t o 80 m and an e f f e c t i v e watered diameter of up t o 180 m ( s e e Fig. IIIB- 2). This was
e i t h e r moved by t r a c t o r o r s e l f - p r o p e l l e d . A l a t e r development was t h e c e n t r e - p i v o t s p r i n k l e r
which has n o z z l e s mounted along a l a t e r a l of up t o 700 m r a d i u s and i s supported on a s e r i e s
of wheeled, power- driven towers a t i n t e r v a l s throughout i t s l e n g t h a s i t r o t a t e s t o w a t e r a
c i r c u l a r a r e a of some 160 h e c t a r e s .
Small jets

wr4
THE MACHINE

THE IRRIGATED AREA

Fig. IIIB- 2.

Rotating-boom s p r i n k l e r .

WHO 811059

i n t r o d u c e s t h e problem of compaction of t h e s o i l i n t h e t r a c k of t h e s p r i n k l e r , w i t h a
tendency f o r w a t e r t o c o l l e c t i n t h e r u t s and provide mosquito breeding s i t e s .

hydraulic
drive

winch

cannon
or gun

I
flexible

water ta ke-off point

final position of cannon

initial position

cable anchorage

connexion to
flexible tube

t-

--

--------------W---

- - m - - - -

2" irrigation
area

- p - - -

The irrigated area

Fig. IIIB- 4.

3.7.2

Of

Big gun s p r i n k l e r , self- towed by c a b l e .

Localized s p r i n k l e r ( t r i c k l e o r d r i p ) i r r i g a t i o n

Probably t h e s a f e s t method of i r r i g a t i o n from t h e viewpoint of mosquito c o n t r o l i s t h e

l o c a l i z e d system, u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " t r i c k l e " o r " drip" i r r i g a t i o n . It c o n s i s t s of a
low p r e s s u r e supply piped d i r e c t l y t o t h e crop, w i t h "emitters" through which water i s
d e l i v e r e d a d j a c e n t t o t h e p l a n t . The system i s g e n e r a l l y used f o r row crops and f o r
i n d i v i d u a l bushes o r t r e e s . The e m i t t e r s may take t h e form of small o r i f i c e s i n t h e w a l l s of
t h e p l a s t i c supply l i n e s o r of c a l i b r a t e d v a l v e s mounted on the l i n e s . I n a l l c a s e s , t h e
r a t e of d i s c h a r g e i s a d j u s t e d t o supply t h e crop without e x t e n s i v e w e t t i n g of t h e surrounding
l a n d and w i t h no s t a n d i n g water. The method has t h e r e f o r e few disadvantages i n r e l a t i o n t o
mosquito breeding when used i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e circumstances.
However, t h e r e a r e t e c h n i c a l and economic drawbacks t o i t s use i n a g r i c u l t u r e . I t
r e q u i r e s a c l e a n w a t e r supply, f r e e from s o l i d and o r g a n i c m a t t e r which may block t h e
e m i t t e r s ; i t i s n o t s u i t a b l e on heavy s o i l s where l o c a l ponding may occur; and i t i s n o t
recornended where crop growth makes a c c e s s t o and i n s p e c t i o n of t h e system d i f f i c u l t o r where
t h e r e i s a r i s k of damage during c u l t i v a t i o n and h a r v e s t i n g ; t h e system i s expensive and
g e n e r a l l y i s s u i t a b l e only where hi g h- value v e g e t a b l e and f r u i t crops j u s t i f y t h e investment.
I n a r i d a r e a s t h e use of l o c a l i z e d i r r i g a t i o n , although w e l l s u i t e d t o crop p r o d u c t i o n ,
may cause an i n c r e a s e i n s o i l s a l i n i t y in t h e r o o t zone of t h e p l a n t . This must be c o r r e c t e d
by p e r i o d i c l e a c h i n g of t h e s o i l w i t h a h i g h e r d i s c h a r g e method of water a p p l i c a t i o n ,

probably by s u r f a c e supply. Such water a p p l i c a t i o n has the same i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r mosquito

breeding a s an e q u i v a l e n t method of s u r f a c e i r r i g a t i o n , and s i m i l a r c o n t r o l measures a r e
called for.
4.

Mosquito problems i n i r r i g a t i o n systems

4.1

I n canals

I n open i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s , water t h a t l e a v e s t h e r e s e r v o i r , r i v e r o r pumping s t a t i o n i s

conveyed along main c a n a l s t o l a t e r a l s and f i n a l l y reaches t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n d i t c h e s t h a t
supply one o r more c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s .
Mosquito problems a r e t o b e expected i n t h e whole c a n a l complex, b u t t h e g r e a t e s t r i s k i s
i n t h e minor d i s t r i b u t i o n channels which a r e more s u i t a b l e f o r mosquito p r o d u c t i o n than t h e
l a r g e r c a n a l s , and whose maintenance i s given l e s s a t t e n t i o n , ~ a r t i c u l a r l ywhen i t i s no longer
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e i r r i g a t i o n a u t h o r i t y and i s p u t under t h e c a r e of t h e u s e r s . Where
waterflow i s s l u g g i s h , o r where canal banks a r e eroded o r choked w i t h v e g e t a t i o n , o r where
channel s e c t i o n s a r e i r r e g u l a r , mosquito breeding i s a r e a l o r p o t e n t i a l danger. General
experience demonstrates t h a t t h e s m a l l e r t h e cana1,the g r e a t e r t h e chance of mosquito m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ; t h i s a l s o a p p l i e s t o t h e s n a i l h o s t of s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s .
Any damage t o t h e channel r e s u l t i n g from heavy storms and f l o o d i n g , from heavy machinery,
c a t t l e c r o s s i n g , e t c . w i l l a l t e r t h e canal shape and produce w a t e r pools where mosquitos w i l l
breed. Courses w i t h t w i s t s and sharp bends a r e l i a b l e t o e r o s i o n and s i l t i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n
t h e formation of pockets of q u i e t w a t e r e q u a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r mosquito breeding. Bank e r o s i o n
may be a c c e l e r a t e d by turbulence and whirlpool a c t i o n i n p l a c e s where t h e r e i s a change i n t h e
water v e l o c i t y such a s occurs downstream of c u l v e r t s , b r i d g e s , chutes and d r o p s , a t d i v e r s i o n s ,
and a t t h e o u t l e t of d e s i l t i n g b a s i n s . Such e r o s i o n widens t h e c a n a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n , r e t a r d i n g
t h e waterflow and c r e a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s s u i t a b l e f o r mosquito breeding. Wherever t h e r e i s a
change o r o b s t r u c t i o n i n t h e canal t h a t causes an a l t e r a t i o n of water v e l o c i t y , t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n should b e p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e r e s u l t i n g scouring a c t i o n . I n view of t h e dangers
a t t e n d a n t on e r o s i o n , t h e advantages o f f e r e d by c a n a l l i n i n g a r e obvious.
4.2

On t h e land a d j a c e n t t o c a n a l s

The conveyance canal has t o be c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e h i g h e s t ground e l e v a t i o n p o s s i b l e i n

o r d e r t o i r r i g a t e a d j a c e n t land. Therefore, canal banks a r e o f t e n r a i s e d u s i n g e a r t h o b t a i n
from "borrow" p i t s ( s e e Fig. IIIB- 5).

Fill from borrow

... .

'~ew

F i g . IIIB- 5.

ground level

A t y p i c a l conveyance canal s e c t i o n

Often runs parallel

to canal

Original ground level

Water from t h e c a n a l i s continuously s e e p i n g through t o t h e a d j a c e n t ground. Except i n

t h e c a s e where t h e r e i s a n i n t e n t i o n a l supply through a planned s u b i r r i g a t i o n system, t h i s
seepage r e p r e s e n t s a n u n c o n t r o l l e d flow i n excess of measured d e l i v e r i e s f o r i r r i g a t i o n , and
may r a i s e t h e groundwater t a b l e t o a l e v e l where i t r e a c h e s t h e s u r f a c e i n n a t u r a l o r
a r t i f i c i a l d e p r e s s i o n s of t h e land. These p o o l s , formed on t h e s t r i p s a d j a c e n t t o t h e c a n a l ,
a r e s u i t a b l e s i t e s f o r mosquito breeding. Pools can a l s o be produced by u n c o n t r o l l e d w a t e r
conveyance and d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h consequent s p i l l a g e o v e r t h e banks and i n u n d a t i o n of t h e
l a n d . Pools t h a t may remain f o r t h e t e n days o r s o t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e egg t o develop
i n t o a n a d u l t mosquito must be f i l l e d o r drained.
"Borrow" p i t s a r e among t h e most l i k e l y s p o t s f o r mosquito production. E a r t h f o r t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of dams, d i k e s , c a n a l s o r roads should be "borrowed" from p l a c e s where t h e
r e s u l t i n g e x c a v a t i o n w i l l n o t c r e a t e mosquito breeding s i t e s . Even t h e most convenient and
economical l o c a t i o n f o r %orrowing", i f i t e n t a i l s a r i s k of mosquito p r o d u c t i o n , may have t o
be abandoned f o r one where t h e r i s k i s l e s s , o r e l s e provided w i t h p r e v e n t i v e d r a i n a g e works.
E a r t h c a n o f t e n be borrowed by s t r i p p i n g l a n d a t moderately high e l e v a t i o n , t h u s lowering
i t s l e v e l and b r i n g i n g i t w i t h i n reach of i r r i g a t i o n . I n t h i s way t h e a d d i t i o n a l expense of
h a u l i n g t h e e a r t h may b e economically j u s t i f i e d .

4.3

I n the cultivated fields

I r r i g a t i o n methods based on t h e f l o o d i n g of l a n d , whether t h e f l o o d i n g i s c o n t r o l l e d o r

n o t , always p r e s e n t a r i s k of mosquito p r o d u c t i o n . Two p r e c a u t i o n s should be t a k e n i n o r d e r
t o reduce t h i s r i s k :
( a ) each f l o o d p e r i o d should n o t l a s t more t h a n a few days, and a f t e r
t h e withdrawal of t h e w a t e r t h e a r e a should b e allowed t o remain d r y f o r a t l e a s t one day;
and (b) t h e b o r d e r s t r i p , contour check o r b a s i n should be f r e q u e n t l y l e v e l l e d and graded t o
e n s u r e an even and uniform s u r f a c e t h a t w i l l n o t produce pools when t h e f l o o d w a t e r i s withdrawn.
I n u n c o n t r o l l e d o r "wild1' f l o o d i n g , t h e s e two p r e c a u t i o n s a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e , and t h i s
method must be recognized a s p r e s e n t i n g a r i s k t o human h e a l t h .
The importance f o r mosquito c o n t r o l of t h e r a p i d and thorough removal of w a t e r from
i r r i g a t e d f i e l d s and of t h e d r y i n g p e r i o d cannot be o v e r s t r e s s e d . Unless t h e d r y i n g p e r i o d
i s s u f f i c i e n t l y prolonged t o k i l l mosquito l a r v a e , t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n i n t h e d e l i v e r y of i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r w i l l b e o f no a v a i l . The only way t o accomplish t h e r a p i d withdrawal of w a t e r
r e q u i r e d b e f o r e d r y i n g t h e l a n d i s by t h e p r o v i s i o n of p r o p e r l y planned drainage.
Though furrow i r r i g a t i o n o f f e r s l e s s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r mosquito breeding t h a n f l o o d
i r r i g a t i o n , t h e r e l a t i v e l y s a f e methods from t h e viewpoint of mosquito p r o d u c t i o n a r e
l o c a l i z e d s p r i n k l e r ( t r i c k l e o r d r i p ) i r r i g a t i o n , mechanized s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n , and subi r r i g a t i o n . I t must be noted t h a t even t h e s e methods can c r e a t e a hazard i f they a r e n o t
properly operated.

5.

Design of i r r i g a t i o n systems

5.1

General remarks on d e s i g n

The d e s i g n of i r r i g a t i o n systems r e q u i r e s a d e t a i l e d and o f t e n s p e c i a l i z e d knowledge of

s i t e c o n d i t i o n s and t h e u s e of complicated techniques. The s u b j e c t i s beyond t h e scope of
t h i s manual and only g e n e r a l remarks a r e o u t l i n e d h e r e f o r t h e understanding of t h e v e c t o r
c o n t r o l worker.
The s u b j e c t of w a t e r s t o r a g e i s d e a l t w i t h i n subchapter I I I A (Impoundments), b u t n o t
a l l i r r i g a t i o n schemes depend on such s t o r e d w a t e r . Many u s e r i v e r w a t e r w i t h o u t impoundment.
The r i v e r w a t e r i s d i v e r t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e main c a n a l by a s i d e o f f - t a k e , a pumping s t a t i o n ,
o r a d i v e r s i o n w e i r b u i l t a c r o s s t h e r i v e r which a t t h e same time ensures a minimum head of
water a t t h e d i v e r s i o n p o i n t . For t h e d e s i g n of such a system i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o have a f u l l
p i c t u r e of t h e p a t t e r n of streamflow and i t s s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s over a long p e r i o d of r e c o r d .

The design of an irrigation system is governed by:

(a) The amount of water available to ensure proper irrigation, which in turn determines the
maximum area that can be irrigated for each particular crop or combination of crops.
(b) The consumptive use of water, that is, the quantity of water the crop needs in order to
grow from the seed to the productive stage, or the plant needs for development and continued
production. Consumptive use also includes the losses by transpiration and evaporation that
take place in the plant and its adjacent space. It is a particular characteristic of each
crop, and is closely related to climatic factors. To provide an indication of the order of
magnitude of the water requirement, Table IIIB-1 lists figures for different crops in areas
around Hyderabad, India.
TABLE IIIB-1. Water requirements for different crops
(From:

Crop

FAO/UNESCO. Irrigation, drainage and salinity. London, 1973, p.235).

Growing
season
Total water requirement* Mean daily water requirement
(number of
days)
m3/ha
inches
m3/ha
inches

Barley
Chilli
COtton
Groundnuts
Jowar (sorghum vulgare) l14
88
Linseed
Maize
Mustard
Oats
Peas
Potatoes
Ragi
Rice
Sugar Cane
Tobacco
Wheat

6500
3200

* Includes water lost in transpiration and by evaporation and seepage. The results are
applicable to areas around Hyderabad, India.
(c) The characteristics of the soil. The depth, permeability, moisture content and chemical
quality of the soil, its capacity to retain moisture, and the water table level all influence
the amount of additional water to be supplied to satisfy the demand for consumptive use and to
prevent a build-up of salts within the crop root zone.
(d) The climate, and particularly the precipitation, temperature, air humidity and wind speed
during the cultivation season are factors determining consumptive use.
(e) The topography of the land which is generally a decisive element in the design of the
irrigation system.
Based on the above considerations, the engineer will decide the method of irrigation to be
adopted, the general layout of the scheme, the type of conveyance preferred, etc. He will
then proceed with the detailed design of the canals, pumping stations if required, roads,
bridges and other auxiliary structures. The final selection between possible alternatives will

depend on their technical advantages and also on their relative economy.

must be financially viable and economically justifiable.

The proposed scheme

For mosquito control, there are certain special aspects which need to be considered in
the design of an irrigation scheme; engineers have seldom given them sufficient attention
in the past, primarily because they did not properly understand the implications. These
special cons iderations are discussed below.
5.2

Special considerations for mosquito control

From the discussion of mosquito problems in irrigation systems (section 4 above) it is

clear that mosquito breeding is associated with poor canal conditions, seepage pools along
canals, and accumulation of water for prolonged periods on irrigated land. Major methods to
prevent and control these situations, which should be given serious consideration by the
engineer, include:
use of a safer irrigation method, such as mechanized or localized sprinkler irrigation,
(a)
if technically feasible and economically justified;
(b)
(c)
(d)

use of closed conduits instead of open canals for water conveyance;

lining of canals;
good alignment of canals and avoidance of sharp curves;

(e) effective canal maintenance to ensure that the canals are in good shape and generally
free from vegetation and silting at all times;
(f)

intermittent irrigation and periodical drying of canals and fields;

(g) canal flushing;

(h)

proper forming and grading of the land to be irrigated; and

(i) good irrigation practices with suitable control to avoid over-irrigation and water
accumulation on irrigated land.
Canal lining (item (c) above) and curves in canals (item (d)) are dealt with in detail
in sections 6 and 7 below, while land grading (item (h)) is the subject of subchapter IIIF.
it is
To facilitate drying of canals and fields (item (f)) and canal flushing (item (g)),
necessary to install gates and siphons at suitable locations in the canal system; some
remarks on this topic are included in section 8 below. Canal flushing as an operation is a
manipulative measure and is dealt with in Chapter IV. As water velocity in the canal is
usually considered a factor influencing mosquito breeding, the method of calculating velocity
in open channels (Manning's formula) and the limitations in velocity manipulation are
explained in section 4 . 2 of Chapter VII.
It is to be noted that good engineering practices in the design, operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes are compatible with mosquito control requirements. The rejection
of a better alternative, which is also safer for mosquito control, e.g., the use of closed
conduits or lining of canals, is normally made on grounds of its higher initial cost. While
the difficulty in raising additional funds for construction should not be underrated, the
cheapest alternative in terms of initial cost may not be the most economical in the long-run.
This fact is often ignored. The economic comparison between unlined and lined canals given
in section 6.5 of this chapter and the comparison between several alternative control methods,
as given in section 2 . 4 of Chapter VII, may serve as examples of how a choice should be made.
The importance of an effective maintenance programme (item (e) above) cannot be overemphasized. To keep the canals and auxiliary structures in good shape is good engineering

55

practice and is at the same time beneficial to mosquito control. Such a programme should be
envisaged during the design phase of the scheme, and should be adequately budgeted for,
appropriately organized, and properly carried out once the scheme is put into operation.
Fig. IIIB-6 illustrates some of the good and bad features often found in irrigation systems.

GOOD

BAD

0-13

landlocked borrow pit

Fig. IIIB-6. Good and bad features often found in irrigation systems.
A training manual for ~aliforniamosquito control
(From:
Mulhern, T.D. (ed.).
agencies. Visalia, CA, California Mosquito Control Association, 1980, Fig. 9 . 3 ) .

6.

Canal l i n i n g

I n i r r i g a t i o n systems, w a t e r l o s s e s can be s o g r e a t under o r d i n a r y o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s

t h a t only about one- third of t h e water d i v e r t e d a t t h e i n t a k e of t h e system i s a c t u a l l y
d e l i v e r e d t o t h e r o o t zone. The o t h e r two- thirds a r e l o s t through low e f f i c i e n c y i n
conveyance and i n a p p l i c a t i o n , and through deep p e r c o l a t i o n .
Both a p p l i c a t i o n and conveyance e f f i c i e n c i e s can be g r e a t l y improved. Water l o s s e s due
t o poor a p p l i c a t i o n c a n be reduced by avoiding o v e r - i r r i g a t i o n l e a d i n g t o excess d r a i n a g e and
p e r c o l a t i o n , by s k i l f u l c a n a l management t o r e g u l a t e proper w a t e r d e l i v e r y and by good onfarm p r a c t i c e s . To p r e v e n t l o s s e s due t o seepage from c a n a l s and l a t e r a l s , w a t e r t i g h t
conveyance s t r u c t u r e s a r e needed.
Closed underground c o n d u i t s have many advantages over open c h a n n e l s , and i n a number of
c o u n t r i e s much u s e has been made of b u r i e d p l a s t i c o r c o n c r e t e p i p e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r small
water d i s c h a r g e s where s i l t i n g i s n o t a major problem, b u t c a n a l l i n i n g remains t h e most
commonly used measure f o r p r e v e n t i n g e x c e s s i v e seepage and f o r o t h e r reasons.
The b e n e f i t s r e s u l t i n g from c a n a l l i n i n g i n c l u d e :
(a) t h e s a v i n g of w a t e r by decreased seepage and conveyance l o s s e s ;
importance where w a t e r i s s c a r c e and d i s t a n t o r has t o be pumped;
(b)

t h i s i s of p a r t i c u l a r

t h e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t deformation and breakage of t h e canal banks;

(c) t h e p r e v e n t i o n o r r e d u c t i o n of c a n a l s c o u r , s i l t d e p o s i t i o n and weed growth, thus

reducing t h e need f o r f r e q u e n t and expensive maintenance;
(d) t h e s a v i n g of l a n d f o r c u l t i v a t i o n by using narrower channels and fewer d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s ,
thus a l s o reducing d r a i n a g e problems;
(e)

t h e s a v i n g i n c o s t r e s u l t i n g from t h e reduced s i z e s of c a n a l s and a u x i l i a r y s t r u c t u r e s ;

( f ) i n c r e a s e d crop production by p r e v e n t i n g waterlogging of t h e s o i l due t o seepage and

p o s s i b l e s a l t accumulation a t t h e p l a n t r o o t zone;
(g) g r e a t e r command of l a n d r e s u l t i n g from f l a t t e r g r a d i e n t s of supply c a n a l s , o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s h o r t e r channels.
From t h e viewpoint of mosquito c o n t r o l , t h e main advantages of canal l i n i n g ( e s p e c i a l l y
l i n i n g w i t h a hard s u r f a c e o r an exposed membrane) a r e :
(a) i t i n c r e a s e s w a t e r v e l o c i t i e s , thus p r e v e n t i n g s t a g n a n t o r s l u g g i s h w a t e r t h a t favours
mosquito breeding;
(b) i t e l i m i n a t e s r o o t e d growth when p r o p e r l y maintained and f a c i l i t a t e s removal of f l o a t i n g
weeds, thus d e p r i v i n g mosquito eggs and l a r v a e of p r o t e c t i o n and s h e l t e r ;
(c) a s seepage i s l e s s , i t reduces t h e need f o r drainage; d r a i n s , which always r e p r e s e n t an
a c t i v e o r p o t e n t i a l danger of mosquito production, can be fewer and f u r t h e r a p a r t .
The r e p e a t e d l y expressed view t h a t l i n e d c a n a l s a r e t o o expensive i s u s u a l l y based on
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of i n i t i a l c o s t alone. An a n a l y s i s , p r o p e r l y c a r r i e d out and t a k i n g i n t o f u l l
account t h e v a r i o u s b e n e f i t s l i s t e d above, may w e l l prove t h a t canal l i n i n g i s more economical
( s e e example i n s e c t i o n 6.5 below). Even i n terms of i n i t i a l c o s t s , l i n e d c a n a l s should b e
r a t h e r competitive i n new i r r i g a t i o n systems when t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n work i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n
t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n and i s o f f s e t by reduced excavation and o t h e r c o s t s . Canal c r o s s - s e c t i o n s
and a u x i l i a r y s t r u c t u r e s can i n many c a s e s b e made s m a l l e r s i n c e t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t i e s
r e q u i r e d a r e reduced (seepage l o s s b e i n g l e s s ) and h i g h e r flow v e l o c i t i e s may b e p o s s i b l e .

In e x i s t i n g c a n a l systems, l i n i n g w i l l be an a d d i t i o n a l c o s t ; c o n s i d e r a t i o n should t h e n be
given t o p o s s i b l e advantages from t h e i r r e l o c a t i o n , a s i t may b e l e s s expensive t o d i g a new
d i t c h than t o p r e p a r e a n o l d one f o r l i n i n g . I n t h a t c a s e , p r o v i s i o n must be made f o r t r e a t ment of t h e o l d d i t c h by f i l l i n g , d r a i n i n g , o r otherwise modifying i t s o t h a t i t does n o t
p r e s e n t a mosquito problem.
Canal l i n i n g s a r e of s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t types.
s e c t ions.

These a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e following

(Adapted from:
McJunkin, F.E.
Water, e n g i n e e r s ,
development, and
disease i n the
t r o p i c s , Washington,
DC. United S t a t e s
Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development,
1975).
F i g . IIIB-7.

6.1

Typical s e c t i o n of c o n c r e t e canal l i n i n g .

Paved o r hard s u r f a c e

The m a t e r i a l s most used f o r t h i s t y p e of l i n i n g a r e P o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e , a s p h a l t

c o n c r e t e , s t o n e and b r i c k ( s e e F i g . IIIB- 7). When p r o p e r l y c o n s t r u c t e d and maintained, a
paved hard s u r f a c e l i n i n g embodies more d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s than any o t h e r type. I n a d d i t i o n
t o c o n t r o l l i n g seepage, i t permits v e l o c i t i e s conducive t o minimum sedimentation w i t h o u t
s c o u r i n g and a f f o r d s maximum o b s t r u c t i o n t o weed growth. Furthermore, i t i s d u r a b l e and
r e s i s t a n t t o mechanical impact. P o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e l i n i n g can be made i n s i t u o r can
t a k e t h e form of p r e c a s t s l a b s o r p a n e l s . The l a t t e r method i s widely a p p l i e d because i t i s
r a p i d , simple and r e q u i r e s t h e minimum of equipment. Asphalt c o n c r e t e , where p r o p e r l y used,
can produce l i n i n g s comparable i n many a s p e c t s w i t h t h o s e of P o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e .
However, t h e expected s e r v i c e l i f e may be s h o r t e r and t h e subgrade s o i l may have t o be t r e a t e d
t o prevent p l a n t s and weeds p i e r c i n g t h e l i n i n g . The choice between P o r t l a n d cement and
a s p h a l t c o n c r e t e w i l l depend on p r i c e d i f f e r e n c e s and t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of l o c a l m a t e r i a l s f o r
use a s a g g r e g a t e s .
Linings of b r i c k and s t o n e masonry a r e a d v i s a b l e only where t h e c o s t of l a b o u r i s low
and where t h e r e i s abundance of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s i n t h e l o c a l i t y .
6.2
6.2.1

Membranes

( s e e Fig.

IIIB-8).

Exposed membrane

I n p r i n c i p l e , a l i n i n g should be s o f l e x i b l e t h a t
t h e subgrade w i t h o u t b r e a k i n g , c r a c k i n g , o r ceasing t o
l i n i n g should be reasonably r e s i s t a n t t o d e t e r i o r a t i o n
and mechanical rubbing o r impact. Among t h e m a t e r i a l s
meet t h e s e requirements, t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y a r e :

i t can adapt t o small s e t t l e m e n t s i n

be w a t e r t i g h t . A t t h e same time, t h e
from weathering, changing p r e s s u r e s ,
t h a t have been t e s t e d and shown t o

(a) P r e f a b r i c a t e d planks of heavy a s p h a l t sandwiched between two t h i n l a y e r s of a s p h a l t s a t u r a t e d f e l t s . Channels of uniform c r o s s - s e c t i o n a r e most s u i t a b l e f o r t h i s l i n i n g ,

provided t h a t good alignment i s maintained throughout.
(b) P r e f a b r i c a t e d a s p h a l t - c o a t e d j u t e s h e e t i n g , which i s , however, l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r y than
t h e t h i c k e r a s p h a l t i c f e l t plank type. It d e t e r i o r a t e s more r a p i d l y and i s l e s s r e s i s t a n t
t o nechanical damage.

-%4

Fig. IIIB- 8.

@
@
@

fine- textured cushion

Mmbrone
Fine- textured corer

Typical s e c t i o n of c a n a l showing two types of membrane.

Water, e n g i n e e r s , development,
(Adapted from: EZcJunkin, F.E.
and d i s e a s e i n t h e t r o p i c s , Washington, DC. United S t a t e s
Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, 1975).

(c) Butyl rubber s h e e t i n g , which i s t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y l i n i n g m a t e r i a l f o r exposed

membranes, i s s u p p l i e d w i t h o r w i t h o u t f a b r i c r e i n f o r c i n g . Thinner nylon- reinforced s h e e t i n g
i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e . Butyl l i n i n g s a r e w a t e r t i g h t and age very slowly.
The exposed membrane l i n i n g s have about t h e same roughness c o e f f i c i e n t a s c o n c r e t e
l i n i n g s . The maximum p e r m i s s i b l e v e l o c i t y i s estimated t o be 0.9 m/s. This type of l i n i n g
r e q u i r e s more c a r e i n removing sediment than t h e hard- surface type. These l i n i n g s a r e a l s o
s u b j e c t t o a degree of damage by l i v e s t o c k and should be p r o t e c t e d from heavy animal t r a f f i c .
I f s i l t d e p o s i t s remain f o r extended p e r i o d s , weeds w i l l grow i n t h e exposed and shallow
p o r t i o n s and may puncture t h e l i n i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f i t i s of t h e a s p h a l t type. Subgrade
s t e r i l i z a t i o n p r i o r t o i n s t a l l a t i o n w i l l p r o t e c t a g a i n s t v e g e t a t i o n e r u p t i n g through t h e
lining.

6.2.2

Covered membrane

This type of l i n i n g i s very e f f e c t i , v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g seepage and, because i t i s l e s s

expensive t h a n o t h e r l i n i n g s , i t s use h& extended i n r e c e n t y e a r s . The membrane may c o n s i s t
of any w a t e r t i g h t m a t e r i a l t h a t h a s a long l i f e i n t h e s o i l .
(a) Earth membrane. Bentonite o r o t h e r impervious s o i l s a r e used i n t h i s type. Very l i t t l e
p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e subgrade i s r e q u i r e d , b u t t h e canal must be shaped t o proper alignment and
grade.
(b)

Covered a s p h a l t membrane.

This i s a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t development i n l i n i n g techniques.

It c o n s i s t s of a t h i n l a y e r of a s p h a l t sprayed on t h e prepared subgrade of t h e c a n a l , a cover

of f i n e t e x t u r e e a r t h , and a l a y e r of g r a v e l on top.

(c) P l a s t i c f i l m and rubber s h e e t i n g . I n t h i s type of covered membrane l i n i n g , t h e a s p h a l t

l a y e r i s r e p l a c e d by a f i l m of p o l y v i n y l o r p o l y e t h y l e n e , o r rubber s h e e t i n g a s used i n t h e
exposed membrane l i n i n g . Both t h e f i l m and t h e s h e e t i n g a r e more n e a r l y w a t e r t i g h t and r e s i s t a n t t o puncture by v e g e t a t i o n than t h e a s p h a l t membrane, b u t s t e r i l i z a t i o n of t h e subgrade i s
s t i l l considered a d v i s a b l e . Butyl rubber s h e e t i n g , which i s used f o r exposed membrane l i n i n g s ,
i s a l s o s u i t a b l e f o r b u r i e d membrane l i n i n g . However, i t i s more expensive than t h e p l a s t i c
f i l m because i t has t o be t h i c k e r . Nylon- reinforced b u t y l s h e e t i n g , which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
s u i t a b l e where i n t e r n a l s t r e s s may develop, must n o t be l e s s than 0.8 mm t h i c k t o a f f o r d
s u f f i c i e n t p r o t e c t i o n t o t h e nylon mesh.
I n covered membrane l i n i n g s , t h e cover m a t e r i a l s a r e almost a s e r o d a b l e a s t h e u n t r e a t e d
e a r t h i n u n l i n e d c a n a l s , and t h e s u r f a c e has about t h e same roughness and t o l e r a t e s t h e same
maximum flow v e l o c i t y a s t h a t of unlined c a n a l s . Weeds may grow on t h e e a r t h cover, reducing
t h e method's e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n mosquito c o n t r o l .

6.3

Compacted e a r t h

Where s u i t a b l e e a r t h m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e a t o r n e a r t h e s i t e of c o n s t r u c t i o n , a l i n i n g
of t h i c k compacted e a r t h may be an economical and e f f e c t i v e means of c o n t r o l l i n g seepage ( s e e
Fig. IIIB- 9). Gravelly and sandy c l a y s w i t h p l a s t i c i t y indices:
between 21 and 24 a r e t h e
b e s t s o i l s . M a t e r i a l s w i t h a h i g h index a r e d i f f i c u l t t o work and tend t o be u n s t a b l e . Those
w i t h a lower index have l e s s r e s i s t a n c e t o s c o u r and i n cold c l i m a t e s a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o f r o s t
damage.

\~o&ctod

Fig. IIIB- 9.

w r t h lining

Typical s e c t i o n of t h i c k compacted e a r t h l i n i n g .
(Adapted from: McJunkin, F.E.
Water, e n g i n e e r s , development,
and d i s e a s e i n t h e t r o p i c s , Washington, DC. United S t a t e s Agency
f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, 1975).

A t h i c k compacted e a r t h l i n i n g i s c o n s t r u c t e d by spreading s e l e c t e d e a r t h m a t e r i a l s i n
l a y e r s , 0.15 m t h i c k , and compacting each l a y e r with a smooth r o l l e r . This m a t e r i a l should
have a moisture c o n t e n t which w i l l allow maximum compaction. The subgrade of t h e c a n a l b e f o r e
t h e l i n i n g cover i s a p p l i e d , should be over- excavated t o accommodate t h e t h i c k l a y e r of e a r t h
and t h e s i d e s l o p e s should be such ( u s u a l l y 2 : l ) t h a t s c o u r i n g i s r e s i s t e d . The e f f e c t i v e
t h i c k n e s s of t h e l i n i n g v a r i e s from 1.10 m f o r l a r g e r c a n a l s t o a minimum t h i c k n e s s of 0.3 m
f o r very small c a n a l s .

- P l a s t i c i t y index

= t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n w a t e r c o n t e n t a s percentage of dry weight

a t t h e l i q u i d l i m i t and p l a s t i c l i m i t of a s o i l .

The r e d u c t i o n of seepage l o s s depends on t h e impermeability of t h e m a t e r i a l , which can be

improved by blending i t w i t h fine- grained c l a y s and s i l t s o r by adding a s p h a l t o r P o r t l a n d
cement (soil- cement) which a l s o i n c r e a s e s r e s i s t a n c e t o scouring. However, r e g a r d l e s s of t h e
w a t e r - t r a n s m i t t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e a r t h m a t e r i a l , a g r e a t improvement i s achieved by
proper and thorough compaction.
Water v e l o c i t i e s i n c a n a l s w i t h any t y p e of e a r t h l i n i n g must n o t exceed t h e limit t h a t
causes e r o s i o n . This p e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t depends on t h e n a t u r e of t h e m a t e r i a l and i s u s u a l l y
l e s s t h a n 0.9 m/s. Even t h e n , s c o u r i n g may t a k e p l a c e i n bends and below s t r u c t u r e s , and a
topping of g r a v e l o r rock must be l a i d i n such c r i t i c a l a r e a s ; t h e g e n e r a l i z e d u s e of t h i s
topping w i l l reduce t h e need f o r f r e q u e n t maintenance. Like covered membrane l i n i n g s ,
compacted e a r t h l i n i n g s have about t h e same smoothness a s u n l i n e d c a n a l s , and hence have no
h y d r a u l i c advantage over them w i t h r e s p e c t t o c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y . They w i l l n o t c o n t r o l
v e g e t a t i o n growth a s e f f e c t i v e l y a s a paved o r h a r d s u r f a c e l i n i n g .
As t h e volume of e a r t h m a t e r i a l t o be excavated, conveyed, spread and compacted i s l a r g e ,
heavy equipment i s unavoidable i f compacted e a r t h l i n i n g i s t o be c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h o t h e r types
i n c o s t and speed of a p p l i c a t i o n .
6.4

Earth and chemical s e a l a n t s

For a long time i t has been known t h a t i n n a t u r a l courses and c a n a l s c a r r y i n g muddy w a t e r ,

leakage, e r o s i o n and waterweed growth a r e reduced. Attempts have been made t o i m i t a t e t h i s
process by s l u i c i n g f i n e - g r a i n e d m a t e r i a l i n t o c a n a l s , b u t t h e degree of seepage c o n t r o l
o b t a i n e d was t o o s l i g h t t o j u s t i f y t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h i s p r a c t i c e .
The i d e a of a waterborne s e a l a n t and channel s t a b i l i z e r was too a t t r a c t i v e t o be abandoned, b u t t h e many m a t e r i a l s and methods t h a t have been t e s t e d have met w i t h only p a r t i a l
s u c c e s s . Waxes, a s p h a l t s , r e s i n s , l i g n i n s and polymers have been t e s t e d a s chemical s e a l a n t s .
Prepared i n emulsion form and r e l e a s e d i n t h e w a t e r , they flow down t h e channel, s e t t l e on
t h e p e r i m e t e r and u l t i m a t e l y p e r c o l a t e i n t o t h e s o i l . T r i a l s show, however, t h a t t h e s e a l a n t
i s h e l d on t h e s u r f a c e where i t i s e a s i l y damaged. What i s needed i s a s e a l a n t t h a t penet r a t e s t h e s o i l b u t n o t deeper t h a n 15 t o 20 cm, s o t h a t i t c o n c e n t r a t e s where i t i s needed
w i t h o u t being exposed t o damage. Claims have been made t h a t s e a l a n t s have reduced seepage
l o s s e s by 60 %. Even i f t h i s i s s o , t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s n o t l o n g - l a s t i n g and they have t o
be a p p l i e d a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s ; b u t i f t h e t r e a t m e n t i s inexpensive enough, p e r i o d i c a p p l i c a t i o n s may compensate f o r short- term e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
6.5

S e r v i c e l i f e and comparative c o s t s

Experience has shown t h a t paved o r h a r d s u r f a c e l i n i n g s may l a s t i n d e f i n i t e l y w i t h t h e

minimum of maintenance. Stone, b r i c k and c o n c r e t e revetments of l a r g e r i v e r s i n European
c i t i e s and of small channels i n t r o p i c a l r u r a l a r e a s , b u i l t a t t h e beginning of t h i s c e n t u r y
o r even e a r l i e r , a r e s t i l l s e r v i c e a b l e . Therefore a c o n s e r v a t i v e f i g u r e f o r t h e s e r v i c e l i f e
of hard s u r f a c e l i n i n g s , f o r use i n e s t i m a t i n g d e p r e c i a t i o n , would b e 50 y e a r s .
Soil- cement l i n i n g s a r e supposed t o be s t i l l s e r v i c e a b l e a f t e r 10 y e a r s of use. The
assumption has been proved c o r r e c t i n c a s e s where c r a c k i n g , s c a l i n g and o t h e r s u r f a c e
d e t e r i o r a t i o n s have been immediately r e p a i r e d .
Membrane l i n i n g s a r e more a f f e c t e d by weather f a c t o r s than o t h e r types of l i n i n g s . I n
g e n e r a l , t h e l i f e expectancy of membranes i s between 5 and 10 y e a r s . Linings t h a t depend on
s e a l a n t s and compacted e a r t h a r e considered t o l a s t even l e s s w e l l t h a n membrane l i n i n g s .

carried
The comparative cost of different linings was an element in a research
out in 1970 by the Government of India with FAO assistance. From information produced by
this project, it may be concluded that the construction cost per unit length of a lined canal,
compared with that of a similar unlined canal, is about 8 to 9 times higher, for brick and
concrete linings; about 3.5 to 4.5 times higher, for soil-cement linings; and about 2.5 to
3.5 times higher, for clay and bitumen compaction.
b
In an FAO publication- an illustrated example of cost analysis for an unlined and a
lined canal of equal water-carrying capacity (28.3 m3 /S) is presented. A short resum6 follows.
The comparative cross sections of the unlined and the lined canals are shownin
Fig. IIIB-10.

Fig. IIIB-10. Comparative cross sections of an unlined and a concrete-lined

b
canal (in metres). (From: FAO publication-)
The hydraulics of the two sections are determined according to the following assumptions and
criteria:
Unlined canal
Lined canal
Permissible velocity

0.5 m/s

1.5 m/s

Bank slopes

2:l

1.5:l

Seepage loss

0.46 m3 /m2/day

0.015 m3/m2/day

Land area 10st

0 .0225
2
47 m /m of canal

0.013
2
31 m /m of canal

Annual maintenance cost

$1.15/m

$0.50/m

Coefficient of roughness, E (Manning)

a
-Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Soil survey and soil and water
management research and demonstration in the Rajasthan Canal area, India: Investigations in
soil and water manaeement. Rome. 19/1 (un~ublisheddocument AGL:SF/IND 24. Technical kr1ort2).
b
- Kratz, D.B. Irrigation canal lining. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, 1977 (Land and Water Development Series, No. 1).

F a c t o r s common t o t h e two c a n a l s :
Maximum w a t e r depth

3.10 m

Top width of banks

4.25 m

Available s l o p e

0.0002

Cost o f excavation

$0.65/m

Value of w a t e r

$0. 33/ioom3

Annual i n t e r e s t r a t e

5 %

Annual right- of-way c o s t

$180/ha

Equivalent time of o p e r a t i o n s

6 months continuous f u l l flow

Data p e r t i n e n t t o t h e l i n e d canal:
l i n i n g material

Portland cement c o n c r e t e l i n i n g , unreinforced

thicknes S

7.6 cm

service l i f e

40 y e a r s

cost

$4.30/m2

Based on t h e t e c h n i c a l c r i t e r i a , t h e h y d r a u l i c computations g i v e t h e following r e s u l t s :

Unlined canal
62 m

Cross- sectional a r e a
bed width
water depth
Wetted p e r i m e t e r

Hydraulic g r a d i e n t

Excavation
27.5

12.7

4.3 m

3.1 m

2.5 m

27.5 m

13.2 m

0.000036

Freeboard

20.2 m

13.7 m

2.26 m

Hydraulic r a d i u s

Seepage l o s s

Lined canal

15.3 m
0.000036

0.9 m
1.05 m
3
38.0 m3 /m
17.3 m /m
2
3
13.2 X 0.15 = 0.2 m /m/day
0.46 = 12.7 m /m/day
180 = 2300 m3 /m/season 0.2 X 180 = 36 m3 /m/season

63

C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e annual c o s t p e r metre i s given below:

Unlined c a n a l
(a)

Lined c a n a l

Capital cost:
3

excavation
concrete l i n i n g

38 m

interest

k(24.7

a t $0.65

= $24.70

0.05)

= $ 0.62

d e p r e c i a t i o n of
lining
(b)

Value of l o s t
water /year

2300 m

a t $0.33/100 m

= $ 7.60

= $ 1.15

(c)

Maintenance

(d)

Right-of-way c o s t 180

47/10000

= $ 0.85

$10.22
Annual saving p e r metre of l i n e d c a n a l

7.

= $ 5.46

Curves i n c a n a l s

Canals w i t h bad alignments r a p i d l y d e t e r i o r a t e through e r o s i o n and s i l t i n g . To reduce

t h e need f o r channel maintenance, c a n a l s should, where p o s s i b l e , have long s t r a i g h t reaches
and l a r g e r a d i u s curves t h a t allow a s t r e a m l i n e flow. Table IIIB- 2 g i v e s d a t a on curves f o r
canals and Fig. I I I B - 1 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e elements r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e Table.
Table IIIB- 2.

Minimum r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e f o r c a n a l s i n s t a b l e s o i l
w i t h o u t bank p r o t e c t i o n .

Type of c a n a l and
width a t water s u r f a c e

F a l l o r gradient
ft/mile
per cent

Minimum r a d i u s
m
ft

Degree of curve
metric
English

90

300

13O

1go

120

400

1o0

14O

150

500

8'

11

........................................................................................

180

600

7O

10

< 0.02

180

600

7O

l 0

240

800

5O

7O

Small
< 4 . 5 m (15 f t )
Medium
4.5 t o 10 m (15 t o 35 f t )
Large
> 10 m (35 f t )

< 0.02

0.02 t o 0.04
< 0.02

0.02 t o 0.04

0.02 t o 0.04

<3

3 to 6
<3

3 to 6
<3

3 to 6

chord

20 m

100 f t

Chord C = 20 m

Dearee of curve

Centre
of curve

l-

Fig. IIIB-11.

8.

Top width

Radius of curvature, degree of curve and top width of canals.

Gates and siphons

In many places it has been proved that channel flushing and, to a certain extent, channel
drying have a good effect on reducing mosquito populations. These measures need certain
permanent structures for their proper application(see Chapter IV, section 5, stream flushing).
The normal operation of an irrigation system requires the installation of gates at
convenient sites to regulate the distribution of water to the various sectors of the system.
These gates are usually located at the head of secondary and tertiary canals. If canal flushing and drying are to be restricted to smaller portions of the system so as to interfere less
with operations, the installation of more gates or the construction of weirs provided with
self-priming siphons are required. It may not be generally necessary to introduce this
practice into the routine operation of the system, but it should be considered when and where
an increase in the mosquito population indicates the need for such measures. There will, of
course, be situations where the intensive use of irrigation water will make it impracticable
to interrupt the flow for the period required for drying mosquito eggs and larvae, even within
a small portion of the system.

I11C.

NATURAL STREAMS

Contents
Page

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

1.

.............................
Reinforcement of the banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deepening of a central channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diversion of peak flow through floodways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Channel straightening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction.

65
65

66

68
68

Introduction

The crooked meandering course of rivers and streams in flood plains results from slow
but continuous changes produced by silt deposits while under normal flow, and bank erosion
during periods of high flow and occasional flooding. This is a natural phenomenon frequent in
rivers and would not be of importance to mosquito control if it were not for the formation of
backwater pools, marginal pockets and isolated seepage ponds that are suitable habitats for
mosquito breeding. To prevent mosquito production and consequent disease transmission, the
channel of natural streams needs to be corrected in those sections where these conditions occur
and where the distance to human dwellings is within the flight range of the local mosquito
vector (see Annex 1).
2.

Reinforcement of the banks

To eliminate backwater pools and marginal pockets, the eroded or fallen stream banks will
have to be rebuilt in alignment with the unaltered banks. This work may require the construction of levees which will also give flood protection and prevent the formation of swamps by
water overflowing to low-lying areas (see Fig. IIIC-1).

Fig. IIIC-1. Locations of mosquito breeding n rivers and other natural streams.

Where s t o n e s a r e abundant, t h e l e v e e s can be advantageously r e p l a c e d w i t h b a r r i e r s made

of l o o s e rocks, c o b b l e s , e t c . , encased w i t h i n w i r e mesh. These c a s i n g s , known a s gabions,
a r e made by s e t t i n g on t h e s i t e a long and r e l a t i v e l y narrow s t r i p of wire-mesh w i t h t h e edges
upturned t o form a long, r e c t a n g u l a r b a s k e t t h a t i s f i l l e d w i t h s t o n e s . Wire c r o s s - t i e s keep
t h e v e r t i c a l s i d e s i n shape and prevent deformation caused by t h e weight of t h e s t o n e s .
Another s t r i p of w i r e mesh i s t i e d on t h e t o p , when t h e basket i s f u l l , t h u s completing t h e
casing.
The galvanized s t e e l w i r e mesh commonly used f o r t h e s e gabions i s 3.2 t o 6.3 mm i n
diameter w i t h 7 . 5 t o 10 cm spacing. The usual shape of t h e c a s i n g i s p r i s m a t i c from 1 t o 2 m
wide, 1 t o 1 . 5 m h i g h , and 10 m o r more long. The gabions a r e s e t i n a s i n g l e o r double l i n e
t o form t h e b a r r i e r . They a r e g e n e r a l l y l a i d a g a i n s t t h e n a t u r a l banks of t h e r i v e r b u t they
can a l s o b e designed a s a g r a v i t y s t r u c t u r e t o s t a n d f r e e i n t h o s e s e c t i o n s where t h e banks
a r e completely d e s t r o y e d . F i g . IIIC-2 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e use of gabions.

Fig. IIIC- 2.

Gabions placed t o p r o t e c t a r i v e r bank and t o r e p l a c e

a demolished embankment.

The gabion can stand t h e water f o r c e a s w e l l a s a s o l i d l e v e e . It permits t h e passage of

w a t e r and allows t h e s e t t l i n g of c o a r s e sediment t h a t f i l l s t h e spaces between t h e rocks.
Sediment t h a t p a s s e s through a new gabion l e v e e p a r t l y s e t t l e s a g a i n s t t h e o u t e r f a c e and
g r a d u a l l y b u i l d s up a n a t u r a l f i l l on t h a t s i d e . The b e s t time f o r e r e c t i n g gabions i s
immediately a f t e r t h e f l o o d season when t h e water has gone back t o i t s normal flow. Then
t h e r e w i l l b e a long time d u r i n g which sediment w i l l accumulate a s t h e slower b u t s t i l l
h e a v i l y s i l t e d w a t e r passes through t h e gabion w a l l . When t h e n e x t f l o o d i n g p e r i o d o c c u r s ,
much of t h e sediment w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n s o l i d a t e d t o w i t h s t a n d t h e a c t i o n of t h e peak
flow.
One of t h e major advantages of gabions over s o l i d revetments, l e v e e s o r r e t a i n i n g w a l l s
i s t h e i r f l e x i b i l i t y . They can a d a p t b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r types of embankment o r d i k e t o s u b s i dence of t h e ground and r e s u l t i n g d i s t o r t i o n without c r a c k i n g , tumbling o r crumbling. The
r e p a i r and replacement of gabions can be r e a d i l y c a r r i e d out by l o c a l l a b o u r e r s .
3.

Deepening of a c e n t r a l channel

Where t h e s i l t d e p o s i t on t h e stream bed i s i r r e g u l a r , mainly a s a r e s u l t of an o b s t a c l e

i n t h e c o u r s e (such a s a rock o u t c r o p , g r a v e l and sand b a r , o r accumulation of d e b r i s ) , t h e
h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e channel can be improved by c o r r e c t i n g t h e g r a d i e n t .
I n meandering courses exposed t o heavy t o r r e n t i a l flows, i t o f t e n happens t h a t t h e
r u s h i n g water s c o u r s t h e concave s i d e of a bend and a sand bank i s b u i l t up on t h e convex
s i d e . Thus t h e l i n e of maximum channel depth does n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e c e n t r e l i n e , b u t
moves from one s i d e t o t h e o t h e r . This e r r a t i c course of t h e g r e a t e s t depth l i n e , b e s i d e s
extending t h e l e n g t h of t h e s t r e a m d u r i n g normal flow, d i s t o r t s t h e shape of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n
and reduces t h e w a t e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e channel. Fig. IIIC- 3 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s f e a t u r e .

Line of maximum depth

Centre-line of channel

,Scour

Original cross-section
cross-sect ion

F i g . IIIC- 3.

Section through

WHO 81 1066

A-A

D i s t o r t i o n of t h e channel bed of a meandering stream

caused by t o r r e n t i a l flows.

The realignment of t h e maximum depth l i n e and t h e s t r a i g h t e n i n g of t h e g r a d i e n t can be

c a r r i e d o u t by dredging t h e bed m a t e r i a l u s i n g mechanical d r e d g e r s , power s h o v e l s , d r a g l i n e
bucket e x c a v a t o r s , o r h y d r a u l i c dredgers of t h e sand-pump type.
I f t h e dredgin g of t h e channel i s combined w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e banks, whether
by l e v e e s o r gabions, t h e dredged m a t e r i a l can be disposed of by b u i l d i n g up t h e l e v e e s o r
p i l i n g i t a g a i n s t t h e l a n d s i d e f a c e of t h e gabions.
I n t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n of channel c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by r e g r a d i n g o r s t r a i g h t e n i n g ( s e e s e c t i o n
5 below), t h e r e i s a need t o m a i n t a i n an energy b a l a n c e , u s u a l l y by i n c o r p o r a t i n g c o n t r o l
s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e form of w e i r s o r drops. Otherwise, scour and d e p o s i t of sediment w i l l
r e i n s t a t e t h e o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i o n s , o r cause s i m i l a r e f f e c t s i n a d j a c e n t r e a c h e s .
Streams w i t h p e r i o d s of v e r y low flow p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of d r a i n a g e
d i t c h e s a s regards mosquito production. Mosquito b r e e d i n g i n s t r e t c h e s of t h e stream i n t h e
v i c i n i t y of human h a b i t a t i o n s can b e reduced o r prevented by l i n i n g such s t r e t c h e s w i t h
c o n c r e t e i n v e r t s , a s d e s c r i b e d i n subchapter I I I D , s e c t i o n 6.

4.

Diversion of peak flow through floodways

Developed a r e a s can b e p r o t e c t e d from f l o o d damage, w i t h o u t modifying t h e n a t u r a l r i v e r

c o u r s e s , by p r o v i d i n g an a d d i t i o n a l water course.
A t a c e r t a i n p o i n t of t h e course, p r e f e r a b l y b e f o r e reaching t h e f l o o d p l a i n , an a u x i l i a r y
channel i s c o n s t r u c t e d t o s e r v e a s a floodway. This channel r e c e i v e s only t h a t p a r t of t h e
f l o o d w a t e r which s p i l l s over a l a t e r a l w e i r i n t o t h e floodway when t h e w a t e r l e v e l i n t h e
r i v e r i s s u f f i c i e n t l y high. Water i n t h e a u x i l i a r y channel flows d i r e c t l y t o a p o i n t of t h e
r i v e r downstream of t h e a r e a t o be p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e f l o o d . The channel should have ample
c a p a c i t y t o c a r r y t h e maximum f l o o d d i s c h a r g e r a t e expected.

The r i s k of mosquito production i n t h e floodway channel a r i s e s during t h e d r y season when

i t i s o u t o f s e r v i c e b u t may i n t e r c e p t n a t u r a l t r i b u t a r y d r a i n a g e throughout i t s c o u r s e . The
t o t a l flow of t h e s e t r i b u t a r i e s may n o t be enough t o f l u s h o u t small d e p r e s s i o n s i n t h e
channel. I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e l i n i n g of t h e floodway bed w i t h c o n c r e t e i n v e r t s i s i n d i c a t e d .
F i g . I I I C - 4 shows an example of a floodway channel.

In this example,
both ecology and
development have
been served. Most of
the time, all flow is
through the deeper
but constricted
natural channel, thus
preserving the river
ecology. During
floods, the overflow
passes through the
new channel, thereby
avoiding flooding of
adjacent lands
and making them
developable.

"
New

TYPICAL PLAN

WHO 811067

Existing
Original ground,

SECTION A - A

New floodway

Distance
vanes

Existing

Flood'iaga

Normal flow

SECTION

Fig. I I I C - 4 .

5.

B- B

Example of a floodway channel t o r e l i e v e a n a t u r a l stream

from flood w a t e r s .

Channel s t r a i g h t e n i n g

I f t h e stream banks a r e p r o p e r l y a l i g n e d and strengthened t o form a r e g u l a r and confined

channel, and i f t h e bed i s p r o p e r l y shaped and p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r floodways, then t h e need
f o r channel s t r a i g h t e n i n g a s a measure f o r mosquito c o n t r o l w i l l seldom a r i s e . I t may happen
however t h a t channel s t r a i g h t e n i n g i s t h e only way t o produce t h e necessary w a t e r v e l o c i t y t o
prevent t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n of t h e s n a i l h o s t s of s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s .

Before such a n e n t e r p r i s e , which can b e expensive and o b j e c t i o n a b l e from t h e viewpoint of

e c o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e , i s attempted, c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n should be p a i d t o a l l t h e consequences.

An obvious one i s t h e problem produced by t h e c u t - o f f r i v e r bends. R a i n f a l l and seepage w a t e r

w i l l b e t r a p p e d i n t h e s e unused r i v e r p o r t i o n s and t h e mosquito problem w i l l be worse u n l e s s
they a r e f i l l e d and g r a d e d , which i s n o t a minor t a s k . The e n g i n e e r s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e ,
e x e r c i s e judgement and d e c i d e where and when channel s t r a i g h t e n i n g i s d e s i r a b l e .

IIID

DRAINAGE FOR AGRICULTURE AND LAND RECLAMATION

Contents
Page

1
2

..............................
Types of conveyance s t r u c t u r e s f o r d r a i n a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 O p e n d i t c h e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Buried o r underground d r a i n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 F r e n c h d r a i n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2
Buriedconduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 M o l e d r a i n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typesofdrainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Surf ace d r a i n a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2
Layout f o r s u r f a c e drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 I n t e r c e p t o r d i t c h e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Subsurface d r a i n a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2
Layout f o r s u b s u r f a c e drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3
I n t e r c e p t o r and r e l i e f d r a i n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . 3 Combined s u r f a c e and subsurface d r a i n a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Drainage by pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 V e r t i c a l d r a i n a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mosquito problems i n d r a i n a g e systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design of d r a i n a g e systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 . 1 General remarks on d e s i g n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 S p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r mosquito c o n t r o l . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lining of d i t c h e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction

70
71
71
71
71
72
72
72
72
72
72
75
75
75
76
76
78
79
79
80
80
80
81
81

Introduction

Drainage i s t h e removal o r e l i m i n a t i o n of unwanted water on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground o r

I t may b e unwanted because of harm t o p l a n t growth. damage
i n t h e upper l a y e r s of t h e s o i l
The accumulation of s u r p l u s water t h a t h a s t o b e d r a i n e d
to structures. or other objects
r e s u l t s from a combination of c l i m a t i c . h y d r o l o g i c a l . topographical and s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
as w e l l a s from i r r i g a t i o n and o t h e r l a n d use p r a c t i c e s

.
.

I n humid a r e a s . d r a i n a g e i s mainly r e q u i r e d f o r t h e removal of excess r a i n w a t e r t h a t

e i t h e r s a t u r a t e s t h e t o p s o i l and c o l l e c t s i n f l a t low- lying a r e a s and land d e p r e s s i o n s . o r

runs i n t o streams and r i v e r s t o overflow and i n u n d a t e t h e a d j a c e n t l a n d s .

I n a r i d and semi- arid a r e a s , d r a i n a g e i s mainly r e q u i r e d f o r t h e removal of t h e excess
of i r r i g a t i o n water i n c a n a l s , remaining on t h e s u r f a c e of c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s o r s e e p i n g i n t o
t h e s o i l . Underground w a t e r (flowing from d i s t a n t uplands) may r i s e t o t h e s u r f a c e and appear
i n swamps, marshes, e t c . which need drainage. Drainage problems may a l s o be caused by floodw a t e r . Floods may have s e r i o u s r e p e r c u s s i o n s i n l o s s of l i v e s and p r o p e r t y . Drainage systems
may be destroyed by f l o o d s u n l e s s p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r t h e d i s p o s a l of f l o o d w a t e r s . I n
a r e a s f r e q u e n t l y exposed t o f l o o d i n g , t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e d r a i n a g e system must b e s u f f i c i e n t
t o accommodate n o t only t h e s u r p l u s of i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r and t h e run o f f produced by normal
r a i n storms b u t a l s o t h e f l o o d waters.
Mosquito production i s g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e absence of d r a i n a g e systems o r t h e i r
inadequacy t o cope w i t h h i g h i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l o r w i t h excess water r e s u l t i n g from overi r r i g a t i o n , marsh expansion o r inundations.
2.

Types of conveyance s t r u c t u r e s f o r d r a i n a g e

2.1

Open d i t c h e s

Although t h e purpose of t h e drainage d i t c h i s t h e o p p o s i t e of t h a t of t h e i r r i g a t i o n

c a n a l , p h y s i c a l l y and h y d r a u l i c a l l y they a r e s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e s . I n g e n e r a l , what has been
s a i d of open c a n a l s i n s u b c h a p t e r I I I B i s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o open d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s . The
main d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h e p a t t e r n of waterflow. I n g e n e r a l , t h e waterflow i n d r a i n a g e
d i t c h e s i s l e s s uniform and c o n s t a n t t h a n i n i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s . Their u s u a l l y n e g l e c t e d
s t a t e of maintenance, w i t h choking v e g e t a t i o n and pools of s t a g n a n t w a t e r , makes t h e waterflow
even more e r r a t i c and more favourable f o r mosquito breeding. I n such circumstances t h e
problem of s i l t i n g i s more s e r i o u s t h a n t h a t of scouring.
2.2
2.2.1

Buried o r underground d r a i n s
French d r a i n s

French d r a i n s a r e t r e n c h e s h a l f f i l l e d w i t h m a t e r i a l s , such a s r o c k , r u b b l e , g r a v e l and

c o a r s e sand, t h a t p r e s e n t only minor r e s i s t a n c e t o water flow. This m a t e r i a l i s covered w i t h
a c l o t h f a b r i c o r , i n i t s absence, a l a y e r of palm l e a v e s o r long g r a s s t h a t prevents t h e
movement of f i n e p a r t i c l e s of s i l t and c l a y from t h e upper h a l f t o t h e porous s e c t i o n ( s e e
Fig. IIID-1).
Aggregate
Aggregate

Fig. I I I D - 1 . (a) A conventional French d r a i n

Mirafi 140

F i g . I I I D - 1 . (b) A French d r a i n using f i l t e r

cloth fabric.

2.2.2

72

Buried c o n d u i t s

Buried c o n d u i t s a r e an improvement on French d r a i n s . A p i p e l i n e w i t h open j o i n t s o r

p e r f o r a t i o n s i s i n s t a l l e d c l o s e t o t h e bottom of t h e t r e n c h f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n and conveyance
of s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r . The p i p e l i n e i s surrounded w i t h c o a r s e sand, g r a v e l and r u b b l e t o h o l d
i t i n p l a c e d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n . To prevent t h e passage of f i n e p a r t i c l e s i n t o t h e p i p e l i n e
a c l o t h o r l e a f cover may a l s o b e r e q u i r e d . The p i p e l i n e i s made of baked c l a y o r c o n c r e t e
p i p e s , o r of bituminized f i b r e , metal o r p l a s t i c t u b e s . The s i z e ranges from 10 t o 30 cm.
Machines a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r opening t h e ground and i n s t a l l i n g p e r f o r a t e d p l a s t i c t u b i n g i n
l e n g t h s up t o 150 m i n one o p e r a t i o n ( s e e subchapter I I I H ) . Fig. IIID-2 shows f o u r examples
of b u r i e d c o n d u i t s .
2.2.3

Mole d r a i n s

Mole d r a i n s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r cohesive s o i l s . They a r e formed by Crawing a b u l l e t - s h a p e d

former through t h e s o i l a t t h e r e q u i r e d depth. This former i s made of s t e e l and i s welded t o
a sharp- edge v e r t i c a l b l a d e a t t a c h e d t o t h e t r a c t o r t h a t provides t h e power. As t h e t r a c t o r
moves a l o n g , t h e b l a d e makes a f i n e c u t i n t h e ground and t h e former c r e a t e s t h e d r a i n by
d i s p l a c i n g and compacting t h e s o i l m a t e r i a l . Although t h e depth of t h e d r a i n can be a d j u s t e d
t o c o r r e c t s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , t h i s method i s mainly s u i t a b l e f o r evenly s l o p i n g l a n d s .
Mole d r a i n s a r e n o t permanent and have t o be re-formed p e r i o d i c a l l y . For cohesive s o i l s t h i s
type of d r a i n may prove e a s y , cheap and e f f e c t i v e .

3.1
3.1.1

Surface drainage
General

S u r f a c e d r a i n a g e u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s t h e shaping of t h e land s u r f a c e , t h e improvement of

n a t u r a l w a t e r c o u r s e s , and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of open d i t c h e s . I t i s a p p l i c a b l e i n p a r t i c u l a r
t o f l a t l a n d s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y shallow t o p s o i l over impermeable rock o r c l a y s u b s o i l which
p r e v e n t s t h e r a p i d p e r c o l a t i o n of r a i n f a l l , seepage w a t e r o r overland flow t o a deeper s t r a t u n .
S u r f a c e d r a i n a g e e l i m i n a t e s ponding, p r e v e n t s prolonged s a t u r a t i o n , and a c c e l e r a t e s flow
towards an o u t l e t w i t h o u t eroding o r s i l t i n g t h e channel. Drainage d i t c h e s , when p r o p e r l y
planned and maintained, should n o t cause mosquito breeding problems.
For t h e p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n of s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e systems, t h e following i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
a r e u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d : (a) Topographic s u r v e y s ; (b) s o i l surveys and l o c a t i o n of c r i t i c a l
e r o s i o n a r e a s ; (c) d e t e r m i n a t i o n of e x i s t i n g and p o t e n t i a l land u s e s ; (d) p r e c i p i t a t i o n
and runoff i n v e s t i g a t i o n ;
(e) i n v e s t i g a t i o n of d i s c h a r g e o u t f a l l s , i n c l u d i n g frequency of
high w a t e r l e v e l s i n t i d a l marshes and l a k e s ; ( f ) examination of p r o f i l e s and c r o s s - s e c t i o n s
of e x i s t i n g streams and d i t c h e s ; and (g) g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and t e s t i n g of channel
s t a b i l i t y , i f required.
3.1.2

Layout f o r s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e

The l o c a t i o n and d e s i g n of d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s a r e l a r g e l y determined by t h e topography of

t h e a r e a and by any n a t u r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l f e a t u r e s , such a s roads and c a n a l s t h a t may r e s t r i c t
t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e d i t c h e s , o r s t r e a m s , r i v e r s , l a k e s and e s t u a r i e s t h a t may be
u s e f u l as o u t l e t s t o t h e system.

The most common l a y o u t s f o r d r a i n a g e systems i n f l a i r r i g a t e d land a r e t h e comb o r g r i d i r o n and t h e herringbone p a t t e r n s of p a r a l l e l s u b l a t e r a l and l a t e r a l s t h a t r e c e i v e t h e

drainage w a t e r from c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s . L a t e r a l s i n a row a r e connected t o a c o l l e c t o r o r
d i s p o s a l d i t c h t h a t c a r r i e s t h e water o u t of t h e i r r i g a t e d a r e a t o an o u t l e t of adequate
c a p a c i t y . Fig. IIID- 3 shows t y p i c a l p a t t e r n s of d r a i n a g e systems.

TYPICAL STYLE OF DEEP SUBSOIL DRAIN

USEFUL IN MODERATELY PERMEABLE SOlL

SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS IN DEALING WlTH

A SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF IMPERMEABLE
SOlL TO ENSURE THE DOWNWARD FLOW
OF DANGEROUS SEEPAGE WATER

Clay collar over upper

Normal ground water

A SURFACE AND AN UNDERGROUND DRAIN MAY

SOMETIMES BE USEFULLY ACCOMMODATED ALONG
- THE SAME DRAINAGE LINE, PARTICULARLY IN
ASSOCIATION WlTH ROADS AND RAILWAYS

WHERE STONES ARE PLENTIFUL IN LAND

REQUIRING DRA1NAGE.A CHEAP AND EFFICIENT
SUBSOIL SYSTEM CAN BE MADE OF STONES

Stone-lined drain
Normal ground water

Fig. IIID-2.

Examples of buried conduits.

(Adapted from: Kolta, S. Environmental management as a malaria
control method. Manila, WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific,
1979 (Document prepared for the Regional Workshop for Directors of
the Antimalaria Programme, Kuala Lumpur, September 1979)).

(1) HERRING-BONE SYSTEM

4) COMPOSITE SYSTEM

Much double draining Double draining reduced to

a waste of money
a minimum by proper design

(6) NATURAL CONTOUR DRAINAGE

Boundary of ravine shown thus
Natural contour drainage (subsoil) thus----

(5) GROUPING SYSTEM

F i g . IIID-3.

'@pica1 d r a i n a g e systems.
(Source:

Kolta, S . , op. c i t . )

C o l l e c t o r d i t c h e s should be designed t o convey d r a i n a g e w a t e r e f f i c i e n t l y and r a p i d l y ;

t h i s c a l l s f o r s t e e p g r a d i e n t s and maximum water v e l o c i t i e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e r o s i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s o i l . The l o c a t i o n of c o l l e c t o r d i t c h e s i s s u b j e c t t o fewer r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a n t h a t of i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s where t h e maximum command of l a n d i s imperative. As f a r
as topography a l l o w s , d i t c h e s can r u n s t r a i g h t t o t h e o u t l e t , thus reducing l e n g t h , i n c r e a s i n g
t h e g r a d i e n t , and p e r m i t t i n g s m a l l e r channel c r o s s - s e c t i o n s . A small amount of s c o u r i n g
during t h e s h o r t p e r i o d s when t h e d i t c h works a t f u l l c a p a c i t y i s n o t a s o b j e c t i o n a b l e a s i t
would be i n i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s ; much of t h e scour i s compensated by s i l t i n g when t h e d i t c h
works a t lower flows. However, i n s t e e p ground w i t h u n s t a b l e s o i l , c o l l e c t o r d i t c h e s should
be designed t o avoid producing e r o s i v e w a t e r v e l o c i t i e s . S t r a i g h t channels a r e p o s s i b l e i f ,
a t convenient i n t e r v a l s , a drop o r c h u t e i s provided t o d i s s i p a t e t h e energy of flow w i t h o u t
producing e r o s i o n .
The o u t l e t of a c o l l e c t o r d i t c h d i s c h a r g e s i n t o a r e c e i v i n g watercourse (stream, r i v e r ,
e t c . ) o r water body ( l a k e , e s t u a r y , e t c . ) .
The r e c e i v e r should be adequate under t h e most
adverse c o n d i t i o n s , when t h e c o l l e c t o r d i t c h i s a t f u l l d i s c h a r g e and t h e flow o r w a t e r l e v e l
i n t h e r e c e i v e r i s maximum.
Where t h e r e c e i v i n g watercourse o r w a t e r body i s d i s t a n t and t h e l a n d i s very f l a t , i t
may be necessary t o r e s o r t t o pumping t o evacuate t h e d r a i n . I f t h e s u b s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a r e
f a v o u r a b l e , however, v e r t i c a l d r a i n a g e may o f f e r a s o l u t i o n ( s e e s e c t i o n 3.5 below).
3.1.3

Interceptor ditches

I n t e r c e p t o r d i t c h e s a r e needed t o p r o t e c t t h e land a g a i n s t overland flow produced by

i n t e n s e r a i n f a l l and f l o o d s . I n t e r c e p t o r s u s u a l l y run along t h e c o n t o u r , w i t h t h e minimum
p r a c t i c a b l e g r a d i e n t , o r along t h e f o o t of h i l l s where t h e l a n d s l o p e becomes f l a t t e r . They
should be s u f f i c i e n t l y deep t o i n t e r c e p t seepage w a t e r a s w e l l . A t t h e time of c o n s t r u c t i o n
t h e excavated m a t e r i a l i s o f t e n placed on t h e lower s i d e of t h e d i t c h t o form a l e v e e t h a t
i n c r e a s e s t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e d i t c h . Like o t h e r d i t c h e s , i n t e r c e p t o r s should be i n s p e c t e d
r e g u l a r l y and any v e g e t a t i o n , sediment and o t h e r o b s t r u c t i o n s should be removed, a s r e q u i r e d .
Levees should be k e p t i n good r e p a i r . Water d i v e r t e d by t h e i n t e r c e p t o r s i s c a r r i e d away by
collector o r disposal ditches.
3.2

Subsurface d r a i n a g e

3.2.1

General

The o b j e c t i v e of s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e i s t o lower t h e w a t e r t a b l e t o a l e v e l which favours

crop p r o d u c t i o n , ensures road s t a b i l i t y and c o n s t r u c t i o n s a f e t y , o r s e r v e s o t h e r purposes.
This o b j e c t i v e can b e accomplished by deep open d i t c h e s o r by s u b s u r f a c e drains.!!
In fact
open d i t c h e s t h a t c o l l e c t s u r f a c e water can a l s o be used f o r s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e i f they a r e
deep enough t o lower t h e w a t e r t a b l e t o t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l and have s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y t o
s e r v e t h e dual purpose. As t h e volume of earthwork i s i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e s q u a r e of
t h e d i t c h d e p t h , t h e u s e of open d i t c h e s f o r s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e i s u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o s i t u a t i o n s where t h e w a t e r t a b l e does n o t have t o b e lowered beyond depths of 1.5 m.
Another c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a l s o l i n k e d w i t h t h e depth of open d i t c h e s , i s t h a t t h e a r e a
occupied by t h e d i t c h e s i s l o s t t o c u l t i v a t i o n . The f l a t s i d e - s l o p e s t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d t o
ensure s t a b i l i t y i n e r o s i v e s o i l s i n c r e a s e t h e l o s s of u s e f u l land.

- I n t h i s s u b c h a p t e r , t h e term d r a i n i s a p p l i e d only t o a covered conduit t h a t u s u a l l y

runs underground;

a n open conduit i s r e f e r r e d t o a s a d i t c h .

When, f o r t h e r e q u i r e d lowering of t h e w a t e r t a b l e , t h e bed of t h e d i t c h must b e a t

d e p t h s beyond 1 . 5 t o 2.0 m, i t may b e more p r a c t i c a l and economical t o u s e a c l o s e d c o n d u i t
i n s t e a d of a n open d i t c h . The c l o s e d c o n d u i t r e q u i r e s a minimum of e x c a v a t i o n f o r i t s i n s t a l l a t i o n . Unless t h e s o i l i s v e r y u n s t a b l e , t r e n c h e s c a n b e dug w i t h v e r t i c a l s i d e s ; t h e y
remain open o n l y f o r t h e time needed t o l a y t h e c o n d u i t , which can be k e p t t o a minimum.
Trenching machines ( a s d e s c r i b e d i n s u b c h a p t e r I I I H ) can open t h e ground and l a y t h e p i p e a s
t h e machine moves along.
The w i d e s t a p p l i c a t i o n of s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e - i s i n i r r i g a t e d l a n d . Besides p r e v e n t i n g
w a t e r l o g g i n g , i t a l l o w s a e r a t i o n and t h e l e a c h i n g of s a l t s i n t h e p l a n t r o o t zone. The amount
of w a t e r t o b e removed depends on t h e i r r i g a t i o n method a p p l i e d , t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y of
i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r , and t h e n a t u r e of t h e t o p s o i l .
Data on s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y , p l a n t consumptive use of w a t e r , w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l s , s a l i n i t y
and s u r f a c e topography a r e a s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e d e s i g n of d r a i n s a s f o r t h a t of i r r i g a t i o n
c a n a l s . I n f a c t , i n f o r m a t i o n on s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y and groundwater c o n d i t i o n s i s more important
f o r drainage purposes.
3.2.2

Layout f o r s u b s u r f ace d r a i n a g e

The p a t t e r n s of l a t e r a l s and c o l l e c t o r d i t c h e s d e s c r i b e d f o r s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e a r e a l s o
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e , whether t h i s i s performed by d i t c h e s o r d r a i n s . The
l a y o u t of b u r i e d d r a i n s i s l e s s r e s t r i c t e d by topographic g r a d i e n t s and i r r e g u l a r i t i e s t h a n
i s t h a t of open d i t c h e s . Drains do n o t t a k e away any a r e a from c u l t i v a t i o n and a l l o w f r e e
movement o v e r t h e l a n d . These advantages may b e d e c i s i v e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of a system o f
b u r i e d d r a i n s , even when open d i t c h e s could s e r v e t h e same purpose.

3.2.3

I n t e r c e p t o r and r e l i e f d r a i n s

I n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s o r d i t c h e s a r e a l i g n e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e flow of groundwater,
r e g a r d l e s s of minor t o p o g r a p h i c i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , and have a v e r y s l i g h t s l o p e . R e l i e f d r a i n s
o r d i t c h e s run approximately p a r a l l e l t o t h e flow of groundwater and a r e l a i d w i t h a s l o p e
more o r l e s s p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t of t h e w a t e r t a b l e .
R e l i e f d r a i n s o r d i t c h e s produce a more uniform lowering of t h e w a t e r t a b l e on b o t h s i d e s
of t h e c o n d u i t . I n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s o r d i t c h e s lower t h e w a t e r t a b l e more e f f e c t i v e l y on t h e
lower o r downslope s i d e of t h e c o n d u i t . For t h i s r e a s o n , i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s o r d i t c h e s a r e
u s u a l l y l o c a t e d n e a r t h e upper edge of t h e wet a r e a t o be p r o t e c t e d . This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n
t h e f o u r s k e t c h e s (Fig. IIID- 4, (a)- (d)), which show t h e before- and- after w a t e r - t a b l e l e v e l s
f o r t h e d i t c h e s and d r a i n s of t h e two t y p e s , r e l i e f and i n t e r c e p t o r . F i g . IIID- 5 i s an i s o m e t r i c s k e t c h showing b o t h r e l i e f and i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s i n p l a c e ; i t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e
a l t e r a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l w a t e r t a b l e produced by d r a i n a g e . It may be n o t e d t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s l o p e s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n a s t h e r e l i e f d r a i n s b u t i s f l a t i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n of t h e i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s . T h i s shows t h a t t h e s l o p e of t h e o r i g i n a l w a t e r t a b l e
i n f l u e n c e s t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s but n o t t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of r e l i e f d r a i n s .
The c h o i c e between i n t e r c e p t o r and r e l i e f d r a i n s l a r g e l y depends on t h e d e p t h of t h e
s o i l above t h e impervious l a y e r o r b a r r i e r ( b a r r i e r d e p t h ) , and on t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t of
t h e w a t e r t a b l e a t t h e s i t e . P r e f e r e n c e should be g i v e n t o i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s where, o t h e r
f a c t o r s b e i n g s u i t a b l e , t h e b a r r i e r d e p t h i s n o t more t h a n t w i c e t h e d r a i n d e p t h , s i n c e a
shallow b a r r i e r d e p t h r e d u c e s t h e e f f e c t of r e l i e f d r a i n s . P r e f e r e n c e should b e g i v e n t o
r e l i e f d r a i n s where, o t h e r f a c t o r s b e i n g s u i t a b l e , t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t of t h e w a t e r i s
v e r y s l i g h t , a s t h i s reduces t h e e f f e c t of i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s .

WATER
TABLE
BEFORE
DRAINAGE

WATER
TABLE
AFTER
DRAINAGE

Fig. IIID-5.

3.3

I s o m e t r i c p r o f i l e s of r e l i e f and i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s .

Combined s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e

It i s a common p r a c t i c e t o i n s t a l l a s i n g l e system t o d i s p o s e of both s u r f a c e and subs u r f a c e w a t e r s . I n a system of open d i t c h e s , t h o s e which a r e t o c o l l e c t s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r

a r e dug t o t h e r e q u i r e d depth, and those which r e c e i v e t h e s u r f a c e runoff only a r e shallow.
The.deep s u b s u r f a c e d i t c h e s a c t a l s o a s c o l l e c t o r o r d i s p o s a l d i t c h e s ; they r e c e i v e t h e
s u r f a c e w a t e r from t h e shallow d i t c h e s through drop s t r u c t u r e s of v a r i o u s types which p r e v e n t
scouring.

I n a system of b u r i e d o r underground d r a i n s f o r s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e and open d i t c h e s f o r

s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e , each s e c t o r works more o r l e s s independently. I t i s a t t h e c o l l e c t o r d i t c h
t h a t t h e s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e s e c t o r s meet, through a p p r o p r i a t e drop s t r u c t u r e s and p r o t e c t e d o u t l e t s , f o r t h e d i s p o s a l of a l l t h e w a t e r from t h e d r a i n e d land ( s e e Fig. IIID- 6).
Surface w a t e r should n o t b e admitted i n t o underground d r a i n s because t h e d e b r i s and sediment
i t c a r r i e s can plug t h e d r a i n .
The r e q u i r e d c a p a c i t y of t h e dual-purpose c o l l e c t o r d i t c h i s t h e sum of t h e i n d i v i d u a l
d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e s of t h e s u r f a c e d i t c h e s and t h e s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n s . S u r f a c e w a t e r i n c l u d e s
i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r a t t h e t a i l of c a n a l s , runoff from r a i n f a l l , and o c c a s i o n a l f l o o d i n g . Subs u r f a c e w a t e r i n c l u d e s l a t e r a l seepage, c a p i l l a r y w a t e r and some v e r t i c a l p e r c o l a t i o n . Under
normal c o n d i t i o n s , t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e open c o l l e c t o r d i t c h i s more than adequate t o r e c e i v e
both. However, t h e c a p a c i t y of c o l l e c t o r s should always b e checked.

F i g . IIID- 6.

3.4

Drop s t r u c t u r e f o r s u r f a c e drainage and p r o t e c t e d o u t l e t

f o r a buried drain.

Drainage by pumping
There a r e two d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s where t h e pumping of s u r p l u s w a t e r may be r e q u i r e d .

(a) When t h e land s l o p e and h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t of t h e w a t e r t a b l e make i t p o s s i b l e t o

o p e r a t e a conventional system f o r t h e d r a i n a g e by g r a v i t y of s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r s ,
but a t t h e lower end of t h e drained a r e a t h e r e i s i n s u f f i c i e n t head t o e n s u r e d i s c h a r g e . I n
such a s i t u a t i o n t h e p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n i s t o pump t h e d r a i n a g e water e i t h e r i n t o a c o l l e c t o r
d i t c h on a h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n i f t h e topography i s s u i t a b l e , o r e l s e through a p i p e l i n e conveying
t h e water under p r e s s u r e t o t h e p o i n t of d i s p o s a l .
(b) When t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s o i l i s h i g h , i t may be p o s s i b l e t o r e p l a c e
t h e network of subsurface d r a i n s with a system of w e l l s from which t h e w a t e r i s pumped t o
c o l l e c t o r d i t c h e s . A s e r i e s of w e l l p o i n t s , d r i v e n t o t h e r e q u i r e d depth and connected t o a
common pump, may prove t o b e a p r a c t i c a l way of lowering t h e w a t e r t a b l e . However, b e f o r e
attempting drainage by pumping, which i n v o l v e s h i g h i n i t i a l and o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s , i t i s
necessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e s u b s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t o c a r r y out t e s t s t o determine t h e e f f e c t
of pumping and i t s a r e a o f i n f l u e n c e on t h e water t a b l e . Such i n f o r m a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l b e f o r e
deciding on w e l l depths and spacing.

3.5

Vertical drainage

Where t h e land i s s o f l a t t h a t t h e r e i s p r a c t i c a l l y no s l o p e t o allow s u r p l u s w a t e r t o

flow, a s happens i n swamps, bogs o r marshes, v e r t i c a l d r a i n a g e may o f f e r a s o l u t i o n . I n cases
where t h e t o p s o i l i s waterlogged because p e r c o l a t i o n i s prevented by an impervious l a y e r ,
w h i l e a t lower depths t h e s u b s o i l m a t e r i a l i s porous and capable of s t o r i n g w a t e r , i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o d i s c h a r g e t h e s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r i n t o t h e pervious deeper s t r a t a by
breaking through t h e b a r r i e r of impervious m a t e r i a l . This can b e achieved by v e r t i c a l s h a f t s
d r i v e n o r d r i l l e d through t h e s o i l and p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t caving e i t h e r by a c a s i n g ( s i m i l a r t o
t h a t used i n w e l l s ) o r by f i l l i n g t h e s h a f t s w i t h s t o n e s , g r a v e l and c o a r s e sand ( s e e subc h a p t e r I I I E , Fig. IIIE-2).

Wherever perched w a t e r i s a problem, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of v e r t i c a l d r a i n a g e should be

explored. However, i n view of t h e r i s k of p o l l u t i n g t h e groundwater i n t h e lower s t r a t a ,
v e r t i c a l d r a i n a g e should b e used w i t h extreme c a u t i o n .

4.

Mosquito problems i n d r a i n a g e systems

A s t h e purpose of d r a i n a g e i s t o remove unwanted w a t e r from land s u r f a c e s , t h u s eliminat i n g mosquito b r e e d i n g s i t e s , i t i s i n p r i n c i p l e compatible w i t h mosquito c o n t r o l . However,
mosquito problems do e x i s t i n d r a i n a g e systems and a r e u s u a l l y due t o inadequate maintenance.
Some i r r i g a t i o n schemes do n o t have a d r a i n a g e component, and experience has shown t h a t
t h e s t a g n a t i o n of excess i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r c r e a t e s s e r i o u s mosquito problems w i t h consequent
r i s e s i n m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n , i n a d d i t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r a l problems such a s waterlogging and
an i n c r e a s e i n s o i l s a l i n i t y . I n schemes t h a t have a d r a i n a g e component, t h e funds a v a i l a b l e
f o r maintenance a r e u s u a l l y i n s u f f i c i e n t and a r e mostly s p e n t on i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s . This i s
because i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s must be k e p t i n good r e p a i r , otherwise t h e d e l i v e r y of w a t e r t o t h e
c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s w i l l be impaired and crop p r o d u c t i o n w i l l s u f f e r . The c o n d i t i o n of t h e
d r a i n a g e system has no such p e r c e p t i b l e e f f e c t on crop y i e l d s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e no s u r p r i s e
t o s e e s o many d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s i n a most d e p l o r a b l e s t a t e of r e p a i r w i t h eroded banks and
beds, d e t e r i o r a t e d alignments and s l o p e s , and abundant v e g e t a t i o n growth. Sometimes even
garbage becomes p i l e d up i n d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s . Under such c o n d i t i o n s , t h e flow i n t h e d i t c h e s
i s s l u g g i s h when t h e r a i n comes and i s o l a t e d pockets remain a f t e r w a r d s . Both s i t u a t i o n s a r e
favourable f o r mosquito production. The v a r i o u s a u x i l i a r y s t r u c t u r e s i n a d r a i n a g e system,
such a s j u n c t i o n boxes, sand t r a p s o r g r i t chambers, may a l s o become important mosquito
sources u n l e s s they a r e p r o p e r l y c a r e d f o r .
5.

Design of d r a i n a g e systems

5.1

General remarks on d e s i g n

The d e s i g n of d r a i n a g e systems may i n v o l v e more e l a b o r a t e techniques t h a n t h e d e s i g n of

i r r i g a t i o n systems, because t h e problem i s more complex.
F i r s t , t h e q u a n t i t y of water t o be conveyed f o r i r r i g a t i o n can b e determined w i t h
s u f f i c i e n t accuracy from t h e consumptive u s e of p l a n t s t o be c u l t i v a t e d and from t h e
p e r m e a b i l i t y and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e t o p s o i l . The amount of water t o be d r a i n e d
depends on f a c t o r s which a r e n o t s o e a s i l y e s t i m a t e d . Regarding water s o u r c e s , f o r i n s t a n c e ,
p r e c i p i t a t i o n , s u r f a c e r u n o f f , f l o o d i n g , inflow from uplands, l o c a l i z e d seepage, and t h e
d r a i n a g e q u a n t i t i e s f o r l e a c h i n g must a l l be taken i n t o account.
Secondly, t h e hydrology of t h e s u b s o i l p l a y s a minor p a r t i n t h e d e s i g n of i r r i g a t i o n
c a n a l s ; t h e p r e s e n c e of a h i g h w a t e r t a b l e i s important only i f i t allows t h e amount of w a t e r
s u p p l i e d t o be reduced. I n t h e design of d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o have d e t a i l e d
information on t h e w a t e r t a b l e , p e r i o d i c v a r i a t i o n i n l e v e l s and h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s , i t s
e f f e c t on p l a n t growth, s a l i n i t y , e t c .
T h i r d l y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must be c a r r i e d o u t t o lower d e p t h s ,
u s u a l l y 2 t o 3 times a s deep as t h e proposed d i t c h o r d r a i n , and be more comprehensive. The
g e n e r a l composition and p e r m e a b i l i t y , granulometry, void o r p o r e s p a c e , o r g a n i c m a t t e r content,
e t c . f o r each l a y e r of d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l w i l l have t o be determined. The d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n
of t h i s s u b j e c t i s beyond t h e scope of t h i s manual. For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e r e a d e r i s
r e f e r r e d t o t e c h n i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s such a s t h a t prepared j o i n t l y by FAO-UNESCO.?

a
- Food and A g r i c u l t u r e Organization & United Nations Educational, S c i e n t i f i c and C u l t u r a l
Organization. I r r i g a t i o n , drainage and s a l i n i t y : An i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o u r c e book. London,
Hutchinson, 1973.

The engineer w i l l f i r s t decide t h e type of d r a i n a g e t h a t i s most s u i t e d t o t h e given

s i t u a t i o n , t h e t y p e of conveyance s t r u c t u r e t o be used, t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e o u t f a l l , and t h e
g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of t h e scheme. He w i l l then proceed w i t h t h e d e t a i l e d d e s i g n of t h e d i t c h e s ,
c o n d u i t s , pumping s t a t i o n s i f r e q u i r e d , and o t h e r n e c e s s a r y a n c i l l a r y s t r u c t u r e s . The o v e r a l l
economy i s a s important i n drainage a s i n i r r i g a t i o n , and t h e e n g i n e e r should c a r e f u l l y
consider t h e v a r i o u s t e c h n i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e p l a n s and t h e i r c o s t comparison b e f o r e a d e f i n i t i v e
p l a n i s recommended.

5.2

S p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r mosquito c o n t r o l

As can b e s e e n from s e c t i o n 4 above, mosquito breeding occurs i n d r a i n a g e systems

p r i m a r i l y because of poor maintenance of open d i t c h e s and a n c i l l a r y s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e f o r e ,
i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e r a d i c a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem i s t o avoid t h e u s e of open d i t c h e s and, i f
t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e , t o m a i n t a i n t h e d i t c h e s i n good c o n d i t i o n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e following
environmental management measures should b e given due c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e
d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n of any d r a i n a g e system:
(a) use of b u r i e d d r a i n s i n s t e a d of open
d i t c h e s as f a r a s p o s s i b l e ; (b) l i n i n g of t h e d i t c h e s o r l i n i n g of t h e i n v e r t , i f open
d i t c h e s have t o be used; (c) good alignment of d i t c h e s and avoidance of s h a r p c u r v e s ;
(d) d i t c h f l u s h i n g ; and (e) e f f e c t i v e maintenance of t h e scheme.
The d i s c u s s i o n s i n subchapter I I I B on curves i n c a n a l s , g a t e s and s i p h o n s , and e f f e c t i v e
c a n a l maintenance i n i r r i g a t i o n schemes a r e a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o d r a i n a g e systems, and i t i s
suggested t h a t t h e r e a d e r should r e f e r back t o t h a t subchapter f o r d e t a i l s . Some a d d i t i o n a l
remarks on t h e l i n i n g of d i t c h e s a r e given i n s e c t i o n 6 below.

6.

Lining of d i t c h e s

Although t h e l i n i n g of d i t c h e s i s even l e s s g e n e r a l l y p r a c t i s e d than t h e l i n i n g of

i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s , t h e advantages d e r i v e d from l i n i n g a r e a s g r e a t f o r d i t c h e s a s f o r c a n a l s .
In f a c t , l i n i n g a s a means f o r preventing weed growth i s more n e c e s s a r y when t h e flow i s slow,
i n t e r m i t t e n t and e r r a t i c , a s i t i s i n d i t c h e s , t h a n when i t i s r a p i d , c o n s t a n t and uniform, a s
i t i s i n i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s ( s e e subchapter I I I B , s e c t i o n 6 ) .
To prevent o b s t r u c t i n g t h e seepage i n t o s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s , porous l i n i n g s can
be produced using a d r y o r non-mortared revetment of b r i c k , s t o n e , c o n c r e t e o r s t o n e b l o c k s ,
o r a continuous c o n c r e t e l i n i n g provided w i t h weep h o l e s .

A common p r a c t i c e f o r d i t c h l i n i n g i s t o u s e p r e c a s t s e c t i o n s of P o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e ,
shaped and assembled t o form a narrow i n v e r t along t h e c e n t r e l i n e of t h e d i t c h , which permits
f r e e flow a t low water l e v e l s . The bed i s f i l l e d and graded t o l e a d t h e water flow towards
t h e c e n t r e ( s e e Fig. IIID- 7). The main advantages of t h i s l i n i n g a r e t h a t i t does n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h l a t e r a l seepage a t a l l and i s much cheaper than t h e f u l l - p e r i m e t e r t y p e of l i n i n g .
This i n v e r t l i n i n g can b e combined w i t h grass- covered s i d e s t h a t s t a b i l i z e t h e banks and make
s t e e p e r s i d e s l o p e s p o s s i b l e . Such " vegetated" waterways a r e produced by seeding t h e channel
w i t h g r a s s of t h e s h o r t - l e a f and matted- root type. The g r a s s cover should be k e p t s h o r t and
dense by r e g u l a r c u t t i n g . R e s i s t a n c e t o e r o s i o n i s such t h a t t h e channels can w i t h s t a n d water
I n t h e d e s i g n of v e g e t a t e d waterways, t h e roughness
v e l o c i t i e s of 1.25 t o 2.00 m/s.
c o e f f i c i e n t i n Manning's formul& i s taken a s n = 0.04, which corresponds t o f r e s h l y c u t
g r a s s . The c r o s s - s e c t i o n of t h e waterway can be p a r a b o l i c , t r i a n g u l a r o r t r a p e z o i d a l . When
t h e c r o s s i n g by farm machinery i s f o r e s e e n , t h e s i d e s l o p e s should n o t be s t e e p e r t h a n 1:4.

a
-

The u s e of Manning's formula i s explained i n Chapter V I I , s e c t i o n 4.2.

a ) Typical section of a drainage ditch with a precast concrete invert along the centreline

b) "Universal" slab construction for

many sizes and shapes. With a basic centre slab and a basic side slab,
different side slopes ( 1 : l , 2:l & 3:l) can be obtained by rotating bearing joint (about 2cm cylindrical).
Usual size 5cm thickX 80 - 100cm longX 20cm wide. However, it may not be easy to cast.

Fig. IIID-7.

Precast concrete invert sections.

IIIE

DRAINAGE FOR MOSQUITO CONTROL

Contents

Page

.............................
C r i t e r i a a p p l i e d t o d r a i n a g e f o r mosquito c o n t r o l . . . . . . . . . .
Small d r a i n a g e works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 S m a l l w a t e r p o o l s . h o l e s . e t c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Water c o l l e c t i o n s a t w a t e r p o i n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Soakaways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Seepage p i t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2
Soakage t r e n c h e s o r d r a i n f i e l d s . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction

83

.........
Large- scale d r a i n a g e works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Coastal s i t u a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Diking and dewatering of c o a s t a l swamps . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Openmarsh d i t c h i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 C l e a r i n g and maintaining open stream o u t l e t s . . . . . . .
4.2 Inland s i t u a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Swamps l o c a t e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y of waterbodies . . . . . .
4.2.2 River swamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Swamps r e s u l t i n g from seepage o r s p r i n g s . . . . . . . . .
4.3 I n v e s t i g a t i o n s and s t u d i e s r e q u i r e d f o r d r a i n a g e works . . . . .
Methods f o r d i t c h excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 . 1 Hand-excavated d i t c h e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Machine-excavated d i t c h e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Ditching w i t h explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 P r e c a u t i o n s d u r i n g b l a s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3

E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n bed o r soakaway mound

Introduction

I n p r i n c i p l e . d r a i n a g e techniques f o r mosquito c o n t r o l do n o t d i f f e r from t h o s e f o r any

As has been s t r e s s e d i n subchapter I I I D . proper drainage ( r e g a r d l e s s of i t s
o t h e r purpose
o b j e c t i v e ) h e l p s reduce mosquito populations by e l i m i n a t i n g o r reducing h a b i t a t s s u i t a b l e f o r
t h e development of mosquito l a r v a e

I t i s . however. convenient t o t r e a t t h e s u b j e c t s e p a r a t e l y because t h e c r i t e r i a d i f f e r

w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e . and because t h e r e a r e s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s where e i t h e r small o r l a r g e
d r a i n a g e o p e r a t i o n s t h a t a r e needed f o r mosquito c o n t r o l purposes a l o n e a r e g e n e r a l l y neglected owing t o l a c k of i n t e r e s t o r economic i n c e n t i v e

2.

C r i t e r i a a p p l i e d t o d r a i n a g e f o r mosquito c o n t r o l

( a ) D i s t a n c e . The d r a i n a g e of mosquito h a b i t a t s can be l i m i t e d t o w e l l - d e f i n e d and

r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s h a l l o w a r e a s s u r r o u n d i n g v i l l a g e s , towns and o t h e r human s e t t l e m e n t s .
Mosquitos have a range of f l i g h t , t h e maximum f i g u r e s of which have been determined f o r
d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s through entomological s t u d i e s ( s e e Annex 1 ) . For p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , howe v e r , a n o p h e l i n e mosquito c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n a r a d i u s of 1.5- 2 km from human h a b i t a t i o n
It i s u s u a l l y n o t n e c e s s a r y t o extend d r a i n a g e works f u r t h e r
provide reasonable protection.
a f i e l d i f , w i t h i n t h i s r a d i u s , t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of mosquito h a b i t a t s i s thoroughly pursued.
(b) Timing. Except f o r t h e t r o p i c s where t h e c l i m a t e i s warm and humid a l l t h e y e a r
round and m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n i s u s u a l l y p e r e n n i a l , t h e need f o r d r a i n a g e of mosquito h a b i t a t s
i s l i m i t e d t o well- defined p e r i o d s o f t h e y e a r . I n most m a l a r i o u s r e g i o n s i n t h e temperate
zone, t h e r e a r e s e a s o n s of i n t e n s i v e mosquito p r o d u c t i o n and i n c r e a s e d d i s e a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n .
It i s d u r i n g t h e s e p e r i o d s t h a t d r a i n a g e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t .
(c) Depth. The d r a i n a g e of mosquito h a b i t a t s can be l i m i t e d t o t h e removal of s u r f a c e
w a t e r w i t h o u t t h e need t o lower t h e w a t e r t a b l e more t h a n a few c e n t i m e t r e s below t h e low
p o i n t s of t h e ground s u r f a c e . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e w a t e r t a b l e needs t o b e lowered t o below t h e
p l a n t r o o t zone f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l d r a i n a g e .
(d) D u r a t i o n . The d r a i n a g e of mosquito h a b i t a t s may t a k e a s long a s t h e time r e q u i r e d
by t h e mosquito t o develop from t h e egg t o t h e a d u l t (4 days t o 3 weeks, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
s p e c i e s and l o c a l c l i m a t e ) . T h e r e f o r e , d r a i n a g e f o r mosquito c o n t r o l can t a k e l o n g e r and a
s m a l l e r d i t c h s e c t i o n can b e used t h a n i s t h e c a s e of d r a i n a g e f o r crop c u l t i v a t i o n . Young
p l a n t s can seldom w i t h s t a n d submergence f o r more t h a n two o r t h r e e d a y s , w h i l e f o r mosquito
c o n t r o l w a t e r may remain l o n g e r on t h e s u r f a c e provided t h a t one o r two days of t o t a l d r y n e s s
follow.
(e) Mosquito s p e c i e s . The d r a i n a g e of mosquito h a b i t a t s should b e l i m i t e d t o t h e
e x i s t i n g and p o t e n t i a l b r e e d i n g p l a c e s of t h e v e c t o r concerned. The concept of " s p e c i e s s a n i t a t i o n " r e q u i r e s d r a i n a g e t o b e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e p a r t i c u l a r mosquito s p e c i e s t h a t i s a
confirmed v e c t o r o f d i s e a s e . I n t h e absence of d i s e a s e v e c t o r s , d r a i n a g e w i l l n o t be a p u b l i c
h e a l t h measure b u t may be needed f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l , p e s t mosquito c o n t r o l o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s .
From t h e s e remarks i t may b e i n f e r r e d t h a t d r a i n a g e f o r mosquito c o n t r o l has l e s s
s t r i n g e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a n a g r i c u l t u r a l d r a i n a g e . However, i t should b e n o t e d t h a t complete
d r a i n a g e of l o w - l y i n g a r e a s may b e r e q u i r e d f o r e f f e c t i v e mosquito c o n t r o l even though i t may
n o t b e n e c e s s a r y f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes.

3.

Small d r a i n a g e works

There a r e many i n s t a n c e s i n and around human s e t t l e m e n t s where s m a l l w a t e r c o l l e c t i o n s

which w i l l n o t s e e p away o r e v a p o r a t e i n a few days a r e completely d i s r e g a r d e d . It i s t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e h e a l t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o c a l l t h e a t t e n t i o n of l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s and
t h e p u b l i c i n g e n e r a l t o t h e h e a l t h r i s k r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s e s m a l l b u t s i g n i f i c a n t mosquito
h a b i t a t s . I n a d d i t i o n t o a d v i s i n g and p e r s u a d i n g o t h e r s t o c a r r y o u t t h e needed t a s k s , t h e
h e a l t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n should be capable of t a k i n g p o s i t i v e a c t i o n t o c o r r e c t t h e s i t u a t i o n .
3.1

Small w a t e r p o o l s , h o l e s , e t c .

One of t h e more common and s i m p l e s o u r c e r e d u c t i o n d i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s i s t h e d r a i n a g e of

temporary r a i n o r r u n o f f p o o l s which develop i n d e p r e s s i o n s on s l o p i n g ground o r which occur
below seepages o r s p r i n g s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of human h a b i t a t i o n . F r e q u e n t l y t h e s e s m a l l p o o l s
a r e d r a i n e d by s h o r t d i t c h e s t h a t c a r r y t h e w a t e r downgrade t o where i t can s p r e a d o u t o v e r a
g e n t l y s l o p e d a r e a of p e r v i o u s s o i l s o t h a t t h e w a t e r d i s a p p e a r s underground. A l t e r n a t i v e l y
t h e d i t c h may l e a d t o a stream o r o t h e r o u t f a l l which c a r r i e s t h e w a t e r away. I f o n l y a s h o r t
d i t c h i s needed, i t s s i z e , l o c a t i o n and shape may be d i c t a t e d more by convenience of c o n s t r u c t i o n than by r i g i d e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n . The i n p u t of l a b o u r i s minimal and i f t h e d i t c h should

f a i l because of inadequate d e s i g n , i t can be improved a t l i t t l e c o s t when t h e time f o r

maintenance comes round. Furthermore, i f t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e d i t c h i s temporarily exceeded
w h i l e runoff i s a t a maximum, no g r e a t damage i s done.
Water pools a r e a l s o found i n open s p a c e s , s t r e e t s , yards and o t h e r p l a c e s i n s i d e
v i l l a g e s , towns and c i t i e s , because of l a c k o r inadequacy of sewerage, b o t h f o r storm and
waste w a t e r s . These pools may be d r a i n e d i f t h e y a r e l o c a t e d on s l o p i n g ground o r i f a s u i t a b l e d r a i n a g e d i t c h i s a v a i l a b l e nearby t o c a r r y away t h e w a t e r . I n most i n s t a n c e s , however,
t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e and c o n s i d e r a t i o n should be given t o o t h e r methods of c o n t r o l such a s
f i l l i n g and g r a d i n g ( s e e subchapter I I I F ) o r l a r v i c i d i n g . The permanent s o l u t i o n t o t h e
problem of water accumulation i n urban a r e a s i s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of sewerage.
3.2

Water c o l l e c t i o n s a t w a t e r p o i n t s

One problem f r e q u e n t i n developing c o u n t r i e s i s t h e l a c k o r inadequacy of d r a i n a g e of t h e

s u r p l u s water from p u b l i c f o u n t a i n s , t a p s , handpumps, e t c . , a s w e l l a s w a t e r from p i p e l e a k s ,
seepage t o t h e ground s u r f a c e , and v a r i o u s misuses of c o r n u n i t y water s u p p l i e s . It i s possible
t h a t t h i s problem w i l l i n c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h t h e expansion of such s u p p l i e s d u r i n g t h e
p r e s e n t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Drinking Water Supply and S a n i t a t i o n Decade (1981-1990), promoted by t h e
United Nations system. There i s no doubt t h a t many water s u p p l i e s w i l l be provided, b u t how
much a t t e n t i o n w i l l be given t o t h e d r a i n a g e of waste water r e s u l t i n g from t h e i n c r e a s e d use
of w a t e r i s n o t c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e d .
The t y p i c a l pool and muddy a r e a s around water supply p o i n t s , c a t t l e w a t e r i n g t r o u g h s ,
p u b l i c l a u n d r i e s , e t c . should be e l i m i n a t e d . Concrete aprons round t h e s e r v i c e p o i n t w i l l
prevent ground puddling and a d r a i n p i p e should remove t h e waste water e f f e c t i v e l y ( s e e
Fig. IIIE-1).
Where a d r a i n o r a d r a i n a g e d i t c h i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t o r e c e i v e and c a r r y away
t h e waste water, a s u i t a b l e soakage arrangement such a s a seepage p i t , a d r a i n f i e l d o r an
e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n bed may be used. I n t h e u s e of e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n beds, proper maintenance
i s needed t o avoid accumulation of seepage water a t t h e t o e where a mosquito breeding s i t e may
develop. D e t a i l s of t h e s e methods a r e given i n s e c t i o n 3 . 3 below. Where t h e g e o l o g i c a l form=
t i o n i s s u i t a b l e , i . e . , where a pervious l a y e r e x i s t s underneath t h e t o p impervious l a y e r , i t
may be p o s s i b l e t o u s e a v e r t i c a l d r a i n t o g e t r i d of t h e waste water ( s e e F i g . IIIE-2).
However, t h i s method may r e s u l t i n p o l l u t i o n of ground w a t e r . V e r t i c a l d r a i n a g e i s d i s c u s s e d
i n subchapter I I I D , s e c t i o n 3 . 5 . When t h e s e r v i c e p o i n t i s s u p p l i e d by a shallow w e l l , t h e
soakaway p i t o r t h e d r a i n f i e l d should be l o c a t e d a t a s a f e d i s t a n c e t o prevent contamination
of t h e s o u r c e . This d i s t a n c e depends on t h e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b u t i t should be 30 m o r
A
more.

Dram

Fig. IIIE- 1.

Tube w e l l and hand pump w i t h c o n c r e t e apron and d r a i n .

Impervious
clay
+

.:
.

"

W H O 811072

Fig. IIIE-2. An example of vertical drainage.

The waste water from a water tap is removed by a vertical drain.
(Adapted from: Kolta, S. Environmental management as a malaria
control method. Manila, WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific,
1979 (Document prepared for the Regional Workshop for Directors of the
Antimalaria Programme, Kuala Lumpur, September 1979)).

The WHO Expert Cormnittee on National Environmental Health Programmes: Their Planning,
Organization and A d m i n i s t r a t i o e recognized t h e f a c t t h a t t h e improvement of water s u p p l i e s
c r e a t e s a need f o r proper d i s p o s a l of used and waste water. Mosquito breeding i s a d i r e c t
consequence of d i s r e g a r d i n g t h i s f a c t .

A soakaway i s a h o l e o r a s e t of t r e n c h e s i n t h e ground f i l l e d w i t h s t o n e s through which

waste water can seep away i n t o t h e surrounding s o i l .
Soakaways a r e u s u a l l y used f o r t h e d i s p o s a l of waste w a t e r from s e p t i c t a n k s , aqua
p r i v i e s and o t h e r s i m i l a r small s a n i t a t i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s . They can a l s o be used a s a method
f o r u l t i m a t e removal of t h e d r a i n a g e water from w a t e r p o i n t s .
3.3.1

Seepage p i t s

One form of soakaway i s a seepage p i t which

t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s n o t high. It i s cormnonly 2-5
o r f i l l e d with s t o n e s a t l e a s t 50 mm i n s i z e , a s
a p p r o p r i a t e where t h e s o i l i s too f i n e f o r water

i s dug i n t o porous m a t e r i a l i n p l a c e s where

m deep and 1-2.5 m i n diameter. I t i s l i n e d
shown i n F i g . IIIE- 3. Seepage p i t s a r e n o t
t o seep i n t o it.

IER

DEP
ROKEN S l O N l

or)

. $ M DrPTM 0 6
B R O K E N STONE

----

F i g . IIIE- 3.

3.3.2

Two kinds of seepage p i t .

(Adapted from:

Ross B u l l e t i n No. 8 , p.40)

Soakage t r e n c h e s o r d r a i n f i e l d s

Soakage t r e n c h e s a r e f i l l e d - i n d i t c h e s c o n t a i n i n g open- jointed p i p e s , u s u a l l y of 100 mm

diameter, l a i d on g r a v e l o r broken s t o n e . They allow t h e w a s t e water t o be widely d i s t r i b u t e d through a l a r g e a r e a of s o i l . Normally s e v e r a l t r e n c h e s a r e dug, each 15-30 m long, and
connected t o g e t h e r t o make a d r a i n f i e l d .

-WHO
b

Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 439, 1970.

- This s e c t i o n i s based on: Feachem, R. & C a i r n c r o s s , S.

systems. London, t h e Ross I n s t i t u t e of T r o p i c a l Hygiene, 1978

Small e x c r e t a d i s p o s a l
(Ross B u l l e t i n No. 8 ) .

A t y p i c a l arrangement i s shown i n F i g . I I I E - 4 . The t r e n c h w i d t h u s u a l l y r a n g e s from

0 . 3 t o 0.5 m and t h e g r a v e l d e p t h below t h e p i p e from 0.6 t o 1 m. The recornended minimum
t r e n c h s p a c i n g i s 2 m o r t w i c e t h e t r e n c h d e p t h , whichever i s g r e a t e r .

Tiaht
line
' -a---

; J.

Drainfield trenches-

/
f
Overflows niundisturbed
earth

+-

Trench spacing

WHO 811073

Bottom area

SECTION A

-A

F i g . I I I E - 4 . A t y p i c a l d r a i n f i e l d arrangement.
(Adapted from: Ross B u l l e t i n No. 8 , p.41)

The l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i n d e s i g n i s t h e r a t e a t which w a t e r can s e e p i n t o t h e s o i l ( t h e

" i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e " ) . F o r d i s p o s a l of sewage, i t has been found t h a t t h i s r a t e , a f t e r t h e
s o i l has become p a r t i a l l y clogged w i t h sewage, i s roughly t h e same f o r most t y p e s of s o i l and
For t h e d i s p o s a l of s p i l t w a t e r , s o i l c l o g g i n g w i l l n o t
r a n g e s between 10-30 l/m 2 p e r d a y . a
be a s s e r i o u s a s sewage; a f i g u r e of 20 l / m 2 p e r day would seem t o b e a r e a s o n a b l e assumption
i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e l e n g t h of t r e n c h r e q u i r e d , u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g formula:

Length of t r e n c h (m) =

Waste w a t e r t o be d r a i n e d p e r day ( l i t r e s l d a y )
E f f e c t i v e t r e n c h d e p t h (m)

Laak, R. e t a l .

20

R a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r s e p t i c t a n k system d e s i g n .

2 (1974)
Ground w a t e r , 1

The f a c t o r 2 on t h e bottom l i n e allows f o r t h e use of both s i d e s of t h e trench.

The e f f e c t i v e
t r e n c h depth i s t h e depth from t h e water l e v e l t o t h e bottom of t h e t r e n c h . The bottom a r e a
of t h e t r e n c h i s ignored i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , because t h e important seepage i s through t h e
s i d e s of t h e t r e n c h .
Although t h i s formula can be a p p l i e d t o most k i n d s of s o i l , t h e r e a r e some s o i l s i n t o
which water w i l l soak only very slowly, s o t h a t soakage t r e n c h e s cannot work. It i s t h e r e f o r e
u s e f u l t o make i n f i l t r a t i o n t e s t s of t h e s o i l s i n t h e a r e a . A s a t i s f a c t o r y t e s t procedure i s
t o d r i l l a t l e a s t t h r e e 150 mm diameter t e s t h o l e s , 0.5 m deep, a c r o s s t h e proposed d r a i n f i e l d .
These a r e f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r and l e f t o v e r n i g h t s o t h a t t h e s o i l becomes s a t u r a t e d . On t h e
following day, they a r e f i l l e d t o a depth of 0.3 m. A f t e r 30 and 90 minutes, t h e w a t e r l e v e l s
a r e measured. The s o i l i s considered t o have a s u f f i c i e n t i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e i f t h e d i f f e r e n c e
i n t h e measured l e v e l s o v e r t h e 60-minute period i s a t l e a s t 1 5 mm.
Plain- ended t i l e p i p e s o r bell- and- spigot sewer p i p e s may be used. Pipe l e n g t h s a r e
g e n e r a l l y 300-600 mm. Both types of p i p e a r e l a i d s o a s t o l e a v e gaps of 1-12 mm between t h e
p i p e l e n g t h s t o a l l o w t h e waste w a t e r t o l e a k o u t . The t r e n c h bottom and t h e p i p e s i n each
t r e n c h should be l a i d l e v e l . When plain- ended p i p e s a r e used, t h e upper h a l f of t h e j o i n t
must b e covered w i t h a s t r i p of r o o f i n g f e l t o r t a r r e d paper, o r a p i e c e of broken p i p e t o
prevent t h e e n t r y of f i n e s o i l s . The s t o n e s i n t h e t r e n c h should b e 20-50 mm s i z e and should
be covered by 300-500 mm of s o i l from t h e t r e n c h , over a p r o t e c t i v e l a y e r of s t r a w o r
u n t r e a t e d b u i l d i n g paper.
The flow of waste water should n o t be s p l i t up by d i s t r i b u t i o n boxes. The t r e n c h e s
should be connected end-to-end s o t h a t , a s each t r e n c h f i l l s , t h e e f f l u e n t overflows t o t h e
next one. Each t r e n c h should be l e v e l w i t h , o r below, t h e preceding ones. The s o i l cover i n
t h e a r e a should have a minimum t h i c k n e s s of 1.5 m and t h e l e v e l of t h e s e a s o n a l h i g h groundwater t a b l e should b e n o t l e s s than 0.6 m below t h e t r e n c h bottom.
3.3.3

E v a u o t r a n s ~ i r a t i o nbed o r soakawav mound

Another v e r s i o n of t h e d r a i n a g e f i e l d i s t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n bed ( s e e Fig. IIIE- 5).

The waste w a t e r i s d i s t r i b u t e d through open- joint p i p e s i n t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n bed which
comprises a 200-500 mm depth of c o a r s e sand and g r a v e l underlying a 100 mm depth of t o p s o i l
p l a n t e d w i t h a fast- growing l o c a l g r a s s . Grasses have high t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e s and t h e waste
w a t e r i s l o s t t o t h e atmosphere by t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
The s i z e of e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n beds i s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e
which i s about 80% of t h e r a t e of evaporation from an exposed water s u r f a c e , o r on t h e b a s i s
of p r o v i d i n g about 15 days' s t o r a g e (during t h e r a i n y season) of t h e e f f l u e n t i n t h e sand
l a y e r , whichever g i v e s t h e l a r g e r a r e a . E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n beds need very c o n s c i e n t i o u s
management i f they a r e t o work w e l l . It i s u s u a l l y p r e f e r a b l e t o combine them w i t h soakage
t r e n c h e s a s shown i n F i g . IIIE- 6.

SECTION A-A

.,

hed
I

lOOmm WC
manifold pipe
.faated
trench

PLAN VIEW

A prototype design for a soakaway mound, for use in areas

where the water table or rock is near the surface.
(Adapted from: Ross Bulletin No. 8, p.43)
Fig. IIIE-5.

100 mm lay= d topoil with

witable 1-1
vegetatian
100 mm lay- d ccuse xnd

/ /

.Stare fill

Fig. IIIE-6. A soakage trench combined with an evapotranspiration bed.

(Adapted from: Ross Bulletin No. 8, p.44)

4.

Large- scale d r a i n a g e works

Low-lying f l a t l a n d s w i t h i n s u f f i c i e n t p e r m e a b i l i t y and inadequate n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e

tend t o r e t a i n w a t e r i n d e f i n i t e l y and form marshes and swamps which a r e s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t s f o r
many mosquito s p e c i e s . Land development agencies and e n t e r p r i s e s w i l l r e c l a i m t h e s e l a n d s
when i t i s economically p r o f i t a b l e t o do s o . I n developing c o u n t r i e s , where i n g e n e r a l land
i s abundant and l a n d r e c l a m a t i o n i n v o l v e s l a r g e investments, swamps and marshes a r e u s u a l l y
l e f t untouched. It i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e h e a l t h a u t h o r i t y t o s t r e s s t h e h e a l t h r i s k
p r e s e n t e d by t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s and t o e x e r t i t s i n f l u e n c e t o induce t h e a p p r o p r i a t e governmental departments t o c a r r y o u t t h e r e q u i r e d works f o r e l i m i n a t i n g o r reducing t h e e x t e n t of
t h e s e dangerous a r e a s . Marshes and o t h e r l a r g e bodies of s t a g n a n t water may o f t e n be s o u r c e s
of f i s h , o r of p l a n t m a t e r i a l s t h a t can b e used f o r house c o n s t r u c t i o n i n r u r a l a r e a s . Before
any d r a i n a g e work f o r mosquito c o n t r o l i s c a r r i e d o u t , i t i s of primary importance t h a t t h e
u s e made of t h e w a t e r should b e thoroughly i n v e s t i g a t e d and t h a t t h e proposed d r a i n a g e should
be a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
4.1

Coastal s i t u a t i o n s

Water t h a t flows seawards u s u a l l y l o s e s i t s energy and v e l o c i t y a s i t reaches t h e

f l a t t e r s l o p e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e c o a s t . River mouths a r e exposed t o t h e i n f l o w of seaw a t e r provoked by t i d a l v a r i a t i o n s i n l e v e l , and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e r i v e r flow i s r e g u l a r l y
r e v e r s e d f o r a v a r i a b l e d i s t a n c e upstream. The s i l t and d e b r i s c a r r i e d by t h e r i v e r water
tend t o s e t t l e and form d e l t a s , w i t h i n t r i c a t e channels and lagoons which i n time may t u r n
i n t o swamps and marshes. River s i l t and d e b r i s combine w i t h beach and dune sands t h a t have
been d i s p l a c e d by s e a waves t o form b a r s a t t h e mouth of streams and t o block o f f e x t e n s i v e
a r e a s of lowlands, from which water can escape only by slow p e r c o l a t i o n a c r o s s t h e beach
b a r r i e r . Thus, a l o n g t h e s h o r e l i n e , mosquito breeding may occur i n t h e r e t a i n e d water of
v a r y i n g degrees of s a l i n i t y , fed by r a i n w a t e r , sewage, seepage and seawater.
Many of t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s can b e made unfavourable f o r Anopheles mosquito breeding by
varying t h e s a l i n i t y of t h e s e b r a c k i s h w a t e r s . This s u b j e c t i s d e a l t w i t h i n d e t a i l i n
Chapter I V . Environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n measures f o r mosquito c o n t r o l i n c o a s t a l swamps a r e
discussed below.
Diking and dewatering of c o a s t a l swamps
The t r e a t m e n t of c o a s t a l marshes and t i d e l a n d s r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l s t u d y . Some have f i r m
bottoms of c o r a l r e e f o r c l a y , and i n o t h e r s t h e bottoms a r e composed of s o f t unconsolidated
m a t e r i a l s t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e depth. I n t h e former c a s e , s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s may be expected
from t h e e x c l u s i o n of t i d e waters by d i k i n g o r embankments. I f t i d e g a t e s a r e i n s t a l l e d a t
t h e d r a i n o u t l e t s , l o c a l runoff may be p e r i o d i c a l l y removed by g r a v i t y o r pumping. I n t h e
l a t t e r c a s e , however, t h e unconsolidated m a t e r i a l w i l l s h r i n k when drained and w i l l l i e below
t h e w a t e r t a b l e , c r e a t i n g d e p r e s s i o n s t h a t a r e more d i f f i c u l t t o t r e a t . Therefore, t h e dryi n g of such grounds by d i k i n g and dewatering should n e i t h e r be expected nor undertaken.
Fig. IIIE- 7 shows an arrangement f o r d i k i n g and dewatering by g r a v i t y . It w i l l be noted
t h a t t h e lagoon i s i s o l a t e d from t h e s e a by s t r e n g t h e n i n g and r a i s i n g t h e n a t u r a l sand
b a r r i e r t o a h e i g h t t h a t w i l l p r e v e n t t h e overflow of s e a w a t e r i n t o t h e lagoon a t high t i d e s .
Across t h e l e v e e , s u i t a b l y spaced p i p e d r a i n s of a p p r o p r i a t e s i z e a r e l a i d w i t h an even and
adequate g r a d i e n t t o d r a i n t h e lagoon water i n t o t h e s e a a t low t i d e s . The upper end of each
d r a i n i s a t a l e v e l n e a r t h e bed of t h e lagoon and f i t t e d w i t h a s u i t a b l y designed i n t a k e
s t r u c t u r e . The lower end of t h e d r a i n i s l o c a t e d s l i g h t l y above t h e mean s e a l e v e l and i s
equipped w i t h a s e l f - c l o s i n g g a t e t o p r e v e n t t h e e n t r a n c e of s e a water a t h i g h t i d e s .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e p i p e d r a i n s of such arrangements should be extended t o some d i s t a n c e i n b
t h e s e a and t h e i r o u t l e t s should b e s u f f i c i e n t l y above t h e s e a bed t o p r e v e n t t h e sand from
clogging t h e flow. They should b e p r o p e r l y anchored t o p r o t e c t them from wave a c t i o n .

lnta ke

92

Levee

Mean sea level

Sea

Natural fill

Fig. I I I E - 7 .

Levee and d i s p o s a l d r a i n f o r g r a v i t y d r a i n a g e of a lagoon

i n t o the sea.
Note t h e i n t a k e s t r u c t u r e w i t h c o n c r e t e w a l l s on t h r e e s i d e s
and t h e f o u r t h s i d e f a c i n g t h e lagoon l e f t open. Grooves a r e
p r o v i d e d on t h e edges of t h e f o u r t h s i d e of t h e i n t a k e s o t h a t
wooden boards of 15-20 cm w i d t h can be s l i d i n a s r e q u i r e d t o
a d j u s t t h e s i l l h e i g h t of t h e opening a s t h e lagoon becomes
n a t u r a l l y f i l l e d w i t h s i l t . When t h e sediment r e a c h e s t h e t o p
of t h e f i r s t board, a second one w i l l be added, and s o on. Thus
t h e bed of t h e lagoon can be g r a d u a l l y r a i s e d w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r i n g
w i t h t h e d r a i n a g e o p e r a t i o n and w i t h o u t any s i l t i n g of t h e d r a i n .

I f t h e lagoon bed i s s o low t h a t dewatering by g r a v i t y w i l l n o t produce s a t i s f a c t o r y

d r a i n a g e , i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o u s e pumping. Subchapter I I I A , s e c t i o n 4 . 4 , p r o v i d e s some
a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on d i k i n g and dewatering.
4.1.2

Open marsh d i t c h i n g

For swamps w i t h s o f t bottoms of u n c o n s o l i d a t e d m a t e r i a l s , t h e o b j e c t should be t o p e r m i t

f r e e c i r c u l a t i o n of h i g h t i d e s on t o t h e low a r e a s and t h e d r a i n a g e of w a t e r o f f t h e s u r f a c e
a t low t i d e s . The s y s t e m of d i t c h e s i n s t a l l e d should t h e r e f o r e r e a c h a l l low p o i n t s t o
p r e v e n t t h e r e t e n t i o n of e i t h e r r a i n w a t e r o r t i d e w a t e r . By p r o v i d i n g e f f i c i e n t connexion
w i t h t h e s e a i n t h i s way, t h e swamp w a t e r w i l l be of a h i g h s a l i n i t y which i s unfavourable f o r
t h e b r e e d i n g of most s p e c i e s of a n o p h e l i n e mosquitos. For t h e c o n t r o l of b r a c k i s h w a t e r
b r e e d e r s , t h e system would have t o depend l a r g e l y upon p r e d a t i o n by n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g o r
i n t r o d u c e d organisms o r l a r v i v o r o u s f i s h . T h e r e f o r e , t h e approach may n o t be s u i t a b l e f o r
a r e a s where t h e major l o c a l v e c t o r i s a b r a c k i s h w a t e r b r e e d e r , s i n c e b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l by
p r e d a t i o n might n o t p r o v i d e t h e d e s i r e d d e g r e e of c o n t r o l .
One way of o p e r a t i n g t h e d i t c h system i s t o connect low p l a c e s o r h o l e s t o each o t h e r and
t o a n a t u r a l o u t l e t ; a n o t h e r i s t o i n s t a l l a p a r a l l e l system w i t h h o l e s connected t o t h e
n e a r e s t d i t c h ( s e e F i g . IIIE- 8). Where c o n v e n i e n t , s o i l from t h e d i t c h e s should be used t o
e l i m i n a t e nearby h o l e s by f i l l i n g .
4.1.3

C l e a r i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g open s t r e a m o u t l e t s

Small s t r e a m o u t l e t s can b e c l e a r e d manually u s i n g hand t o o l s . For c l e a r i n g l a r g e r outl e t s , t h e u s e of equipment may prove t o be more e f f i c i e n t and economical. Where t h e beaches
and b a r s a r e composed mostly of s h i n g l e , an o u t l e t depth of about 0.5 m below low w a t e r l e v e l
would be adequate, and a b u l l d o z e r would b e a s u i t a b l e t y p e of equipment f o r c l e a r i n g t h e
mouth and s p r e a d i n g away t h e excavated m a t e r i a l . Where beaches and b a r s a r e l a r g e l y composed
of sandy m a t e r i a l s , a g r e a t e r o u t l e t d e p t h , s a y about 2 m below low w a t e r l e v e l , w i l l be
r e q u i r e d t o compensate f o r t h e more r a p i d s i l t i n g of t h e channel. The c l e a r i n g can b e
performed e f f i c i e n t l y by d r a g l i n e equipment o r by f l o a t i n g dredges.

Fig. IIIE- 8.

P a t t e r n s of s a l t marsh d i t c h i n g .
P a r a l l e l system, h o l e connecting system and combined system.
Also i l l u s t r a t i n g i n t e r c e p t i n g band d i t c h a t j u n c t i o n of marsh
and upland.

I t must b e expected t h a t t h e c l e a r e d o u t l e t s w i l l sooner o r l a t e r be r e c l o s e d through

t h e same n a t u r a l p r o c e s s t h a t c r e a t e d t h e o r i g i n a l blockage. The r e c l o s i n g may b e slowed
down e i t h e r by t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s h o r e - p e r p e n d i c u l a r j e t t i e s a t t h e f l a n k s of t h e o u t l e t s
i n o r d e r t o check along- shore sediment movements, o r by t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of j e t o r e j e c t o r
pumps w i t h i n t h e s t r e a m mouths which would a u t o m a t i c a l l y dredge o u t t h e accumulation of
l i t t o r a l m a t e r i a l s . An a l t e r n a t i v e t o s t r e a m mouth c l e a r i n g i s t o connect t h e s t r e a m t o t h e
s e a by i n v e r t e d siphons t h a t would exchange i n l a n d and ocean w a t e r s a s a r e s u l t of t i d a l
a c t i o n . However, a l l t h e s e methods a r e expensive and should n o t be a p p l i e d u n l e s s t h e y a r e
economically j u s t i f i e d and t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s has been proved by p i l o t s t u d i e s . Occasional
d r e d g i n g , whenever n e c e s s a r y , i s s t i l l t h e u s u a l method f o r m a i n t a i n i n g s t r e a m o u t l e t s a c r o s s
sand b a r s . The mouth of a s m a l l s t r e a m may be reopened by f l u s h i n g i f w a t e r i s a v a i l a b l e i n
adequate q u a n t i t y f o r t h i s purpose and i f s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s can be c o n s t r u c t e d a t a s i t e of
suitable elevation.

4.2
4.2.1

Inland s i t u a t i o n s
Swamps l o c a t e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y of w a t e r b o d i e s

Swamps on t h e f l a t edges o f , o r i n a r e a s a d j a c e n t t o , l a k e s and ponds a r e due t o overs a t u r a t i o n of t h e s o i l and i n s u f f i c i e n t s l o p e f o r n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e . S u i t a b l e m a r g i n a l

d r a i n a g e connecting t h e swamp t o t h e main body of water, i f t h e topography p e r m i t s , would

p r o v i d e a s o l u t i o n t o s u c h s i t u a t i o n s . I n circumstances where marginal d r a i n a g e a l o n e i s
i n e f f i c i e n t and uneconomical, r e c o u r s e should b e had t o t h e measures d e s c r i b e d i n subchapter
I I I A , s e c t i o n s 4.3 and 4 . 4 ;
o r e l s e t o t h o s e d e s c r i b e d i n subchapter I I I F , s e c t i o n s 6 and 7.
4.2.2

River swamps

Meandering r i v e r s i n f l a t v a l l e y s w i t h a normal slow flow and much s i l t i n g , b u t exposed

t o p e r i o d i c t o r r e n t i a l flows which break through t h e banks and f l o o d t h e low- lying a r e a s along
t h e c o u r s e , may form e x t e n s i v e r i v e r swamps which a r e d i f f i c u l t t o d r a i n . The problem of such
r i v e r swamps can b e solved o r g r e a t l y a l l e v i a t e d by r i v e r channel improvement through methods
d e s c r i b e d i n subchapters I I I C and I I I F .
4.2.3

Swamps r e s u l t i n g from seepage o r s p r i n g s

Swamps can be formed by t h e seepage of s u b s u r f a c e water and t h e d i s c h a r g e of s p r i n g s .

This type of swamp i s u s u a l l y found a t t h e f o o t of r i s i n g ground where r e l i e f and g e o l o g i c a l
c o n d i t i o n s favour t h e flow t o t h e s u r f a c e of perched o r confined w a t e r . Fig. IIIE-9 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t produce such swamps.

(Adapted from: Home, H.

The e n g i n e e r and t h e
p r e v e n t i o n of m a l a r i a .
London, Chapman & H a l l ,

Fig. IIIE- 9.

Conditions t h a t produce a swamp f e d by g e n e r a l seepage

and s p r i n g discharge.

F i g . IIIE- 10 shows a t y p i c a l c a s e of t h e formation of a narrow swamp a t t h e bottom of a

r a v i n e by seepage from t h e h i l l s i d e s . S u i t a b l y designed i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s running p a r a l l e l
with t h e contour a t t h e f o o t h i l l w i l l c o l l e c t t h e seepage water, d i s c h a r g e i t i n t o t h e s t r e a m
below t h e seepage a r e a , and allow t h e swamp t o d r y up.

(Adapted from: Home, H.

The e n g i n e e r and t h e
p r e v e n t i o n of m a l a r i a .
London, Chapman & H a l l ,
1926, p.66)

Interceptor
drains

Fig. IIIE- 10.

WHO 811076

A narrow swamp i n a r a v i n e due t o seepage.

95

I f t h e swamp i s due t o s p r i n g s w i t h i n i t s a r e a , t h e s p r i n g s have t o b e found and d r a i n e d

away from t h e swamp by a p p r o p r i a t e means ( s e e Fig. IIIE- 11).

(Adapted from: Home, H.

The e n g i n e e r and t h e
p r e v e n t i o n of m a l a r i a .
London, Chapman & H a l l ,
1926, p.67)

WHO 81 1077

Fig. I I I E - 1 1 .

A swamp due t o s p r i n g s w i t h i n i t s a r e a .

Drainage o u t f a l l i n t o a stream should e n t e r t h e s t r e a m l a t e r a l l y w i t h t h e c u r r e n t s o t h a t

i t can w i t h s t a n d f l o o d s and m a i n t a i n s t a b i l i t y . It should be borne i n mind t h a t t h e " s h o r t e s t
d i t c h " may be t h e worst l o c a t e d o u t f a l l a s f a r a s maintenance and s t a b i l i t y a r e concerned.
F i g . IIIE-12 shows t h e proper l o c a t i o n (as w e l l a s t h e u n d e s i r a b l e l o c a t i o n ) of t h e o u t f a l l
i n t o t h e stream, and t h e s i d e s l o p e p r o t e c t i o n a t t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t .

Woven Willow Sapling Mats Held on

I Slde Slows with Forked Stakes

SIDE SLOPE PROTECTION AT LATERAL OUTFALL

Downstream Side

PLAN

Fig. IIIE-12. Drainage o u t f a l l i n f l o o d p l a i n c r e e k s .

(Adapted from: Malaria c o n t r o l on impounded w a t e r s . Washington, DC, United S t a t e s
P u b l i c Health S e r v i c e , Tennessee Valley A u t h o r i t y , 1947, p.137).

4.3

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s and s t u d i e s r e q u i r e d f o r d r a i n a g e works

The d r a i n a g e of swamps i s an e f f e c t i v e measure of mosquito c o n t r o l and i s of s p e c i a l

i n t e r e s t i n malarious r e g i o n s . Two main p r i n c i p l e s govern t h e r e c l a m a t i o n of swamp a r e a s :
t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e supply of water t h a t f e e d s t h e swamp; and t h e p r o v i s i o n o r improvement of t h e o u t l e t c a r r y i n g t h e swamp w a t e r away from t h e flooded a r e a . No work should be
s t a r t e d , however, b e f o r e d e f i n i n g t h e problem and s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n . The r e q u i r e d
p r e l i m i n a r y e n g i n e e r i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and s t u d i e s i n c l u d e :
(a) The topographic survey of t h e flooded a r e a and surrounding land needed f o r p r e p a r i n g
a g e n e r a l map which should show contour l i n e s a t 0.5 m e l e v a t i o n i n t e r v a l s , below and above
t h e water l e v e l . These d a t a a r e e s s e n t i a l t o determine t h e volume of swamp w a t e r , t h e s u r f a c e
a r e a covered by t h e swamp a t v a r i o u s e l e v a t i o n s , t h e depth of t h e lowest p o i n t t o be dewatered,
t h e l o c a t i o n of a s u i t a b l e o u t l e t , t h e r o u t e of t h e d i t c h e s , and t h e earthwork involved.
(b) The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e w a t e r s o u r c e t h a t s u p p l i e s t h e swamp i n o r d e r t o determine
whether i t i s s u r f a c e water ( r a i n f a l l and g e n e r a l runoff from neighbouring h i l l s , well- defined
streams, e t c . ) o r s u b s u r f a c e water (seepage o r s p r i n g s ) , and t o a n a l y s e t h e e f f e c t of t h e
probable maximum and minimum flow on downstream water u s e r s a s w e l l a s on downstream v e c t o r
production.
(c) The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e s u b s o i l and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , i t s p e r m e a b i l i t y s o a s t o d e t e r
mine t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of v e r t i c a l drainage.
(d) The s t u d y of d i s t a n c e s from p o p u l a t i o n h a b i t a t i o n , and work and r e c r e a t i o n a r e a s .
This i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d i n a s s e s s i n g t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of i n s t a l l i n g p i p e o r o t h e r closed
c o n d u i t s , o r d i t c h l i n e r s , i n t h e v i c i n i t y of human a c t i v i t i e s .
(e) The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of ways of d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s p o i l . On some l a r g e p r o j e c t s , t h e
s p o i l can be used advantageously e i t h e r t o f i l l the lowest p o i n t s of t h e a r e a t o be d r a i n e d ,
thereby l e s s e n i n g t h e r e q u i r e d d e p t h of t h e o u t l e t channel, o r t o f i l l small l o c a t i o n s which
might o t h e r w i s e r e q u i r e supplementary d r a i n s .
( f ) The s t u d y of t h e environmental i m p l i c a t i o n s and t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n
of d r a i n i n g t h e swamp.
The topographic map w i l l i n d i c a t e whether an o l d channel e x i s t s on t h e bed of t h e swamp
and w i l l e n a b l e i t s c o u r s e t o be t r a c e d . The map may a l s o suggest t h e e x i s t e n c e of an o l d
n a t u r a l o u t l e t t h a t has been o b s t r u c t e d o r i s of i n s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y and depth. These
f i n d i n g s should b e confirmed by a more d e t a i l e d survey along t h e presumed c o u r s e and o u t l e t
site.
Based on t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e water s o u r c e , measures t o i n t e r c e p t t h e waterflow i n t o
t h e swamp may be planned and designed. Such measures may i n c l u d e r e l o c a t i n g o r d i v e r t i n g
streams s o t h a t they d i s c h a r g e o u t of t h e a r e a , digging d i t c h e s and b u i l d i n g l e v e e s along t h e
f o o t of h i l l s o r a t t h e p e r i p h e r y of t h e swamp t o d e f l e c t s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r , o r
tapping s p r i n g s . Methods f o r t h e c l e a r i n g and improvement of an e x i s t i n g o u t l e t o r t h e
p r o v i s i o n of new o u t l e t s a r e a l s o worked o u t . Sometimes a number of a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e formulated s o t h a t t h e most economical i n terms of execution and e f f e c t i v e n e s s may be s e l e c t e d .
The p r e v e n t i o n of water e n t e r i n g t h e swamp and t h e r e l e a s e of water from i t w i l l
g r a d u a l l y lower t h e w a t e r l e v e l . As t h e water recedes and t h e bed i s exposed, seepage water
i s channelled towards t h e o u t l e t . Once t h e swamp problem i s under c o n t r o l , i t may be p o s s i b l e
t o c o n s i d e r o t h e r r e c l a m a t i o n measures such a s n a t u r a l l a n d - f i l l i f a supply of h e a v i l y s i l t e d
w a t e r i s a v a i l a b l e and can be r e a d i l y d i v e r t e d t o t h e swamp a r e a ( s e e subchapter IIIF,
section 5).
In s i t u a t i o n s where t h e swamp i s formed on t h e lowest p o i n t of a closed v a l l e y , t h e
g r a d i e n t w i l l be i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e f r e e d i s c h a r g e of swamp w a t e r through an o u t l e t . An

e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e s u b s o i l may i n d i c a t e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of v e r t i c a l drainage. F a i l i n g t h i s ,
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y may b e considered of d r a i n a g e by pumping through a h i g h - l e v e l o u t l e t ( i f
a v a i l a b l e ) o r a t u n n e l l e d o u t l e t . I n t h i s way, t h e wet a r e a can sometimes be reduced t o a few
deep t r e n c h e s where mosquito production can be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e use of b i o l o g i c a l a g e n t s o r
chemicals.
5.

Methods f o r d i t c h e x c a v a t i o n

Once t h e alignment and g r a d i e n t of t h e d i t c h a r e e s t a b l i s h e d , a p r o f i l e of t h e ground

s u r f a c e along t h e c e n t r e l i n e i s drawn t o determine d i t c h depths and c a l c u l a t e e x c a v a t i o n
volumes.
Work i n t h e f i e l d s t a r t s by l o c a t i n g t h e d i t c h c e n t r e l i n e by d r i v i n g pegs a t r e g u l a r
i n t e r v a l s of 30 t o 50 m.
The pegs may have t o be o f f s e t from t h e d i t c h c e n t r e l i n e t o
f a c i l i t a t e excavation. A frame formed of a h o r i z o n t a l b a t t e n and two p o s t s i s f i x e d a c r o s s
t h e f u t u r e channel a t each p o i n t marked by a peg ( s e e Fig. IIIE- 13). The e l e v a t i o n of t h e
h o r i z o n t a l b a t t e n i s such t h a t a s t r e t c h e d cord over a s e t of b a t t e n s w i l l produce a guidel i n e above t h e ground, p a r a l l e l t o and a t a f i x e d h e i g h t over t h e channel bed. Excavation
workers a r e provided w i t h s t a f f s , c a l l e d grade r o d s , marked t o show t h e s t a n d a r d d i s t a n c e
between t h e cord and channel bed. The s t a f f i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p e r i o d i c a l checking of t h e
excavation depth. The cord can b e removed s o t h a t i t does n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e work and i s
only s t r e t c h e d when r e q u i r e d f o r checking. A s t h e accuracy of t h e work depends on t h e proper
l e v e l l i n g of t h e h o r i z o n t a l b a t t e n s , g r e a t c a r e should be p a i d t o t h i s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n
precise results.
Batten,

Section of the

\
Fig. IIIE- 13.

5.1

/
/

'

l Ii

Guiding frame f o r alignment and depth of d i t c h e s .

Hand-excavated d i t c h e s

I n t h e r u r a l a r e a s of developing c o u n t r i e s , manual l a b o u r i s u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e f o r
excavation work. Manual e x c a v a t i o n can produce good and cheap r e s u l t s i f t h e l a b o u r f o r c e i s
d i s c i p l i n e d and w e l l organized. The work i s r a t h e r slow and can be d i f f i c u l t i f t h e s u b s t r a t a
a r e hard and rocky; excavating machines and e x p l o s i v e s may have t o be brought i n t o loosen
such m a t e r i a l s .
Excavation by hand i s s u i t a b l e f o r small and medium d i t c h e s ; t h e width of t r a p e z o i d a l
d i t c h e s may range from 0.3 t o 2.5 m. For wider d i t c h e s , machinery i s i n d i c a t e d a l t h o u g h hand
excavation can r e a c h d e p t h s of 6-7 m u s i n g t h e "bench technique" . With a p i c k and s h o v e l , an
experienced l a b o u r e r can d i g about 2 m3 d a i l y i n l i g h t l y compacted s o i l s (sandy loams, loams)
a t shallow d e p t h s , n o t exceeding 1 m. A t g r e a t e r d e p t h s , o u t p u t drops r a p i d l y and a t depths

over 1 . 5 m, s t a g e d e x c a v a t i o n w i t h a second l i f t ( o r more) i s needed t o b r i n g t h e s p o i l t o t h e

s u r f a c e . A d d i t i o n a l l a b o u r i s needed f o r l o a d i n g and c a r t i n g t h e s p o i l . These f i g u r e s a r e
v a l i d f o r a s t r o n g and experienced worker. With o t h e r l a b o u r e r s , l e s s than 50 % of t h i s outp u t may be achieved.

5.2

Machine-excavated d i t c h e s

Machine e x c a v a t i o n i s becoming more common i n developing c o u n t r i e s d e s p i t e t h e heavy

i n i t i a l c o s t s and h i g h p r i c e of f u e l . The most obvious advantage i s i t s e f f i c i e n c y and
r a p i d i t y . Less obvious b u t e q u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l a r e t h e s a v i n g s i n food and lodging, d i r e c t i o n
and c o n t r o l of workers, and s u p e r v i s i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e work.
The l a r g e r d i t c h e s , between 3 and 30 m bottom w i d t h , a r e dug by equipment t h a t may
i n c l u d e power s h o v e l s , c r a n e s and t r e n c h e x c a v a t o r s ; ploughs and s c r a p e r s a r e a l s o used. The
c h o i c e of heavy equipment f o r excavation l a r g e l y depends on t h e s i z e of t h e p r o j e c t , t y p e of
s o i l , c o s t of moving t h e equipment t o t h e o p e r a t i o n s i t e , a v a i l a b i l i t y of s k i l f u l o p e r a t o r s ,
and maintenance.
I n g e n e r a l a power crane w i t h a d r a g l i n e bucket i s most s u i t a b l e f o r long s t r e t c h e s of
d i t c h e s . Trenching machines g r e a t l y s i m p l i f y t h e c u t t i n g of s i d e s l o p e s , and tractor- drawn
ploughs and s c r a p e r s can b e used economically t o c u t shallow d i t c h e s i n s o f t ground.
Before s t a r t i n g e a r t h excavation, whether by hand o r machine, t h e ground should be cleared
of dense v e g e t a t i o n , t r e e s and r o c k s . Vegetation can be c u t mechanically w i t h mowers, burned,
o r k i l l e d w i t h h e r b i c i d e s ; r o c k s and t r e e stumps can be removed w i t h winches, t r a c t o r s o r
explosives

5.3

Ditching with explosives

The main advantages of excavating d i t c h e s w i t h e x p l o s i v e s a r e reduced c o s t s , r a p i d complet i o n of t h e t a s k , no overhead expense f o r equipment, no need f o r d i s p o s a l of excavated
m a t e r i a l , s i m p l i c i t y i n o p e r a t i o n , s u i t a b i l i t y f o r c o n d i t i o n s where o t h e r methods a r e d i f f i c u l t
t o a p p l y , and v e r s a t i l i t y i n t h e s i z e of d i t c h e s t o be dug.
Two methods a r e used f o r b l a s t i n g d i t c h e s :
(a) The propagation method c o n s i s t s i n priming only one c a r t r i d g e i n a s e t o r l i n e of
charged h o l e s . The concussion produced from t h e explosion of t h e primed c a r t r i d g e i s propagat e d through t h e e a r t h and s e t s o f f t h e whole l i n e of charges. The priming may be done
e l e c t r i c a l l y o r by a time f u s e . Adequate propagation t a k e s p l a c e only i n wet s o i l s ; when t h e
s o i l can b e moulded i n t h e hands s o t h a t i t s t i c k s t o g e t h e r i n a b a l l , i t u s u a l l y c o n t a i n s
enough m o i s t u r e f o r t h i s method. I n l e s s m o i s t s o i l s , b l a s t i n g by propagation w i l l r e q u i r e
s h o r t e r d i s t a n c e s between charges and w i l l t h e r e f o r e be l e s s cheap.
(b) The e l e c t r i c a l method c o n s i s t s of i n s e r t i n g an e l e c t r i c b l a s t i n g cap i n every
charge, connecting i t t o a n e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t e i t h e r i n s e r i e s o r p a r a l l e l , and d e t o n a t i n g t h e
whole s e t simultaneously b y means of a b l a s t i n g machine. It i s more expensive t h a n t h e
propagation method because of t h e c o s t of w i r e , b l a s t i n g caps, e t c . , and t a k e s l o n g e r t o
p r e p a r e , b u t i t can be employed i n any type of ground except dry l o o s e sand, i n which i t i s
p r a c t i c a l l y impossible t o b l a s t d i t c h e s .
For b l a s t i n g shallow d i t c h e s t h e two most common p a t t e r n s f o r p l a c i n g t h e dynamite
charges a r e :
(a) A s i n g l e l i n e of h o l e s , spaced a t equal i n t e r v a l s along t h e c e n t r e l i n e of t h e
proposed d i t c h . The depth of t h e charge depends on t h e wetness and l o o s e n e s s of t h e s o i l
m a t e r i a l . I n g e n e r a l , t h e w e t t e r and l o o s e r t h e s o i l , t h e c l o s e r t o t h e s u r f a c e t h e dynamite
c a r t r i d g e should be placed f o r b e s t r e s u l t s . A good r u l e of thumb i s t h a t t h e top of t h e
uppermost c a r t r i d g e i n a h o l e should never b e more t h a n 30 cm under t h e s u r f a c e . Where t h e

ground i s extremely s o f t and wet, 10 cm under t h e s u r f a c e i s s u f f i c i e n t .

g e n e r a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e s i n g l e - l i n e p a t t e r n of loads.

Table IIIE- 1.
(Adapted from:

Cartridges
per hole

Depth t o
top of charge
(m)

Table I I I E - 1 g i v e s

S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r s i n g l e - l i n e p a t t e r n of loads
Ditching w i t h dynamite.

Depth of
ditch
(m)

Top width
of d i t c h
(m)

Wilmington, DE, 1955).

D i St a n c e
betweenholes
(m)

Dynamite
required
(kg/100 m)

The c a r t r i d g e r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s t a b l e i s one w i t h an approximate weight of 0.23 kg

c o n t a i n i n g 50 % s t r a i g h t n i t r o g l y c e r i n dynamite.
( b ) The c r o s s - s e c t i o n p a t t e r n i s designed f o r wide, shallow d i t c h e s . It c o n s i s t s of
a c e n t r e l i n e of h o l e s , a s i n t h e s i n g l e - l i n e p a t t e r n , with p e r p e n d i c u l a r c r o s s rows l o c a t e d
a t every o t h e r h o l e of t h e c e n t r e l i n e . Fig. IIIE- 14 i n d i c a t e s t h e p l a n t o be followed when
loading one c a r t r i d g e p e r h o l e a t 38 cm s p a c i n g ; i f more t h a n one c a r t r i d g e per h o l e i s
r e q u i r e d , r e f e r t o Table IIIE- 2 which g i v e s t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e same g e n e r a l p a t t e r n
w i t h a v a r i a t i o n i n d i s t a n c e s between h o l e s on t h e c e n t r e l i n e and between holes i n t h e c r o s s
rows

Dynamite
required

Outside edge
of ditch

180 kg1100 m

(Adapted from:
E . I . du Pont de
Nemours & Co.
Ditching w i t h
dynamite,
Wilmington,
Delaware, 1955)

WHO 811079

F i g . IIIE-14.

Ditching w i t h dynamite. (1) The c r o s s - s e c t i o n loading p a t t e r n one c a r t r i d g e per h o l e , 38 cm spacing, depth of d i t c h 0.76 t o 0.91 m.

Table IIIE- 2.
(Adapted from:

S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r c r o s s - s e c t i o n p a t t e r n of l o a d s .
Ditching w i t h dynamite.

Wilmington, DE, 1955).

C a r t r i d g e s per h o l e
Distances between holes (m)
p
p
-

Distances between c r o s s rows (m)

1.5-1.65

Depth of d i t c h (m)

Number of h o l e s p e r c r o s s row

Dynamite
(kg1100 m)

Width

(m)

Dynamite
(kg1100 m)

Width
(m)

Width
(m)

Dynamite
(kg1100 m)

0
0

5.20

375

6.40
7.60
8.80
10.00

The c a r t r i d g e r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s Table i s one w i t h an approximate weight of 0.23 kg c o n t a i n i n g 50% s t r a i g h t

n i t r o g l y c e r i n dynamite.

Both t h e diagram and t h e Table a r e r e l e v a n t t o wet, s o f t s o i l c o n d i t i o n s which a r e most

favourable t o propagation. V a r i a t i o n s i n r e s u l t s may be expected i n d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s and
t e s t s h o t s should be run t o determine t h e b e s t l o a d i n g p l a n .
A l l h o l e s should b e bored t o t h e bed l e v e l of t h e proposed d i t c h o r s l i g h t l y above i t ;
i n uneven ground, t h e h o l e s w i l l t h e r e f o r e b e bored t o d i f f e r e n t depths. More c a r t r i d g e s
should go i n t h e deeper h o l e s ( s e e Fig. IIIE- 15). The h o l e s should be v e r t i c a l and i n a
s t r a i g h t alignment.
15-30 cm
to too of load

Fig. IIIE- 15.

5.4

Ground surface
\

Ditching w i t h dynamite, (2) When t h e ground s u r f a c e v a r i e s ,

t h e load i s modified t o m a i n t a i n t h e bottom of t h e d i t c h a t
the required l e v e l .
(Adapted from: E . I . du Pont de Nemours & Co. Ditching w i t h
dynamite, Wilmington, Delaware, 1955).

Precautions during b l a s t i n g

Experience shows t h a t b l a s t i n g methods f o r d i t c h i n g can be a s s a f e a s any o t h e r method

provided t h a t workers a r e p r o p e r l y t r a i n e d and t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s on t h e handling and use
of e x p l o s i v e s i s s u e d by t h e manufacturers and by s a f e t y c o u n c i l s a r e s t r i c t l y followed.
Accidents and i n j u r i e s from e x p l o s i v e s a r e too o f t e n caused by workmen i g n o r i n g s a f e t y
p r a c t i c e s . A s t u d y on such a c c i d e n t s i n mining p i t s and q u a r r i e s , i n logging, c o n s t r u c t i o n
and t u n n e l l i n g o p e r a t i o n s , i n a g r i c u l t u r e , and i n t h e petroleum i n d u s t r y , i n d i c a t e s t h a t about
74 % of t h e i n j u r i e s occurred d u r i n g b l a s t i n g , 12 % occurred b e f o r e b l a s t i n g ( i . e . , l o a d i n g
a c c i d e n t s ) , and 14 % occurred a f t e r b l a s t i n g . A l l t h e workers i n j u r e d d u r i n g b l a s t i n g e i t h e r
took poor s h e l t e r o r took no s h e l t e r a t a l l , o r s t a y e d too c l o s e t o t h e scene of b l a s t i n g .
A f l y i n g rock c a n break a s k u l l a t a d i s t a n c e of 100 m. Richocheting rocks may come from any
d i r e c t i o n ; i t i s n o t enough t o t a k e cover f a c i n g t h e b l a s t i n g scene.
The s u p e r v i s o r i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s a f e t y of t h e men. He should p l a n each job w i t h
s a f e t y w e l l i n mind, choose h i s men c a r e f u l l y , and t r a i n them p r o p e r l y ; they should know
about t h e hazards of t h e i r job and t h e p r e c a u t i o n s t o be taken. The s u p e r v i s o r should s e e that
adequate s h e l t e r s a r e provided and make s u r e t h a t t h e workers u s e them. Wherever s h e l t e r s
cannot be provided he should s e e t h a t workers a r e p r o t e c t e d by n a t u r a l b a r r i e r s o r t h a t they
l e a v e t h e b l a s t i n g a r e a i n time. He i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s t o r a g e , t r a n s p o r t and handl i n g of e x p l o s i v e s . He should s u p e r v i s e s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s , v e h i c l e s , and loading and f i r i n g
equipment s o t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s kept i n good c o n d i t i o n .
I n c e r t a i n c o u n t r i e s , t h e use of e x p l o s i v e s i s r e s t r i c t e d f o r s e c u r i t y reasons and
b l a s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s may have t o b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e consent and under t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of
an army o r p o l i c e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .

IIIF.

LAND FILLING AND GRADING

Contents

Page
1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

6.
7.

1.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Land f i l l i n g and grading f o r a g r i c u l t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
S m a l l f i l l s f o r m o s q u i t o c o n t r o l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
S a n i t a r y land f i l l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Land shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
N a t u r a l f i l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Large h y d r a u l i c f i l l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Introduction

Introduction

F i l l i n g of small h o l e s , p i t s , ponds and o t h e r s i m i l a r w a t e r pockets i n and around

v i l l a g e s i s a simple and e f f e c t i v e means of mosquito s o u r c e r e d u c t i o n and has been used i n
m a l a r i a c o n t r o l programmes w i t h good r e s u l t s . Land f i l l i n g and grading f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
purposes can h e l p i n mosquito c o n t r o l by e l i m i n a t i n g shallow topographic d e p r e s s i o n s and low
s p o t s on farm l a n d s which, when f i l l e d w i t h r a i n and i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r , c r e a t e h a b i t a t s f o r
mosquitos.
2.

Land f i l l i n g and grading f o r a g r i c u l t u r e

Land f i l l i n g and grading f o r a g r i c u l t u r e c o n s i s t i n c o r r e c t i n g i r r e g u l a r i t i e s of t h e land

s u r f a c e w i t h a view t o improved i r r i g a t i o n . It i s an e s s e n t i a l p r a c t i c e p r i o r t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of s u r f a c e i r r i g a t i o n methods which depend on t h e r a p i d and even d i s t r i b u t i o n of w a t e r
over t h e l a n d . Within c e r t a i n l i m i t s , land f i l l i n g and grading can be u s e f u l i n c o r r e c t i n g
depth d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e f e r t i l e t o p s o i l , f l a t t e n i n g s t e e p s l o p e s and improving d r a i n a g e .
Land f i l l i n g and grading may be i m p r a c t i c a l and uneconomical where t h e s o i l i s e x c e s s i w l y
permeable and high d i s c h a r g e s a r e needed t o overcome l o s s e s by p e r c o l a t i o n , where t h e t o p s o i l
i s very shallow and c u t t i n g w i l l b r i n g u n s u i t a b l e s o i l s t o t h e s u r f a c e , where t h e roughness
of t h e topography demands l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of earthwork, where t h e land i s too s t e e p and t h e
r e s u l t i n g grades w i l l n o t e n s u r e s u i t a b l e w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t e r o s i o n ,
and where t h e land i s s o f l a t and low t h a t d r a i n a g e i s a l r e a d y d i f f i c u l t , although t h i s
depends on t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of i n t r o d u c i n g pumped d r a i n a g e . Where land t o b e i r r i g a t e d cannot
be economically improved by land f i l l i n g and grading, t h e s o l u t i o n may b e i n s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n o r some form of l o c a l i z e d i r r i g a t i o n .
Where p o s s i b l e , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o remove a l l v e g e t a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t r e e s and brushwood,
b e f o r e e a r t h moving s t a r t s . Medium t o l a r g e - s c a l e f i l l i n g and grading o p e r a t i o n s a r e b e t t e r
c a r r i e d out by mechanical equipment. The job i s t o s c r a p e r a t h e r t h a n excavate t h e ground,
and machinery cannot be surpassed f o r t h i s . Where a v a i l a b l e , animal-drawn s c r a p e r s may be
more p r a c t i c a l and economical.
An o v e r a l l survey of t h e land i s needed b e f o r e p r e p a r i n g a land-forming p l a n f o r t h e
e n t i r e farm. The a c t u a l f i l l i n g and grading work i s u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t over s e v e r a l y e a r s ,
a d e f i n e d a r e a b e i n g completed each y e a r , because of f i n a n c i a l and time l i m i t a t i o n s . The

f i n a l grades of land should b e uniform, w i t h o u t d e p r e s s i o n s o r low a r e a s , t o f a c i l i t a t e i r r i g a

t i o n . The s e r v i c e s of an engineer a r e r e q u i r e d t o handle t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e e n t i r e
f i l l i n g and grading job, i n c l u d i n g t h e d e t a i l e d survey and complete s e t of p l a n s , s e t t i n g
s t a k e s t o i n d i c a t e c u t s and f i l l s , i n s p e c t i n g and checking t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e work, and
g i v i n g f i n a l approval of t h e f i n i s h e d job.

3.

Small f i l l s f o r mosquito c o n t r o l

For mosquito c o n t r o l t h e s i z e of t h e a r e a t o be f i l l e d and graded i s of secondary

importance; t h e b r e e d i n g p o t e n t i a l i s n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e e x t e n t of t h e h a b i t a t .
Mosquito production may be more a c t i v e i n an unused d i t c h than i n a r e s e r v o i r o r l a k e , and
more dangerous i f l o c a t e d n e a r e r t o human s e t t l e m e n t s .
I n m a l a r i a endemic a r e a s , f i l l i n g o p e r a t i o n s should be d i r e c t e d t o l a r g e and s m a l l
d e p r e s s i o n s , e x c a v a t i o n s , and h o l e s ( l o c a t e d i n and around v i l l a g e s ) which may h o l d w a t e r and
s e r v e a s h a b i t a t f o r mosquito l a r v a e . Borrow p i t s , abandoned d i t c h e s , waterholes and unused
w e l l s come i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y . They a t t r a c t l i t t l e p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n and t h e h e a l t h o f f i c i a l
i s perhaps t h e only person i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i r e l i m i n a t i o n .
Most of t h e s e d e p r e s s i o n s and h o l e s can be f i l l e d without t h e need of engineering s k i l l .
S u i t a b l e waste m a t e r i a l s a r e o f t e n a v a i l a b l e f o r f i l l i n g small d e p r e s s i o n s . Otherwise, t h e
e a r t h needed f o r f i l l i n g should b e t a k e n from ground where t h e r e i s a s h a r p change of s l o p e
o r from s t e e p l a n d . I n f a c t , very s t e e p land exposed t o e r o s i o n can be improved by f l a t t e n i n g
p a r t of i t . I n very f l a t l a n d s , t h e removal of top e a r t h , i n such a way t h a t a g r e a t e r s l o p e
w i l l r e s u l t , w i l l improve t h e n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e towards an e x i s t i n g stream o r d i t c h .
Fig. IIIF- 1 shows t h e v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s s u i t a b l e f o r excavating m a t e r i a l f o r l a n d f i l l i n g .

Changn of dope

Fig. IIIF- 1.

D i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s where f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l can be o b t a i n e d
w i t h o u t r i s k of producing mosquito h a b i t a t s .

Hand t o o l s such a s s h o v e l s , p i c k s and wheelbarrows a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r f i l l i n g small

a r e a s ; simple animal-drawn s c r a p e r s and c a r t s can be used f o r l a r g e r a r e a s . The t r a c t o r has
become a f a m i l i a r f e a t u r e on a g r i c u l t u r a l land i n most of t h e developing c o u n t r i e s . Farmers,
road c o n t r a c t o r s , p u b l i c works departments, o r mining and i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s can be asked
t o p r o v i d e a p i e c e of equipment and d r i v e r f o r a few hours when n o t otherwise employed.
F i l l s , whether l a r g e o r s m a l l , should always be graded i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l
ground s l o p e s o t h a t w a t e r w i l l run o f f w i t h o u t impediment; a s t h e f i l l s e t t l e s , more e a r t h
should b e added u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d grade i s e s t a b l i s h e d . Ithen t h e d e p r e s s i o n goes below t h e

ground w a t e r t a b l e and w a t e r i s always p r e s e n t , t h e f i l l i n g should be s t a r t e d a t t h e upslope

end s o t h a t , a s t h e f i l l i n g proceeds, t h e w a t e r i s pushed ahead towards t h e n a t u r a l o u t l e t .
Although small l a n d f i l l i n g i s a r e l a t i v e l y simple o p e r a t i o n , i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o avoid
t h e c r e a t i o n of h o l e s o r p i t s i n t h e course of e n g i n e e r i n g a c t i v i t i e s . Borrow p i t s a r e an
example o f t h i s problem which can r e a c h c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n s . Road a u t h o r i t i e s should be
aware of t h e h e a l t h i m p l i c a t i o n s of borrow p i t s and should n o t permit them t o remain undrained

4.

Sanitary l a n d f i l l

S a n i t a r y land f i l l i s a method used both f o r r e f u s e d i s p o s a l and f o r l a n d reclamation.

The method c o n s i s t s i n dumping a l a y e r of r e f u s e on a s e l e c t e d s i t e and p l a c i n g an e a r t h
cover on i t each day a f t e r compaction. The land reclaimed can be used a s a s i t e f o r p a r k s ,
r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s and outdoor s t o r a g e .
Small t o medium-sized d e p r e s s i o n s where w a t e r may c o l l e c t and remain s t a g n a n t f o r p e r i o d s
longer t h a n 10-14 d a y s , t h u s c r e a t i n g mosquito b r e e d i n g problems, may be e l i m i n a t e d by t h i s
method. However, f i l l i n g must be c a r r i e d o u t i n s t r i c t accordance w i t h t h e recommended
p r a c t i c e of s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l , i . e . , t h e d a i l y p l a c i n g of an e a r t h cover on t h e r e f u s e i n
o r d e r t o p r e v e n t odour and u n s i g h t l i n e s s , and t o avoid t h e b r e e d i n g of f l i e s and t h e harbouri n g of r o d e n t s i n t h e dumps.

5.

Land s h a ~ i n ~

Where i n s u f f i c i e n t f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e f o r proper grading o r where t h e c o s t of

t h e earthwork involved i s p r o h i b i t i v e , land shaping may o f f e r an a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n . I t s
purpose i s t o smooth o u t roughnesses i n t h e topography, w i t h o u t any major a l t e r a t i o n except
f o r what i s needed t o improve t h e s u r f a c e drainage. Although l a n d shaping may n o t produce
t h e even and continuous s l o p e s t h a t r e s u l t from land grading which i s r e q u i r e d f o r good
s u r f a c e i r r i g a t i o n , i t g e n e r a l l y improves t h e topography and s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e , w i t h t h e
e l i m i n a t i o n of h o l e s o r pockets t h a t may h o l d water. It i s t h e r e f o r e an e f f e c t i v e measure f o r
mosquito c o n t r o l . I n h i l l y o r r o l l i n g country, where proper g r a d i n g cannot be economically
j u s t i f i e d , land shaping i s t h e r e f o r e a good a l t e r n a t i v e . Fig. IIIF- 2 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e
d i f f e r e n c e between shaping and g r a d i n g and shows t h e same o r i g i n a l s u r f a c e p r o f i l e , a s shaped
f o r d r a i n a g e (on t o p ) and a s graded f o r s u r f a c e i r r i g a t i o n (below).
SURFACE SHAPED FOR DRAINAGE
,c--*

Existing surface

----

- ---t7

O+w
F i g . IIIF- 2.

?+W

2+w
3+W
4+w
5+00
SURFACE GRADED FOR SURFACE IRRIGATION

6+00

Comparative p r o f i l e s of a l a n d s u r f a c e , a s shaped f o r
d r a i n a g e (on top) and a s graded f o r i r r i g a t i o n (below).

Land shaping can a l s o b e s u i t a b l e f o r d r a i n i n g f l a t l a n d s where a s l o p e i s r e q u i r e d .

P a r a l l e l d i t c h e s a r e dug i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of maximum s l o p e ; t h e excavated m a t e r i a l i s used
f o r forming e i t h e r a convex s u r f a c e between t h e two d i t c h e s w i t h t h e v e r t e x of t h e curve
running midway and p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i t c h e s , o r a continuous grade between d i t c h e s w i t h t h e
lower end on t h e edge of one d i t c h and t h e h i g h e r end on t h e edge of t h e n e x t d i t c h ( s e e
Fig. IIIF- 3). The s p a c i n g and s i z e of t h e d i t c h e s a r e d i c t a t e d by t h e volume of f i l l i n g
r e q u i r e d . This shaping i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e where t h e ground water t a b l e i s n o t c l o s e t o
t h e s u r f a c e , a s i n t h a t c a s e t h e d i t c h e s might have t o be dug deeper t h a n would o t h e r w i s e be
required.
Establish a continuous grade by cutting on the lower
and filling on the upper end. Fill all depressions and
remove all barriers.
/

Use excavated material from ditches

as fill for establishing grade.

Establish a continuous grade to a developed ridge midway between field

ditches by cutting from ditches and filling toward centre
of land between ditches.
Ridge

TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF GROUND SURFACE THAT HAS L l l T L E OR NO GENERAL

SLOPE AND IS COVERED WITH MANY SMALL DEPRESSIONS AND POCKETS

Fig. IIIF- 3.

6.

Methods of grading land s u r f a c e s f o r drainage.

Natural f i l l s

Where r a i n f a l l i s i n t e n s e and f r e q u e n t , runoff flowing i n t o d i t c h e s and streams c a r r i e s

heavy c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of sediment. By a p p r o p r i a t e planning, t h i s sediment can be t r a p p e d ,
allowed t o s e t t l e , and used a s a f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l t o e l i m i n a t e i n due course a swamp o r i n t e r m i t t e n t l y flooded a r e a .
To f a c i l i t a t e t h e n a t u r a l f i l l i n g p r o c e s s , t h e o u t l e t of t h e swamp o r t h e low a r e a i s
provided w i t h temporary g a t e s , w e i r s , l e v e e s o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s t o r e g u l a t e t h e outflow s o
t h a t t h e whole d e p r e s s i o n works a s a s e t t l i n g b a s i n . The stream c a r r y i n g t h e sediment- laden
w a t e r i s d i v e r t e d t o d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e swamp j u s t above t h e low p o i n t of t h e a r e a t o be
f i l l e d ; t h e incoming water spreads o u t and l o s e s i t s i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y s o t h a t t h e sediment
may s e t t l e on t h e bed and g r a d u a l l y f i l l t h e swamp.
The e l e v a t i o n of t h e o u t l e t s t r u c t u r e should n o t be h i g h e r t h a n t h e f i n a l e l e v a t i o n of
t h e d e s i r e d f i l l i n g . A V-shaped w e i r a t t h e o u t l e t w i l l a l l o w t h e d i s c h a r g e of t h e i n c r e a s e d
outflow r e s u l t i n g from t h e f i l l i n g of t h e swamp and r a i s i n g of t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e l e v e l ,
without i n t e r r u p t i n g t h e s i l t i n g a c t i o n .

7.

Largehydraulic f i l l

Where h y d r a u l i c dredging t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e v i c i n i t y , t h e method of l a r g e h y d r a u l i c f i l l

o f f e r s a means of d i s p o s i n g of t h e dredged m a t e r i a l by u s i n g i t f o r f i l l i n g . I t i s s u i t a b l e
f o r t h e f i l l i n g of very l a r g e a r e a s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e a d j a c e n t t o a r i v e r c o u r s e , navigat i o n channel o r s e a c o a s t , a t a very low a d d i t i o n a l c o s t .
Suction dredges a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h c e n t r i f u g a l pumps s p e c i f i c a l l y designed t o pump

slurries containing 10-15% solids by weight. The solids range from fine and coarse sediments
to gravel and cobbles. Large volumes of water and sediment are moved by such dredging.
During operation, a floating discharge and disposal line connect the dredge to the shore.
Large hydraulic fill projects are rarely attempted solely for malaria or mosquito control,
but when such a project is implemented in connexion with the dredging of a river or harbour,
arrangements may sometimes be made to have the soil deposited so as to eliminate a large
source of Anopheles mosquitos. Nany projects of this type have been implemented. An outstanding example is the disposal of dredgings from the Panama Canal, which eliminated
thousands of acres of Anopheles breeding places that would otherwise have been difficult to
control.
In the disposal of dredgings, caution should be taken to prevent mosquito breeding in the
cracks that appear as the dredged material dries out.

IIIG.

SETTLEMENT OF POPULATION AND PROTECTION OF WORK FORCE

Contents

Page
1.

2.
3.

1.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Protection of work force during construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Ant imalaria measures for immigration areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Resettlement and settlement of population

Resettlement and settlement of population

Major environmental management works such as the impoundment of water and the system of
water conveyance for irrigation are always associated with the moving and settlement of population~. The people living in the basin of the proposed reservoir need to be resettled and
the immigrant population that moves in for permanent or seasonal settlement needs attentien
and help. Accommodation for both these groups must be planned and constructed in advance.
Furthermore, the labour force brought in for the construction of works as well as the settled
or resettled population needs to be protected against the health risks of the project area
(see section 2 below).
The pattern of settlement to be adopted, either grouped (villages) or ungrouped
(scattered houses), depends on the tradition and cultural background of the population
concerned. In general, it is easier to provide facilities and services in the village type of
settlement and to protect it against malaria and other vector-borne diseases. Environmental
management operations for mosquito control need to be carried out only around villages,
whereas in scattered settlement situations the operational coverage must be much wider in
extent. Changing the pattern of settlement may have many social and cultural implications;
nevertheless, the grouped settlement pattern has great advantages and, wherever not adopted,
deserves serious consideration.
In any resettlement or settlement project, site selection is the primary consideration.
Settlements should be located as far away from mosquito sources as possible. Sanitary
facilities of a standard that ensures protection against disease transmission should be
provided. The provision of drainage ditches to get rid of rainwater and of proper drainage
for each water point (handpump, standpost, etc.) to remove spilt and waste water is an
important measure for reducing mosquito sources.
Apart from the abovementioned environmental management measures which are of a permanent
nature and have relatively slow but long-lasting effects, it may be necessary to undertake
measures to provide immediate protection. These may include medical screening of new arrivals,
treatment of detected cases and chemoprophylaxis, spraying of houses with residual insecticides, mosquito proofing of houses, and other methods as discussed in Chapter V. It must be
remembered that the establishment of an effective health service, including a primary health
care network, is the most basic requirement for the protection of human health and should be
given priority in any resettlement or settlement undertaking.
2.

Protection of work force during construction

Water resource projects and other development projects require groups of workers assembled at construction sites. This situation is liable to produce epidemics of communicable
diseases, particularly those transmitted by vectors. Newly arrived workers may have previously
been exposed to different infections and some may even harbour disease agents. Measures need
to be taken to prevent the spread of disease.

The work force is usually provided with health care and housing by the construction firms.
The latter should be reminded that the sites for the required living quarters and field offices
should be properly selected and that adequate sanitary facilities should be provided. The
local health authorities or the government department responsible for the project should
reserve the right to review construction camp plans and to inspect arrangements for water
supply, liquid and solid wastes disposal, and sanitation of bath houses, bunk houses, the mess
hall and kitchen. For the health protection of the work force, the same measures need to be
taken as described in section 1 above for new settlers.
Experience has shown that in addition to the "official" work force, there is usually a
large influx of work seekers, traders, etc. These unsupervised immigrants pose a real health
threat, during both the construction and the operational phases of the project, in an area
formerly uninhabited and hence totally devoid of facilities. It is important for this problem
to be planned for in advance. Some sort of control over the movement of population into the
construction areas may prove useful.

3.

Antimalaria measures for immigration areas

Detailed suggestions on antimalaria measures to protect the work force in the project
areas and the general population in new settlement areas are given in Manual on Personal and
A summary tabulation of suggested measures, included
Community Protection against Malaria.&
in that manual as an annex, is reproduced on the next page.
In connexion with the table, the following points are to be noted:
The measures suggested for countries with a malaria eradication programme differ
(i)
from those for countries with a simple malaria control programme only in the great importance
given to surveillance in the former countries.
(ii) Please note the following values. Hypoendemic: spleen rate ~10%. Highly
dangerous: spleen rate 11-30%. Extremely dangerous: spleen rate >30%.

(iii) The scheme of antimalaria measures suggested for application in various malariogenic situations envisages a higher degree of malaria transmission than would be expected in
non-immigrant populations; therefore, it may be too demanding. Also, the sharp distinction
between "high-danger" and "extreme dangert' zones on the basis of spleen rate only is too
artificial. The responsible epidemiologist should therefore use his discretion to decide
whether, under the local circumstances, a less aggressive approach can be adopted without
risk.

a
-WHO Offset Publication, No. 10, 1974, p.38.

SUUMARY OF MEASURES ADVISED FOR ILMIGRATIM AREAS:

WITH A MAIARIA ERADICATIU4 PROORAWE

A.

Planned developlent projects

C
yesRC
nc

Hypoendemicity
High danger w n e
Extreme danger w n e
If indigenous cases still persist,
supplement with:
B.

New settlements
p&
no
no

Hypoendemicity
High danger zone
Extreme danger zone
If indigenous cases still persist,
supplement with:
WITH NO MAIARIA ERADICATION PROGRAMME
BUT WITH A MAIARIA CONTROL OR(IANI7ATION
C.

Planned develoment projects

Hypoendemicity
High danger zone
Extreme danger zone
If numerous new cases still occur,
supplement with:

D.

New settlements

Hypoendemicity
High danger zone
Extreme danger zone
If numerous new cases still occur,
supplement with:
7

WITHOUT A MAIARIA CONTROL ORlXNIWTIU4

E.

Planned development projects

mina

Major projects
Minor projects
F.

New settlements

E+

- obligatory;
-

(+)

- optional; a, a' - alternatives.

FS
full surveillance (during first year of attack; haever, epidemiological investigation of cases or foci is dropped);
PCD
passive case detection; S
search for fever cases in labourers' quarters.
Figures in parentheses indicate intervals (days)
between house-visiting in active case detection.

2 Provided screening of newcomers is maintained as long as imigration continues.

C Measure

for non-immunes on1y.

IIIH.

110

EOUIPMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Contents
Page

1.

.......................

1.

Introduction......

2.

Justification for the use of equipment in

vector control services

110

3.

Kinds ofequipment.

110

4.

Selection of equipment for environmental management

works: the guiding principles

......................
.........................

...................

110

111

Introduction

Environmental management works must make use of proper equipment if they are to have a
significant impact in any vector control programme. While manual operations and the use of
hand tools may continue in limited operations or in remote areas, the aim should be to extend
the use of powered equipment on account of the better quality of the work performed, the
greater output and other economic advantages.
Several types and sizes of powered equipment for excavating, loading, hauling, etc. are
now available in the market throughout the world. Many are employed in agriculture, public
works, etc. by private agencies or government services, and arrangements can often be made to
use them for environmental management and vector control purposes, either free of charge or at
nominal cost. In that case, the problems of equipment use will be fewer since staff training
and equipment operation and maintenance remain the responsibility of the owner agencies.
Vector control services purchasing their own equipment should start with simple and inexpensive
items and continue with more sophisticated machines. Criteria for the selection of types and
size of equipment cannot be generalized and must be specific to each programme. Certain
common principles can, however, be put forward for the guidance of vector control services
(see section 4 below).
Justification for the use of equipment in vector control services
Of the various environmental management measures, environmental modification works can
benefit most from the use of equipment. The reluctance of programmes to make use of these
measures even though they are locally feasible is due to the assumption that they are costly,
and failure to appreciate their impact on the control of vectors and diseases by shortening
the time required to carry out any major work of this kind. Modern equipment is the key to
accelerated execution and to the lowering of cost per unit of work performed. At today's
prices, a light tractor-drawn piece of equipment may cost less than a light field vehicle, and
a medium, self-powered backhoe with front loader may cost no more than three vehicles. A
single item of such equipment has a work output greater than tens and hundreds of labourers
and, in addition, does not create the costly and complex organizational, supervisory and
logistic problems inherent in the use of a large labour force. The choice of proper equipment,
however, is an important factor in optimizing benefits and should be given careful consideration.

3.

Kinds of equipment

Many ditches now in use for irrigation and drainage were cut, and used to be maintained,
by hand or animal-powered implements and tools. Nowadays, animal power is little used except

f o r c u t t i n g very s m a l l open d i t c h e s and o p e r a t i n g a few scoop- type and fork- type c l e a n i n g

implements. S i n c e t h e advent of th.e i n t e r n a l combustion engine and t h e development of t h e
farm t r a c t o r , c u t t i n g and c l e a n i n g o p e r a t i o n s have l a r g e l y been mechanized, although i n many
a r e a s i n developing c o u n t r i e s , and o u t s i d e a g r i c u l t u r a l schemes, t h e farmers s t i l l d i g t h e i r
d i t c h e s u s i n g hand t o o l s .
The work involved i n d i t c h c u t t i n g and c l e a n i n g i s mainly t h a t of excavating s o i l and
shaping a channel and i t s banks, t h e removal and d i s p o s a l of d e p o s i t e d s i l t and s o i l , c u t t i n g
growing weeds, and d i s p o s i n g of them. The major works t h a t can be c a r r i e d o u t by mechanized
equipment i n c l u d e e x c a v a t i o n , s c r a p i n g , dozing, g r a d i n g , h a u l i n g and compacting. Some of t h e
machines used f o r t h i s work a r e l i s t e d i n Table I I I H - 1 . They may be drawn by t r a c t o r s , mounted
on t r a c t o r s , o r self-powered. They may be mounted on wheels o r on t r a c k s . It i s n o t p o s s i b l e
t o c l a s s i f y them under t h e heads of c u t t i n g machines, c l e a n i n g machines, h a u l i n g machines, etc.,
s i n c e they may do s e v e r a l of t h e s e jobs. They vary i n s i z e and power requirements from l i g h t
implements up t o l a r g e heavy machines needing powerful engines. Between t h e s e two extremes,
t h e r e i s a l a r g e and growing range of medium equipment designed f o r use w i t h a l l types of farm
t r a c t o r s and engines. I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e i n a l i m i t e d space t o d e s c r i b e a l l t h e machines t h a t
a r e now i n production. I n Annex 5 t h e y a r e d i s c u s s e d under broad types and c a t e g o r i e s r a t h e r
t h a n a s i n d i v i d u a l and p a r t i c u l a r makes of machines.
4.

S e l e c t i o n of equipment f o r environmental management works:

t h e guiding p r i n c i p l e s

The key t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e type and make of equipment f o r u s e i n environmental

management works should b e uniformity and conformity w i t h t h a t e x i s t i n g i n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l
I n r u r a l a r e a s , manual and animal-drawn
a r e a , thus f a c i l i t a t i n g o p e r a t i o n and maintenance.
equipment should b e s e l e c t e d a s a g e n e r a l r u l e . Where mechanized a g r i c u l t u r e e x i s t s , equipment designed f o r u s e w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g types of farm t r a c t o r s and engines may be s e l e c t e d .
I n cases where v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e s possess adequate funds and q u a l i f i e d s t a f f t o c a r r y o u t
medium-size environmental management works, they should a l s o use multipurpose equipment such
a s backhoes w i t h l o a d e r s mounted on wheeled t r a c t o r s . S p e c i f i c types of equipment should b e
bought only i f t h i s i s f u l l y j u s t i f i e d by l o c a l needs.
The f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s should be borne i n mind when s e l e c t i n g equipment f o r envircnmental management by v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e s :
(a) Whether a n e n g i n e e r o r a p u b l i c h e a l t h i n s p e c t o r experienced i n environmental management
works i s a v a i l a b l e and i s heading a u n i t i n t h e s e r v i c e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s .
(b)

Whether funds a r e a v a i l a b l e .

(c)

What i s t h e e x t e n t and n a t u r e of work t o b e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e n e x t 5 t o 10 y e a r s .

(d) ! h a t i s t h e t e x t u r e and composition of e a r t h m a t e r i a l t o b e excavated, hauled away and

disposed o f .
(e)

What i s t h e h a u l d i s t a n c e .

( f ) Whether wheeled o r t r a c k e d equipment i s t o be s e l e c t e d w i l l depend on t h e topography of

t h e l a n d . Tracked equipment can n e g o t i a t e s l o p e s up t o 100% (450). Wheeled machines have
s e r i o u s t r a c t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s on wet ground and i f s l o p e s a r e more t h a n 15% (g0).
(g)

Idhat a r e t h e c o s t o f t h e machine and t h a t of i t s o p e r a t i o n and maintenance.

(h)

What s k i l l i s r e q u i r e d f o r i t s o p e r a t i o n and maintenance.

( i ) Should equipment be multipurpose, capable of performing s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t environmental

management and a g r i c u l t u r a l o p e r a t i o n s .

- 112 -

Table IIIH-1.

Type

Size
(horsepower,
volume)

Construction equipment*

Class
(lightmediumheavy)

Use
in excavating
and filling

1. Youldboard
plough

animal-drawn

light

Cutting and maintaining small

ditches

2. Small ditching
plough

animal-drawn

light

Cutting and maintaining small

ditches

3.

tractor-drawn

light-medium

Cutting small ditches

4. Motor grader

125-250 hp

light-mediumheavy

Cutting ditches, mixing and

grading earth materials,
smoothing earth surfaces

5.

Angle blade
dozer D4-D10

62-700 hp,
blade width
3.1-6.0 m

light-mediumheavy

Cutting ditches, bulldozing

earth, building embankments,
rough filling and digging
over short distances

6.

Home-made drag
ditcher

Pulled by
animals or
farm tractor

light

Cutting and cleaning small

ditches

7.

V-type ditcher

Attached to
farm tractor

light

Cutting and maintaining small

ditches

8.

Track excavator
(backhoe)

medium-heavy
85-325 hp
3
bucket 0.57-2.5 m ,
digging depth
3.86-5.45 m

Digging medium-to-large canals,

open drains, filling mediumto-large trenches, loading
trucks

9.

Wheel excavator
(backhoe)
-loader

47.5-96.7 hp,
light-medium
backhoe digging
depth 3.81-589 m,
loader 1134-2631 kg

Digging small-to-medium trenches,

canals, open drains, ditches.
Filling small-tomedium
trenches. Loading trucks,
moving earth short distances.
A very versatile and practical
machine.

10.

Rotary ditcher

attached to farm
tractors
350-140 hp

Cutting and maintaining smallto-medium ditches

Large furrowtype ditcher

with wings

lightmedium

See also Annex 5 where a number of these implements are described with illustrations.

11. Wheel front-end

loader

100-690 hp,
1.34-9.6 m3,
breakout force
8700-66700 kg

medium-heavy

Digging, moving loads short

distances, loading trucks

12.

Track front-end
loader

62-275 hp,
0.8-3.82 m3

small-mediumheavy

Digging, loading trucks

13.

Wheel tractor
scraper, with
tractor pusher

330-550 hp,
10.7-33.6 m3

medium-heavy

Scraping and moving earth

medium distances, building
earth embankments, filling
trenches and depressions

14.

150-450 hp
Elevating wheel
8.4-26 m 1
tractor scraper

medium-heavy

Scraping and moving earth

medium distances, building
earth embankments, filling
trenches and depressions

15.

Tandem-powered
(push-pull )
wheel tractor
scrapers

225-550 hp each,
heavy
10.7-33.6 m3 each

16.

Gradall

100-300 hp,
1.3-5.0 m3

heavy

195-325 hp,
1.9-3.8 m3

medium-heavy

Digging hard soils and rock,

loading trucks, moving
large quantities of earth

30-120 hp,
20-100 m3/hr

light-medium

Cutting and cleaning large

open ditches, cleaning weeds
from ditches

19. Bucket-heel
trencher

50-200 hp,
up to 200 m3/hr

light-medium

Continuously cutting trenches,

installing plastic drain
tubing

20.

Plough trencher

Requires 2-D9
tractors as
prime movers

medium

For installing plastic drain

tubing continuously without
digging a trench

21.

Compactor

170-315 hp,
operating wt.
18170-31560 kg

medium-heavy

Compacting earth embankments,

dozing and filling

22.

Of -highway
truck

450-870 hp,
17.4-46.4 m3

heavy

Hauling earth materials over

long distances, carrying
large rocks

23.

Special application tractor

small-medium

Pulling special equipment

24.

Wheel tractor

medium-heavy

Dozing, grading, faster than

tractor dozer

17. Front-end
shovel
18.

Dragline

Scraping and moving earth

medium distances, building
earth embankments, filling
itching, trenching,
excavating, grading, filling,
shaping; a very versatile
machine

FURTHER READING LIST

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Trait6 d'irrigation.

P a r i s , E y r o l l e s , 1952.

Beers, W.F.J. van The auger h o l e method. Wageningen, The Netherlands,

I n s t i t u t e f o r Reclamation and Improvement, 1958 ( B u l l e t i n No. 1 ) .
Boyd, M.F.

Malariology.

International

P h i l a d e l p h i a , Saunders, 1949 (Volume 2 ) .

C a r l s o n , E.J.
Drainage from l e v e l and s l o p i n g land.
Reclamation, 1971 (Report, No. REC-ERC-71-74).

Denver, Colorado,

Bureau of

Clarkson, I . M . e t a l .
Malaria c o n t r o l f o r e n g i n e e r s . Proceedings of t h e American S o c i e t y
of C i v i l Engineers, 65: 229 (1939).
D a r l o t , A. Land p r e p a r a t i o n f o r i r r i g a t i o n .
t i o n du g 6 n i e r u r a l , 1955.

Rabat.

Centre de recherches e t dfexp6rimenta-

Drainage of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d u s i n g i n t e r c e p t o r l i n e s . J o u r n a l of t h e I r r i g a Donnan, W.W.

t i o n D i v i s i o n , Proceedings of t h e American S o c i e t y f o r C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , New York (1954).
Drain- spacing method used by t h e Bureau of Reclamation.
Dumrn, L.D.
1962 (Drainage Workshop r e p o r t ARS-SCS).

Riverside, California,

Durmn, L.D. & Wurger,R.J. &.Designing a s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e system i n an i r r i g a t e d a r e a through

u s e of t r a n s i e n t - f l o w concept. Proceedings of t h e American S o c i e t y of A g r i c u l t u r a l
Engineers, S a i n t J o s e p h , Michigan, 1964.
Durand, J . H .

Les s o l s i r r i g a b l e s .

A l g e r , I m b e r t , 1958.

A new formula f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y f a c t o r w i t h t h e auger h o l e

E r n s t , L.S.
method. Groningen, The N e t h e r l a n d s , A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment S t a t i o n , T.N.O., 1950.

E t c h e v e r r y , B.A. & Harding, S.T.

McGraw-Hill, 1933.

I r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e and e n g i n e e r i n g , 2nd e d i t i o n .

Feachem, R. & C a i r n c r o s s , S. Small e x c r e t a d i s p o s a l systems.

T r o p i c a l Hygiene, 1978 (Ross B u l l e t i n , No. 8 ) .

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London, The Ross ~ n s t i t u t eof

Food and A g r i c u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n & United Nations E d u c a t i o n a l , S c i e n t i f i c and C u l t u r a l

O r g a n i z a t i o n . I r r i g a t i o n , d r a i n a g e and s a l i n i t y : An i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o u r c e book. London,
Hutchinson, 1973.
G i l r o y , A.B. & Bruce-Chwatt, L . J . Mosquito c o n t r o l by swamp d r a i n a g e i n t h e c o a s t a l b e l t of
N i g e r i a . Annals of t r o p i c a l medicine,
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2:

e t a l . The p r e s e n t u s e of n a t u r a l i s t i c measures i n t h e c o n t r o l of m a l a r i a .
H a c k e t t , L.W.
B u l l e t i n of t h e H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n , League of Nations, L: 1016-1064 (1938).
Hagan, R.M. & Vaaida, Y . P r i n c i p l e s of i r r i g a t e d cropping, South 1 n d i a .
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Malaria I n s t i t u t e of I n d i a , Performance parameters of i r r i g a t i o n systems.
H a l l , W.A.
of A g r i c u l t u r a l E n g i n e e r s , 2 (1960).
Hamilton, C.L. & Jepson, H.G.
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!dashington, D . C . , USDA Farmers ( B u l l e t i n , No. 1859).

J o u r n a l of t h e

T r a n s a c t i o n s of t h e American Society

Wells, s p r i n g s and ponds.

Hodgkin, E.P.
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& Hausen, V.E.

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I r r i g a t i o n p o l i c y and management i n s o u t h e a s t Asia.

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Handbook of h y d r a u l i c s ,

5th edition.

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and Water Development S e r i e s , No. 1 ) .
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Arnes,

Civil engineering,

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London, Chapman and H a l l , 1955/1960 ( 3 volunes).

I r r i g a t i o n and h y d r a u l i c d e s i g n .

Luthin, J.N.
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Water e n g i n e e r s , development, and d i s e a s e s i n t h e t r o p i c s .

McJunkin, F.E.
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Maierhofer, C.R.
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V e l v e i t y , s i l t and l a r v a e d r i f t .

I n d i a n medical g a z e t t e ,

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Drainage and f l o o d c o n t r o l e n g i n e e r i n g , 2nd e d i t i o n .

& O l l i e r , C.H.

Irrigation.

(1936).

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R u s s e l l , P.F. M a l a r i a due t o d e f e c t i v e and u n t i d y i r r i g a t i o n .

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1:

2:270

New York,

J o u r n a l of t h e M a l a r i a

R u s s e l l , P.F.
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A n t i - m a l a r i a l d r a i n a g e from t h e p o i n t of view of t h e h e a l t h o f f i c e r .
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Stephens, J . C . & M i l l s , W.C.
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S t a t e s Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , ARS, 1965.
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& P e t e r s e n , H.B.

Irrigated soils.

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of p u b l i c h e a l t h importance. A t l a n t a , Georgia, Communicable Diseases Center, 1960.
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Control of r u r a l m a l a r i a by n a t u r a l methods. J o u r n a l of t h e Malayan

Williamson, K.B.
A g r i c u l t u r a l - H o r t i c u l t u r a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 3: 145 (1933) ; L: 244 (1934).
Sprinkler irrigation.
Woodward, G.O.
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2nd e d i t i o n .

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Sprinkler Irrigation

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Geneva, 1973 ( O f f s e t p u b l i c a t i o n , No. 1 ) .
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Geneva, 1974 (Off s e t p u b l i c a t i o n , No. 1 0 ) .

CHAPTER I V
ENVIRONMENTAL MANIPULATION

CONTENTS
Page

S t r a t e g i e s a p p l i e d t o man-made l a k e s

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

1.1 D e s c r i p t i o n of v a r i o u s impoundments and t h e i r r e l a t i v e importance

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1.1.1 N a v i g a t i o n c a n a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1 . 1 . 2 P u b l i c water- supply r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1 . 1 . 3 H y d r o e l e c t r i c p r o j e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1.1.4 Flood c o n t r o l r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1.1.5
I r r i g a t i o n r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1 . 1 . 6 F i s h ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1.1.7 Waste water lagoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1 . 1 . 8 Multipurpose dams and r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
1.2 Preimpoundment r e s e r v o i r p r e p a r a t i o n f o r w a t e r l e v e l management . . 123
1 . 3 Postimpoundment r e s e r v o i r o p e r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1 . 3 . 1 Water l e v e l management schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1 . 3 . 1 . 1 The f o u r phases schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Comments on g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o v a r i o u s
1.3.1.2
r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.3.2
S h o r e l i n e maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1 . 3 . 2 . 1 Yarginal d r a i n a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1.3.2.2
D r i f t removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1 . 3 . 2 . 3 Control of p l a n t growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.
S t r a t e g i e s a p p l i e d t o i r r i g a t i o n systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.1 Paradox of mosquito problems i n a r i d lands . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.2 Elements of w a t e r c o n t r o l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.2.1 I r r i g a t i o n b y p u m p i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.2.2 Groundwater r e c h a r g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.2.3 P r e p a r i n g l a n d f o r e f f i c i e n t i r r i g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.
S t r a t e g i e s a p p l i e d t o wet r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.1 Monsoon r a i n o r p r o v i d e n t i r r i g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.2 Labour- intensive o r t r a d i t i o n a l Asian c u l t i v a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 132
3.3 Malaria v e c t o r production i n t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t i v a t i o n . . . . . . . 132
f o r mosquito production

Page
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
4

. . . . . . . . . . 132
Malaria vector production in energy-intensive cultivation . . . . . 134
Intermittent irrigation and drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Other methods of control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Energy-intensive or non-traditional cultivation

Strategies applied to the control of vegetation in mosquito breeding

habitats

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.1 Relationship of plants to mosquito breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.1.1 The "intersection value" concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.1.2 Specific plant-mosquito relationships . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.1.3 Plants which allegedly inhibit mosquito breeding . . . . . . 137
4.2 Water manipulated as herbicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.2.1 Required scientific information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.2.2 Seed germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.2.3 Vegetative methods of reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3 Practical application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3.1 Shading by tree planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3.2 Artificial flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.3.3 Cutting and flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.3.4 Recurrent cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.3.5 Special mechanical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.3.6 Dewatering of aquatic species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.
Stream flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.1 Antimosquito action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2 Dry streambed breeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.3 Rational design of flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.3.1 Inflow at peak breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.3.2 Automatic versus manual flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3.3 Downstream distance of control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.3.4 Automatic self-priming siphons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.3.5 Designprocedureand example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.
Coastal flooding and impounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.1 Open marsh water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2 Artificial inundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Page
7.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
D e s a l i n a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
S a l i n a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Anaerobic decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
P h y s i c a l measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Chemical and p h y s i c a l a l t e r a t i o n
7.1
7.2

7.3
7.4

Further reading l i s t

1.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

S t r a t e g i e s a p p l i e d t o man-made l a k e s

A r e c e n t review of dam c o n s t r u c t i o n throughout t h e world revealed t h a t 14 v a s t man-made

l a k e s , exceeding 14.8 b i l l i o n m3 c a p a c i t y , have been c r e a t e d i n t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s , many of
them i n endemic a r e a s of m a l a r i a o r s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s .
These and o t h e r p r o j e c t s have s t i m u l a t e d awareness of t h e i r environmental consequences
I n t h e economic planning of
and p o s s i b l e adverse e f f e c t s on ecology and p u b l i c h e a l t h .
developing n a t i o n s , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of h a r n e s s i n g renewable water r e s o u r c e s f o r g e n e r a t i n g
e l e c t r i c a l energy, i r r i g a t i n g c u l t i v a b l e l a n d , managing f l o o d s , and t r a n s p o r t i n g products and
raw m a t e r i a l s has g r e a t a p p e a l . The p l a n n i n g and management of such p r o j e c t s , however, a r e
most complex and should cover a l l a r e a s of environmental impact, i n c l u d i n g p u b l i c h e a l t h , s o
t h a t on b a l a n c e t h e b e n e f i t t o man i s undeniable.
Early i n t h e c e n t u r y , t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of epidemic m a l a r i a w i t h man-made l a k e s i n t h e
s o u t h e a s t e r n United S t a t e s l e d t h e U.S. P u b l i c Health Service and o t h e r agencies t o develop
s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e c o n t r o l of t h e m a l a r i a v e c t o r Anopheles quadrimaculatus i n impounded w a t e r s
The r e g i o n a l development concept of r i v e r v a l l e y a u t h o r i t i e s , o f t e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n
scope, w i t h i t s m u l t i u s e o b j e c t i v e s and f a r - r e a c h i n g l e g a l and s o c i a1 i m p l i c a t i o n s , i s so
wide- ranging t h a t only governments can take r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s e undertakings. They cann o t be l e f t t o p r i v a t e management o r ownership. It i s thus t h e duty of h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s t o
i n c o r p o r a t e p r i n c i p l e s and g u i d e l i n e s i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of such wa t e r r e s o u r c e development
p r o j e c t s , whatever t h e i r purpose.
Impoundments p r e s e n t no m a l a r i a hazard where a l a c u s t r i n e o r "pond-breeding" mosquito
v e c t o r i s n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e r e g i o n . I t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t t h e An. gambiae f r e s h w a t e r
complex, t h e dangerous m a l a r i a v e c t o r i n A f r i c a , could f i n d s u i t a b l e b r e e d i n g p l a c e s on t h e
margins of man-made l a k e s , except f o r t h e puddles t h a t may remain i n t h e drawdown zone d e s p i t e
marginal d r a i n a g e p r e c a u t i o n s . Although only a few of t h e important v e c t o r s of m a l a r i a can beconsidered a s lake- breeding, when a stream i s impounded t o form an e x t e n s i v e lake- breeding I ,
h a b i t a t , a minor anopheline v e c t o r may, however, become dangerous by i t s s h e e r numbers.

1.1

D e s c r i p t i o n of v a r i o u s impoundments and t h e i r r e l a t i v e importance

f o r mosquito p r o d u c t i o n

1.1.1

Navigation c a n a l s

The dams and s p i l l w a y s of n a v i g a t i o n c a n a l s a r e designed t o maintain a c o n s t a n t pool

e l e v a t i o n i n t h e c a n a l and t o r e p l e n i s h t h e water consumed f o r lockage. Canals a r e excavated
w i t h a c r o s s - s e c t i o n s i d e s l o p e which r e s i s t s e r o s i o n by waves c r e a t e d by t h e passage of boats.

The u s e of s t o n e o r c o n c r e t e l i n i n g i s common; where n a t u r a l e a r t h i s used, a f l a t s l o p e up

t o 1 0 : l i s adopted. The w a t e r s t o r a g e a r e a s may be e x t e n s i v e , a s i n t h e Gatun Lake on t h e
Panama c a n a l , o r s m a l l , a s i n t h e c a s e of l a t e r a l c a n a l s used t o avoid s h o a l s along n a v i g a b l e
r i v e r s . The Gatun Lake has a marsh p o t e n t i a l a of 1 5 m-l whereas t h e Colbert s h o a l s c a n a l has
a p o t e n t i a l of only 1 m-l.
The unprepared Gatun Lake h a s been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h endemic m a l a r i a
t r a n s m i t t e d by Anopheles albimanus-which breeds i n t h e f l o a t i n g mats of a q u a t i c p l a n t s among
t h e d r i f t , f l o a t a g e and dead timber. Thus, w h i l e n a v i g a t i o n c a n a l s may b e of minor importance
because of t h e f r e q u e n t d i s t u r b a n c e produced by t h e passage of b o a t s , t h e impoundments
connected w i t h t h e s e c a n a l s can be a major b r e e d i n g p l a c e f o r mosquitos.
1.1.2

P u b l i c water- supply r e s e r v o i r s

Impounding r e s e r v o i r s a r e b u i l t on upland streams f o r t h e purpose of s t o r i n g f r e s h e t

flows f o r use d u r i n g t h o s e times when t h e n a t u r a l flow of t h e stream i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o maint a i n a s a f e y i e l d . The s i z e of t h e catchment a r e a and t h e study of r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f c y c l e s
w i l l provide d a t a t o determine t h e s t o r a g e needed t o compensate f o r d a i l y f l u c t u a t i o n w i t h i n
a s i n g l e y e a r and t h e annual s t o r a g e t o c a r r y over t h e s u r p l u s of wet y e a r s f o r u s e d u r i n g dry
y e a r s . The w a t e r l e v e l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r can b e q u i t e wide, up t o 3 m o r more
d u r i n g a normal y e a r and considerably g r e a t e r d u r i n g drought. Since t h e w a t e r q u a l i t y i s of
prime importance f o r d r i n k i n g w a t e r s o u r c e s , t h e preimpoundment r e s e r v o i r p r e p a r a t i o n i s
mandatory ( s e e s e c t i o n 1.2 below). I n t h e t r o p i c s , a l g a e and a q u a t i c blooms a r e most t r o u b l e some, and may encourage mosquito production.
1.1.3

Hydroelectric p r o j e c t s

The c a p a c i t y of t h e power- generating equipment and t h e load demand a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d

t o t h e q u a n t i t y of w a t e r a v a i l a b l e and t h e s t o r a g e provided. The h e i g h t of t h e dam i s u s u a l l y
p a r t l y d i c t a t e d by t h e s e requirements. It i s u s u a l f o r a h y d r o e l e c t r i c power p l a n t t o s e r v e
a l a r g e e l e c t r i c system i n combination w i t h a u x i l i a r y (steam o r d i e s e l ) power s t a t i o n s a s
d i c t a t e d by t h e d a i l y and s e a s o n a l energy l o a d curve. I n g e n e r a l , t h e hydro p l a n t i s used
when t h e l o a d i n c r e a s e s towards t h e peak demand s o a s t o use a s much of t h e p l a n t c a p a c i t y a s
stream flow and s t o r a g e w i l l permit. I n p e r i o d s of low flow, t h e p l a n t may o p e r a t e only
d u r i n g peak load p e r i o d s ; during h i g h flows, i t may t a k e t h e b a s e load. Fig. IV- 1 g i v e s an
example of a s e r v i c e system showing t h i s p r i n c i p l e of s h i f t i n g t h e b a s e load from hydro t o
steam d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of low s t r e a m flow. It should b e noted t h a t hydro o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g
normal flow w i l l d e p l e t e t h e a v a i l a b l e r e s e r v o i r s t o r a g e throughout t h e week i n t h e expectat i o n of i t s b e i n g r e f i l l e d d u r i n g t h e weekend o f f l o a d p e r i o d . This r e s u l t s i n a c y c l i n g of
r e s e r v o i r l e v e l s q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h good p r a c t i c e f o r anopheline mosquito c o n t r o l .
1.1.4

Flood c o n t r o l r e s e r v o i r s

A "flood" r e f e r s t o an overflow of a r i v e r o r o t h e r body of w a t e r t h a t causes l o s s of

l i f e and s e r i o u s damage t o s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e f l o o d p l a i n s . Farm, f o r e s t , and p a s t u r e land
exposed t o o c c a s i o n a l f l o o d s can b e guarded by p r o t e c t i v e embankments ( l e v e e s ) on e i t h e r s i d e
of t h e r i v e r . It i s as a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t e x c e p t i o n a l f l o o d s t h a t l a r g e s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s
a r e r e q u i r e d . The c o s t of flood p r o t e c t i o n works (such a s dams, channels and l e v e e s ) may,
however, b e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e probable f l o o d damage, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e s i t i n g of towns
i n t h e " flood p l a i n " i s discouraged. The single- purpose f l o o d s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r i s most
e f f e c t i v e when i t i s completely o r n e a r l y empty a t t h e time t h e f l o o d occurs because a maximum
r e d u c t i o n of f l o o d i n g downstream i s t h e n p o s s i b l e .

-a Marsh

p o t e n t i a l i s d e f i n e d and i n t e r p r e t e d i n s e c t i o n 2, subchapter I I I A .

Fig. IV-1.

The relationship of small and large hydro plants and standby

power plants on the base load of electric power systems during
normal and minimum stream flow conditions showing the compatibility
with weekly water level fluctuation.

CAPACITY MW

PLANTS
Small hydros
Anchicaya
Diesel
Steam
TOTAL

Reservoir silting
ANCHICAYA RESERVOIR OPERATION
@

IIN~~~LECII+I

21.4
29.5
146.1

21.4
29.5
123.0

27.8
123.0

Includes 6.0 MW purchased from CHEC

.-loo

80

40

2a

WEEKLY LOAD FACTOR :60%

WHO 82407

A f l o o d d u r i n g t h e mosquito season can be expected t o r e s u l t i n almost u n c o n t r o l l a b l e

mosquito b r e e d i n g i n f l o o d s t o r a g e pools which a r e overloaded and packed w i t h d r i f t and
f l o a t i n g mats. It w i l l t a k e two weeks o r more f o r t h e h a b i t a t t o " ripen" and provide maximum
l a r v a l d e n s i t i e s , b u t h i g h a d u l t mosquito p o p u l a t i o n s can be reached even sooner. The r a p i d
lowering of t h e s t o r a g e pool a f t e r t h e f l o o d c r e s t has passed i s accompanied by a dramatic
abatement of mosquito b r e e d i n g a s eggs and l a r v a e a r e s t r a n d e d w i t h t h e d r i f t and f l o a t a g e on
t h e s t e e p r e s e r v o i r s l o p e s . Reservoir p r e p a r a t i o n w i l l g r e a t l y a s s i s t i n c o n t r o l l i n g mosquito
production, e s p e c i a l l y by removal of timber and by marginal d r a i n a g e .

I n p l a m i n g f l o o d c o n t r o l , t h e e x t e n t and r e l i a b i l i t y of hydrographic d a t a a r e most

important, s i n c e inadequate d a t a may r e s u l t i n over- designed and unnecessary s t o r a g e o r downstream s a f e t y measures. Care i s necessary i n deciding t h e l e v e l below which t h e r e s e r v o i r
should be c l e a r e d o f t r e e s . I f t h e c l e a r e d a r e a i s n o t flooded a t l e a s t once i n 3 y e a r s , t h e
t r e e s w i l l grow up a g a i n . I f t h e t r e e - c l e a r i n g l e v e l i s too low, l a r g e a r e a s of timber may be
flooded s o f r e q u e n t l y t h a t t h e t r e e s d i e and have t o b e removed. Most t r e e s w i t h s t a n d f l o o d s
of s h o r t d u r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e growing season and extended f l o o d s d u r i n g t h e dormant period.
I n f l o o d s t o r a g e p o o l s , o f t e n s i t e d i n s t e e p , head w a t e r s of r i v e r b a s i n s , t h e timber s p e c i e s
cannot s u r v i v e i f flooded more t h a n 5-10% of t h e time during t h e growing season.
1.1.5

Irrigation reservoirs

S u r f a c e r e s e r v o i r s a r e b u i l t t o s t o r e i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r f o r use when t h e n a t u r a l flow of

a stream i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o meet demands. Usually t h e w i n t e r and s p r i n g runoff can be
impounded u n t i l needed f o r crop growth. Evaporation and seepage l o s s e s a r e a s e r i o u s problem
of s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s i n a r i d a r e a s , a s i s sediment accumulation which may l i m i t t h e u s e f u l
l i f e of t h e s t r u c t u r e . The popular tendency i s t o a s s o c i a t e w a t e r s t o r a g e f o r i r r i g a t i o n w i t h
t h e enormous government- built dams f o r reclamation of d e s e r t a r e a s . These p r o j e c t s a r e
g e n e r a l l y of t h e m u l t i u s e t y p e , l e s s l i k e l y t o c o n t r i b u t e t o m a l a r i a v e c t o r problems than t h e
thousands of small e a r t h dams and r e s e r v o i r s i n farms throughout t h e world which a r e commonly
r e f e r r e d t o a s " tanks" o r 'bunds".
I r r i g a t i o n r e s e r v o i r o p e r a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c y c l e of
s e a s o n a l f i l l i n g , s t o r i n g and gradual r e l e a s e ( a s needed) throughout t h e growing season. With
proper r e s e r v o i r p r e p a r a t i o n , o n l y a modest mosquito v e c t o r production problem would be
expected. The w o r s t v e c t o r breeding c o n d i t i o n s appear a f t e r off- seasonal r a i n s which f l o o d
t h e pools and encourage v e g e t a t i o n on margins of t h e p a r t i a l l y emptied r e s e r v o i r . Correct
water l e v e l p r o g r e s s i o n measures w i l l be resumed w i t h t h e normal r e l e a s e of water f o r i r r i g a tion.
1.1.6

F i s h ponds

I n some p a r t s of t h e t r o p i c s and s u b t r o p i c s , f i s h c u l t u r e ponds have c o n s t i t u t e d a

breeding- p l a c e f o r t h e l o c a l m a l a r i a v e c t o r . The c l a s s i c a l example i s t h e breeding of t h e
v e c t o r Anopheles sundaicus i n t h e s a l t w a t e r f i s h ponds of n o r t h Java. Today t h e need t o
c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e food economy, e s p e c i a l l y i n c o u n t r i e s d e f i c i e n t i n p r o t e i n , has r e s u l t e d i n
a r e g a i n of i n t e r e s t i n t h e pond c u l t i v a t i o n of e d i b l e f i s h . Usually low- lying l a n d s , s u b j e c t
t o f l o o d i n g d u r i n g t h e r a i n y season, a r e chosen f o r f i s h ponds. An embankment i s r a i s e d
b e s i d e t h e r i v e r and t r i b u t a r y s t r e a m s , and encloses an a r e a which i s p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o l a r g e
c e l l s by secondary bunds o r d i k e s c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l excavated from t h e pond a r e a .
During t h e f l o o d time, m i l l i o n s of young f i s h a r e allowed t o e n t e r t h e enclosed ponds. A
s i m i l a r pond a r e a may be c o n s t r u c t e d i n l a r g e t i d a l f l a t s f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of s a l t w a t e r
f i s h and prawns. A t t e n t i o n i s now b e i n g p a i d t o t h e r o l e of f l o a t i n g a q u a t i c s such a s P i s t i a
and water h y a c i n t h . The emergent p l a n t s o f f e r p r o t e c t i o n t o l a r v a e , make t h e c o n t r o l of
anopheline mosquitos d i f f i c u l t , and may i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e growth of d e s i r a b l e organisms and
t h e oxygen b a l a n c e of t h e pond.
-

1.1.7

Waste w a t e r lagoons

One b i o l o g i c a l method of waste w a t e r t r e a t m e n t i s t h e use of a r t i f i c i a l lagoons o r

s t a b i l i z a t i o n b a s i n s , o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s o x i d a t i o n ponds. The pond a r e a and depth r e q u i r e d
depend upon t h e s t r e n g t h of waste and t h e processes involved, e i t h e r a n a e r o b i c , f a c u l t a t i v e

o r a e r o b i c . Anaerobic lagoons a r e intended f o r very s t r o n g w a s t e s ; t h e y a r e foul- smelling

and covered w i t h a t h i c k scum. No anopheline s p e c i e s would s e l e c t t h i s h a b i t a t ; however some
f i l t h - l o v i n g c u l i c i n e s and f l i e s would.
The f a c u l t a t i v e lagoon h a s been designed t o a l l o w f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y l e v e l s of oxygen
p r o d u c t i o n by n a t u r a l l y generated a l g a l populations.
I n t h i s type of lagoon, a n a e r o b i c
decomposition t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e lower p o r t i o n w h i l e a l g a e growing n e a r t h e s u r f a c e p r o v i d e
oxygen f o r a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s . I n between i s a range of d i s s o l v e d oxygen from zero t o supers a t u r a t e d on sunny days. The major d e s i g n requirement i s t h a t t h e lagoon should n o t become
completely anaerobic d u r i n g t h e n i g h t o r on cloudy days. The p o t e n t i a l f o r mosquito product i o n of a f a c u l t a t i v e lagoon i s h i g h , u n l e s s t h e s h o r e l i n e i s s t e e p , p r e f e r a b l y w i t h s t o n e
r i p - r a p , and t h e pond deep enough t o p r e v e n t t h e growth of emergent a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n .
P r o v i s i o n should be made f o r p a r t i a l emptying of t h e pond f o r s h o r e l i n e maintenance. The high
r a t e a e r o b i c pond i s r e a l l y an a e r a t e d lagoon, and i s s i m i l a r t o an a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e tank
without r e c y c l i n g . It h a s l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n i n developing c o u n t r i e s . The design i s on a
somewhat f i r m e r b a s i s t h a n t h a t of t h e f a c u l t a t i v e lagoon. I t s o p e r a t i o n depends p a r t l y on
i n c i d e n t s o l a r r a d i a t i o n and l o a d i n g r a t e b u t a l s o on e x p e r i e n c e and judgement. Ponds i n
s e r i e s , a s opposed t o a s i n g l e b a s i n , can c o n t r o l s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g but i n c r e a s e t h e a r e a of
t h e mosquito breeding edges. Below a r e given some d e s i g n parameters recommended f o r g e n e r a l
use.
Typical o x i d a t i o n pond d e s i g n

Depth (m)
Detention (days)
BOD* (g/m2/day)
BOD removal ( X )
Algae conc. (mg/l)

Anaerobic

Facultative

2.5-3.5
30-50
33-56
50-70
None

1-1.5
7-30
2.2-5.6
70-85
10-50

(*biochemical oxygen demand)

Multipurpose dams and r e s e r v o i r s
The b u i l d i n g of a system of multipurpose darns and r e s e r v o i r s w i l l have b o t h d i r e c t and
i n d i r e c t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e h e a l t h of t h e people of t h e region. For example, v a s t i r r i g a t i o n
p r o j e c t s f o r wet r i c e crops and cane c u l t i v a t i o n have too o f t e n had adverse e f f e c t s on t h e
h e a l t h and w e l f a r e of t h e people who, i t was hoped, would b e n e f i t s o c i a l l y and economically
from t h e p r o j e c t . Therefore any r e g i o n a l m u l t i u s e water r e s o u r c e s e n t e r p r i s e must a l l o w f o r
p o s s i b l e c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t , and e n s u r e t h a t t h e r e s u l t i s c o n s t r u c t i v e o r a t l e a s t n o t
damaging. Appropriate measures should be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n and operat i o n of such systems f o r t h e c o n t r o l of mosquitos and t h e p r e v e n t i o n of o t h e r h e a l t h hazards
( s e e Chapter 111).
The concept of i n t e g r a t e d r e g i o n a l development must i n c l u d e a s t r o n g p u b l i c h e a l t h
component from t h e s t a r t of t h e planning phase. Too o f t e n , measures f o r d i s e a s e p r e v e n t i o n
a r e n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e e n t e r p r i s e u n t i l p o s t c o n s t r u c t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e , and c o r r e c t i v e measures a r e more expensive t o apply and l e s s l i k e l y t o be s u c c e s s f u l . F u r t h e r ,
c o n s t r u c t i o n s a f e t y and medical s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n c l u d e p r e v e n t i v e
medicine measures, and cannot b e r e l i e d on f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e h e a l t h of t h e p o p u l a t i o n
a f f e c t e d by t h e e n t e r p r i s e .
1.2

Preimpoundment r e s e r v o i r p r e p a r a t i o n f o r water l e v e l management

C e r t a i n b a s i c environmental management measures, i f p r o p e r l y c a r r i e d o u t , a r e g e n e r a l l y

q u i t e e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g mosquito p r o d u c t i o n on impounded water. They comprise t h e
p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r p r i o r t o impoundment, and a p r o g r a m e of w a t e r l e v e l management
designed t o s t r a n d d r i f t and f l o a t a g e , minimize t h e i n v a s i o n and growth of marginal p l a n t s
which provide t h e h a b i t a t f o r anopheline p r o p a g a t i o n , and suppress a q u a t i c p l a n t c o l o n i z a t i o n .

The purpose of preimpoundment p r e p a r a t i o n i s t o c l e a r and o t h e r w i s e p r e p a r e t h e b a s i n

p r i o r t o f i l l i n g s o t h a t i n p r i n c i p l e a clean water surface w i l l r e s u l t a t a l l elevations
between h i g h and low l e v e l . This s u b j e c t i s d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n subchapter I I I A above.
The technique and o b j e c t i v e s of w a t e r l e v e l management f o r mosquito c o n t r o l a r e e x p l a i n e d i n
s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 1 below.
1.3

Postimpoundment r e s e r v o i r o p e r a t i o n s

1.3.1

Water l e v e l management schedules

The major s t r a t e g y of m a l a r i a mosquito c o n t r o l following impoundment i s w a t e r l e v e l

management. Almost e v e r y r e s e r v o i r h a s some p r e d i c t a b l e p a t t e r n o r " r u l e curve" of w a t e r
l e v e l changes throughout a normal water year. The water y e a r does n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e
c a l e n d a r y e a r b u t r a t h e r w i t h t h e c y c l e of r a i n s and runoff which i s p a r t i c u l a r t o each catchment a r e a and may b e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h a t a t t h e r e s e r v o i r s i t e i t s e l f which, i n some
c a s e s , may be a p e r p e t u a l d e s e r t (Nasser Lake, Egypt). The maximum o p p o r t u n i t y t o make use of
w a t e r l e v e l changes f o r mosquito c o n t r o l i s found w i t h i n a m u l t i u s e system of r e s e r v o i r s where
water c o n t r o l i s h i g h l y developed. Through b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n and f i e l d a p p r a i s a l , an
improved and i n t e g r a t e d system of " r u l e curves" h a s been developed f o r t h e r e s e r v o i r s of t h e
Tennessee Valley A u t h o r i t y (TVA) system i n USA which s e t t h e b a s e s f o r c o n t r o l of m a l a r i a
v e c t o r s and of t h e marginal v e g e t a t i o n which s u p p o r t s t h e i r development. Today, w a t e r l e v e l
management a l o n e c o n t r o l s anopheline mosquito p r o d u c t i o n on most of t h e 30 major TVA
r e s e r v o i r s . The elements of t h e schedule a r e given i n Fig. IV-2.
1.3.1.1

The f o u r phases schedule

The f i r s t phase involves f i l l i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r t o provide a s u r c h a r g e ( e a r l y s p r i n g i n

temperate zones) of 30 cm o r more above normal f u l l p o o l , followed by a r a p i d draw t o f u l l
pool l e v e l . Depending upon t h e s t r e a m flow, t h e time f o r f i l l i n g and s u r c h a r g e w i l l be
v a r i a b l e . For mosquito c o n t r o l purposes, t h e s u r c h a r g e s e r v e s t o s t r a n d accumulated d r i f t
and f l o a t a g e and i s r e q u i r e d f o r only a few days.
The second phase involves t h e maintenance of a r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t f u l l pool l e v e l a t t h e
c l e a r i n g l i n e u n t i l t h e beginning of anopheline mosquito production. The c o n s t a n t pool l e v e l
l i m i t s i n v a s i o n of s e m i a q u a t i c marginal v e g e t a t i o n i n t o t h e f l u c t u a t i o n zone, thus providing
a c l e a r s h o r e l i n e when t h e w a t e r i s drawn down l a t e r i n t h e season.
The t h i r d phase c o n s i s t s of weekly f l u c t u a t i o n s s t a r t i n g when l a r v a l p o p u l a t i o n s r e a c h
s i g n i f i c a n t numbers. This c a l l s f o r t h e lowering of t h e pool about 0.3 m and r e f i l l i n g during
t h e week. I n a h y d r o e l e c t r i c p r o j e c t , t h e c y c l e i s n o t too d i f f i c u l t t o achieve s i n c e t h e
load f a c t o r i s l e s s o v e r t h e weekends. I n a system of r e s e r v o i r s , t h e load may e a s i l y b e
s h i f t e d t o permit e i t h e r drawdown o r r e f l o o d i n g a s r e q u i r e d . The purpose of t h e f l u c t u a t i o n
i s t o draw down t h e w a t e r l e v e l and expose t h e marginal band of v e g e t a t i o n once a week, thus
e l i m i n a t i n g t h e l a r v a l h a b i t a t . The antimosquito a c t i o n i s t h r e e f o l d : i t c r e a t e s unfavoura b l e c o n d i t i o n s f o r o v i p o s i t i o n , i t i n t e r r u p t s t h e p r o d u c t i o n of food organisms f o r l a r v a e ,
and i t exposes l a r v a e t o t h e p r e d a t i o n of t h e i r n a t u r a l enemies. Furthermore, some l a r v a e
and eggs a r e s t r a n d e d i n t h e dewatered a r e a where they d i e by d e s i c c a t i o n o r a r e e a t e n by a n t s
and o t h e r p r e d a t o r s b e f o r e t h e water i s r a i s e d . The r e f l o o d i n g s e r v e s t o d e l a y t h e growth and
invasion of marginal v e g e t a t i o n . Thus, w h i l e t h e f i r s t two phases of t h e management programme
a r e d i r e c t e d a t t h e mosquito h a b i t a t , t h e t h i r d phase ( c y c l i c a l f l u c t u a t i o n ) i s d i r e c t e d
a g a i n s t b o t h t h e h a b i t a t and t h e mosquito. The amplitude of t h e weekly c y c l e need n o t exceed
0 . 3 m s o long a s w a t e r i s l a r g e l y withdrawn from t h e marginal v e g e t a t i o n a t t h e low p o i n t of
t h e c y c l e . Neither i s a f u l l 0.3 m c y c l e r e q u i r e d i f t h e v e g e t a t i o n has n o t invaded f a r
enough i n t o t h e pool t o j u s t i f y t h a t amplitude.
The f o u r t h phase of t h e i d e a l water l e v e l management schedule c o n s i s t s i n combining
seasonal r e c e s s i o n and c y c l i c a l f l u c t u a t i o n . A f t e r a few weeks of t h e t h i r d phase (water
l e v e l f l u c t u a t i o n ) , f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s and measurements of mosquito d e n s i t y l e v e l s w i l l show
t h a t a c l e a n margin i s no longer provided a t t h e low p o i n t of t h e c y c l e . The p a t t e r n of l e v e l

f l u c t u a t i o n must t h e n be changed. The w a t e r l e v e l i s lowered 0 . 3 m a s b e f o r e , b u t i s

subsequently r a i s e d o n l y 0.27 m on r e f l o o d i n g . This i s r e f e r r e d t o a s " seasonal recession''
s i n c e t h e p e r i o d c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e d e c r e a s e i n stream flow and t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e u s e of
w a t e r f o r downstream n a v i g a t i o n , flow augmentation, and i r r i g a t i o n . The c o n t r o l l e d r e c e s s i o n
s e r v e s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e low p o i n t of t h e weekly c y c l e w i l l draw t h e water s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r
below t h e advancing v e g e t a t i o n t o c o n t r o l mosquito production. I f stream flow and withdrawal
r a t e s p e r m i t , t h e r e c e s s i o n r a t e p e r week should b e k e p t t o a minimum s i n c e t h e s h a r p e r t h e
r e c e s s i o n t h e b r o a d e r . w i l 1 b e t h e band of marginal p l a n t s r e q u i r i n g some s h o r e l i n e maintenance
b e f o r e t h e f l o o d s t o r a g e phase b e g i n s anew.
1.3.1.2

Comments on g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r s

The f o u r phases schedule r e p r e s e n t s t h e i d e a l management f o r temperate zone c l i m a t e s

where advantage can be taken of t h e w i n t e r period. It i s based on t h e assumption t h a t f l o o d
s t a g e s w i l l occur normally i n t h e l a t e w i n t e r o r e a r l y s p r i n g p e r i o d , and t h a t t h e system of
d i s c h a r g e r e g u l a t i o n from b o t h s t o r a g e and main stream r e s e r v o i r s w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t l y
f l e x i b l e t o a l l o w t h e proposed r u l e curves t o b e maintained.
Even i n t h e temperate zone v e r y l a r g e r e s e r v o i r s cannot respond t o weekly c y c l i c a l
f l u c t u a t i o n requirements, and f o r mosquito c o n t r o l t h e y must r e l y i n s t e a d on r e g u l a t e d
s e a s o n a l r e c e s s i o n . The s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r a l s o cannot follow t h e f o u r phases because i t s
s i t u a t i o n a t t h e head of a t r i b u t a r y s t r e a m makes it s u b j e c t t o an annual rhythm o f f i l l and
draw. F i l l i n g t a k e s p l a c e d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r and e a r l y s p r i n g and, a f t e r a s h o r t s t o r a g e
p e r i o d , water i s r e l e a s e d t o m a i n t a i n downstream flow a s t h e summer p r o g r e s s e s . Properlyprepared s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s do n o t p r e s e n t s e r i o u s m a l a r i a mosquito problems when t h e y a r e
b u i l t i n s t e e p mountainous t e r r a i n w i t h a c o o l c l i m a t e , and when they have wide s e a s o n a l
r e c e s s i o n s which draw down w e l l ahead of invading marginal v e g e t a t i o n .
Some r e s e r v o i r s a r e n e i t h e r provided w i t h f l o o d s t o r a g e nor o p e r a t e d t o g i v e wide
s e a s o n a l r e c e s s i o n s . These a r e mostly o p e r a t e d a t n e a r l y c o n s t a n t pool l e v e l s , a s i s t h e c a s e
i n some h y d r o e l e c t r i c p r o j e c t s . Where i n f l o w i s n o t s c a r c e , c y c l i c a l f l u c t u a t i o n a l o n e may
o f f e r t h e b e s t mosquito c o n t r o l when coordinated w i t h maximum and minimum weekly power factors.
Fig. IV-3 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e mosquito c o n t r o l e f f i c i e n c y of s e v e r a l w a t e r l e v e l management
schedules f o r a hydropower r e s e r v o i r with no f l o o d s u r c h a r g e and only 0.6 m r e c e s s i o n . It has
been observed t h a t when t h e w a t e r l e v e l i n r e s e r v o i r s remains c o n s t a n t , mosquito c o n t r o l f a i l s
despite lavish l a r v i c i d a l operations.
A d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n i s how t o adapt w a t e r l e v e l management, a s p r a c t i s e d i n t h e USA, t o
t r o p i c a l zones where t h e r e i s no w i n t e r i n t e r r u p t i o n i n v e g e t a t i o n growth and mosquito propag a t i o n . There i s r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e , however, t h a t water management p r i n c i p l e s can be a p p l i e d
f a i r l y w e l l everywhere.

The s t o r a g e s u r c h a r g e phase i s t h e most u n d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e i n t h e t r o p i c s . The problem

r e s i d e s i n t h e r a t e of r e f i l l i n g and t h e promptness of drawdown t o e n s u r e s t r a n d i n g of f l o a t a g
I f t h e water l e v e l r i s e s slowly over s e v e r a l months i n margins covered w i t h v e g e t a t i o n ,
emergency l a r v i c i d e s may have t o be employed. With a r a p i d l y r i s i n g w a t e r l e v e l , t h e danger
may be i n s i g n i f i c a n t because of t h e l a t e n c y p e r i o d r e q u i r e d f o r t h e m a t u r a t i o n of t h e new
larval habitat.
Most t r o p i c a l r e s e r v o i r s a r e l o c a t e d on l a r g e r i v e r s fed by high t o r r e n t i a l r a i n f a l l ,
o f t e n w i t h 80% of t h e annual flow i n 2 t o 3 months of t h e y e a r . Reservoirs u s u a l l y have l a r g e
s t o r a g e volumes t o c a r r y over t h e dry y e a r s , and turnover r a t e s varying from once i n 5 y e a r s
(Volta) t o once i n 9 y e a r s (Kariba). A t t h e beginning of t h e f l o o d p e r i o d , t h e r e s e r v o i r i s
l i k e l y t o be q u i t e low and much of t h e f l o o d flow w i l l be over t h e b a r r e n s h o r e l i n e . When
t h e p r o g r e s s i n g water l e v e l reaches t h e v e g e t a t i o n band, u s u a l l y t h e weather w i l l be c l e a r
w i t h cool n i g h t s . This may r e t a r d mosquito development from egg t o a d u l t t o perhaps 2-3 weeks,
depending somewhat on a l t i t u d e . Soon t h e r e a f t e r , t h e w a t e r l e v e l w i l l r e a c h i t s peak and
slowly, then r a p i d l y , s t a r t i t s annual s e a s o n a l r e c e s s i o n . The dewatered s h o r e l i n e w i l l be

MOSQUITO CONTROL AND WATER LEVEL FLUCTUATION, WILSON RESERVOIR

WATER
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ELEVATION

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lnopheles quadrimaculatus)

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mmmmmmmmmmmmlimn
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Fig. IV-3.

= Average numl ?r per station per week

SEASONAL AVERAGE

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MAXIMUM WEEK

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Comparison of the mosquito control effectiveness of different water level

management schedules on a hydroelectric impoundment with a limited fluctuation
range.

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p r o g r e s s i v e l y exposed t o h o t , dry weather and h i g h e s t e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e s . With good

water l e v e l f l u c t u a t i o n and marginal d r a i n a g e , maintenance mosquito problems should be minimal.
Tne g r e a t e s t t h r e a t t o t h e s u c c e s s of t h e s t r a t e g y of w a t e r l e v e l management i s t h e
c o l o n i z a t i o n of f l o a t i n g mat types of a q u a t i c p l a n t s . A low e f f e c t i v e n e s s of w a t e r l e v e l
management techniques may be expected i n a r e a s colonized by t h e s e p l a n t s . Impounding
r e s e r v o i r s may have a h i g h p o t e n t i a l f o r such c o l o n i z a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e high mosquito c o n t r o l
c o s t s . There a r e many f l o a t i n g mat s p e c i e s of p l a n t s i n t r o p i c a l and s u b t r o p i c a l a r e a s . They
i n c l u d e t h e w a t e r h y a c i n t h ( ~ i c h h o r n i a,) w a t e r c h e s t n u t ( ~ r a p a,) w a t e r primrose ( J u s s i a e a ) ,
a l l i g a t o r weed ( A l t e r n a n t h e r a ) , water l e t t u c e ( P i s t i a ) , w a t e r m i l f o i l ( ~ ~ r i o p h y l l u mand
)
S a l v i n e a . The c o n t r o l of a q u a t i c p l a n t s i s d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 4.3.5.

1.3.2

S h o r e l i n e maintenance

1.3.2.1

Marginal d r a i n a g e

An e f f e c t i v e system of r e s e r v o i r marginal drainage must be maintained i f f u l l advantage

i s t o be t a k e n of t h e s t r a t e g y of w a t e r l e v e l f l u c t u a t i o n s f o r mosquito c o n t r o l i n impounded
w a t e r . The d r a i n a g e works c o n s t r u c t e d d u r i n g t h e preimpoundment p e r i o d a r e l i k e t h e " t i p of
t h e i c e b e r g " compared w i t h t h e number of undrained d e p r e s s i o n s discovered a f t e r impoundment.
I f l e f t undrained, i s o l a t e d pools w i l l continue t o produce mosquitos. P e s t mosquito problems
a l s o occur i n shallow d e p r e s s i o n s i n t h e zone between high and low pool l e v e l s . S i n c e t h e
h a b i t of floodwater Aedes s p . i s t o l a y eggs on t h e d r y s o i l of t h e d e p r e s s i o n , enormous
broods emerge l a t e r on when t h e a r e a i s reflooded. The annual maintenance should i n c l u d e a
survey t o i d e n t i f y new pools t o be d r a i n e d , a s w e l l a s t h e r e g r a d i n g of o l d d i t c h e s where
necessary.
1.3.2.2

D r i f t removal

I f s t o r a g e f o r a f l o o d s u r c h a r g e i s a v a i l a b l e , t h e problem of annual d r i f t removal i s

minor and c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e heads of b i g h t s and i n d e n t a t i o n s where a c l e a r e d space should
be provided f o r s t r a n d i n g t h e m a t e r i a l . Such accumulations a r e u s u a l l y p i l e d and burned.
A f t e r a few y e a r s , t h e d r i f t problem should a b a t e u n l e s s e r o s i o n c l e a r i n g ( s e e subchapter 1114
s e c t i o n 3.2) was underestimated o r n o t considered a t a l l . I f s t o r a g e f o r f l o o d s u r c h a r g e was
n o t provided f o r i n t h e p r o j e c t d e s i g n , no s t r a n d i n g w i l l take p l a c e and d r i f t removal w i l l
have t o b e done when t h e r e s e r v o i r i s low; t h i s may r e q u i r e expensive p h y s i c a l removal of
mats of f l o a t i n g m a t e r i a l i n t h e w a t e r .
1.3.2.3

Control of p l a n t growth

The band of invading v e g e t a t i o n which can be l i m i t e d by c o n t r o l l e d w a t e r r e c e s s i o n r a t e s

i s l a r g e l y d e s t r o y e d d u r i n g t h e r e f l o o d i n g phase of w a t e r l e v e l management. I n temperate
zones, f r o s t k i l l s most of t h e annuals b e f o r e t h e w a t e r i s r a i s e d . The t o l e r a n t woody p l a n t s
may p r e s e n t problems i n t h e broad, f l a t and p r o t e c t e d a r e a s of t h e f l u c t u a t i o n zone. They
c o l l e c t and c o n t r i b u t e t o f l o a t a g e , r e t a r d wind and wave a c t i o n , and diminish t h e a n t i l a r v a l
e f f e c t of water l e v e l management. Such woody p l a n t s should t h e r e f o r e be c o n t r o l l e d by annual
hand c u t t i n g o r mechanical sawing. An a l t e r n a t i v e method i n some a r e a s i s t o t h i n o u t such
p l a n t s i n o r d e r t o grow a s t a n d of t r e e s t o provide shade ( s e e s e c t i o n 4 . 3 below).

2.

S t r a t e g i e s aDDlied t o i r r i g a t i o n schemes

2.1

Paradox of mosquito problems i n a r i d lands

I r r i g a t i o n i s needed only t o supply p l a n t s w i t h water f o r consumptive u s e o r evapotransp i r a t i o n . E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s t h e sum of two terms:

( a ) t r a n s p i r a t i o n , o r t h e w a t e r used
by t h e p l a n t f o r growth p r o c e s s e s , and (b) e v a p o r a t i o n o r t h e water e v a p o r a t i n g from t h e s o i l ,
t h e water s u r f a c e o r t h e s u r f a c e of l e a v e s . It i s h a r d t o g e n e r a l i z e on water f o r consumptive
use because of t h e l a r g e number of v a r i a b l e s involved, b u t t h e q u a n t i t y r e q u i r e d must be

e s t i m a t e d f o r both "wet" and "dry" crops s o t h a t t h e e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n i s based on v a l i d

i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r needs.
I n many c o u n t r i e s , i r r i g a t i o n i s an a r t a s o l d a s c i v i l i z a t i o n , b u t t h e r e i s evidence
of a r e l u c t a n c e t o p r o f i t from p a s t m i s t a k e s , which a r e many. On a r i d and semi- arid lands
t h e manipulation of i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r i s a modern s c i e n c e . The engineer and a g r i c u l t u r i s t must
m a i n t a i n s u i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s of s o i l m o i s t u r e f o r maximum crop y i e l d s by providing w a t e r t o
t h e f i e l d i n t h e amounts r e q u i r e d a t t h e p r o p e r time and f o r t h e n e c e s s a r y d u r a t i o n .
Generally, t h e a r i d land s o i l s a l r e a d y possess most n u t r i e n t elements b u t , due t o s c a n t y
r a i n f a l l , they a r e a p t t o be s a l i n e . I r r i g a t i o n w a t e r q u a l i t y , as expressed by t h e t o t a l
d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s , i s an important f a c t o r i n t h e accumulation of e x c e s s i v e s a l t s i n t h e s o i l .
The removal of s a l t s through s o i l l e a c h i n g i s o b t a i n e d by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of excess i r r i g a t i o n
w a t e r . Inadequate waste water d r a i n a g e i s a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t h a t i n c r e a s e s t h e l e a c h i n g
requirement.
F a i l u r e t o recognize t h e s e f a c t o r s h a s s p o i l t u s a b l e land by " waterlogging" , i n j u r e d
p u b l i c h e a l t h and r e s u l t e d i n t h e economic c o l l a p s e of a n c i e n t a s w e l l a s r e c e n t systems on
a r i d l a n d s . Land c o n s e r v a t i o n and mosquito b r e e d i n g problems i n t h e s e systems can b e l a r g e l y
prevented by sound w a t e r use and management techniques. I n some malarious r e g i o n s , w e l l
organized l a r g e - s c a l e i r r i g a t i o n systems a r e r a r e , and problems a r i s e mainly i n small systems
whose management i s l e f t t o t h e farmers themselves. I n Indonesia, f o r example, only 20% of
i r r i g a t e d crops a r e produced i n l a r g e engineering p r o j e c t s and 80% by simple d i v e r s i o n s and
r a i n f a l l c a p t u r e . Even p u b l i c p r o j e c t s i n some c o u n t r i e s w i l l r e v e a l l a p s e s such a s :
(a) f a i l u r e t o s t u d y p r e i r r i g a t i o n f a c t o r s needed f o r d e s i g n ; (b) f a i l u r e t o provide proper
conveyance and d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c i l i t i e s beyond p u b l i c c a n a l s ; (c) f a i l u r e t o p r e p a r e f i e l d s
f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n ; (d) g e n e r a l inadequacy of d r a i n a g e ; and (e) l a c k of
farmers' education and guidance on i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e , w a t e r q u a n t i t y and w a t e r i n g s c h e d u l e s .
The main cause of waterlogging and consequent mosquito breeding i s t h e excess use of f r e e
and p l e n t i f u l w a t e r . Wild f l o o d i n g i s a crude means of applying w a t e r t o t h e land w i t h o u t
d i k e s o r furrows t o guide t h e flow and e n s u r e i t s uniform spread. I t i s a most i n e f f i c i e n t
method and when t h e f i e l d i s poorly prepared, i t l e a v e s permanent pools where mosquitos breed.
Where w a t e r i s s c a r c e and c o s t l y t o convey, e x c e s s i v e l o s s e s must be avoided. These
i n c l u d e l o s s e s d u r i n g conveyance (from s o u r c e t o farm) and a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e r o o t zone, and
l o s s e s due t o i n e f f i c i e n t consumption. The annual o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y , i . e . , t h e p r o p o r t i o n
of t h e water d i v e r t e d t h a t i s a c t u a l l y used by t h e c r o p , i s o f t e n poor a s shown i n Fig. IV-4
f o r a t y p i c a l l y semiarid r e g i o n . Long continuous runs of i r r i g a t i o n , i . e . , long d i s t a n c e from
head t o t a i l of f i e l d , a r e a s u n d e s i r a b l e a s u n d e r i r r i g a t i o n and promote waterlogging.
A second cause of waterlogging and mosquito breeding i s t h e seepage from c a n a l s , l a t e r a l s
and d i t c h e s . An e f f e c t i v e way t o p r e v e n t o r reduce seepage l o s s e s i s c a n a l l i n i n g , which i s
d e a l t w i t h i n d e t a i l i n s u b c h a p t e r I I I B , s e c t i o n 6.
A t h i r d cause of waterlogging and mosquito breeding on i r r i g a t e d land i s t h e n a t u r a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of t h e s o i l s i n l a y e r s of p e r v i o u s and impervious m a t e r i a l . The a p p l i c a t i o n
of excess i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r cannot p e r c o l a t e downward and r e s u l t s i n poorly drained a r e a s .
A f o u r t h cause i s t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d w a t e r flow from w e l l s under a r t e s i a n p r e s s u r e .
Many
w e l l s a r e never valved o f f .
I n some i n s t a n c e s , a poorly s e a l e d c a s i n g w i l l l e a k a r t e s i a n
water, forming seep a r e a s t h a t a r e d i f f i c u l t t o c o r r e c t .

The h i s t o r y of i r r i g a t i o n shows t h a t w h i l e some f a i l u r e s (waterlogging) may be due t o

economic c o n d i t i o n s o r human behaviour and a few t o l a c k of adequate e n g i n e e r i n g , most
f a i l u r e s have t h e i r o r i g i n s i n unfavourable c o n d i t i o n s of w a t e r , s o i l and drainage. No method
can s o l v e a l l t h e d r a i n a g e problems; some simply c a l l f o r improvement and maintenance of t h e
n a t u r a l drainage, o t h e r s r e q u i r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of complete d r a i n a g e systems. Drainage
methods a r e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n subchapter I I I D .
2.2

Elements of water c o n t r o l

I n t r o p i c a l a r e a s , i r r i g a t i o n i s used t o augment n a t u r a l r a i n f a l l and ensure t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of water when needed. This is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of wet crop c u l t i v a t i o n where
i r r i g a t i o n systems a l l o w more than one h a r v e s t p e r y e a r . I n a warm, humid c l i m a t e , p e r e n n i a l
i r r i g a t i o n i n t e n s i f i e s t h e t h r e a t of year-round anopheline breeding. For example, i n t h e
c o a s t a l zone of Guyana t h e annual r a i n f a l l i s 2 m, y e t a v a s t system of s e a defences and
i r r i g a t i o n channels has been developed t o i n c r e a s e r i c e and sugar cane production. Consequentl y t h e production of An. d a r l i n g i went on without i n t e r r u p t i o n a l l t h e y e a r round i n slowmoving c a n a l s and flooded f a l l o w f i e l d s . It i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t m a l a r i a used t o be endemic
b e f o r e countrywide c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t .
2.2.1

I r r i g a t i o n by pumping

Under most c o n d i t i o n s t h e i n i t i a l c o s t of a g r a v i t y system of i r r i g a t i o n w i l l be l e s s

than t h a t of a system w i t h w e l l s and pumping p l a n t s . Where h y d r o e l e c t r i c energy i s p l e n t i f u l
and cheap, however, a g r a v i t y system may prove t o be twice a s expensive a s a pumping system i f
a l l t h e heavy c o s t s of conveyance and maintenance a r e considered.
The d i v e r s i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water from m u l t i u s e r e s e r v o i r s ( v i a g r a v i t y conveyances of
c a n a l s , c h u t e s , flumes and t u n n e l s ) r e s t r i c t s t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e head o r flow f o r o t h e r
purposes such a s t h e g e n e r a t i o n of e l e c t r i c energy. When t h e i r r i g a t i o n needs a r e met l a r g e l y
by pumping s u r f a c e o r ground w a t e r , much of t h e e x t e n s i v e conveyance system i s e l i m i n a t e d , and
t h e s t o r a g e water o t h e r w i s e d i v e r t e d can be f u l l y u t i l i z e d t o produce h y d r o e l e c t r i c power.
The amount of water a v a i l a b l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n i s i n no way diminished. Pumping, combined w i t h
end of season g r a v i t y systems, g i v e s b e t t e r c o n t r o l with l e s s waste and considerably l e s s
v e c t o r breeding p o t e n t i a l .
2.2.2

Groundwater r e c h a r g e

Groundwater s t o r a g e can hold f a r more w a t e r than s u r f a c e r e s e r v o i r s , y e t i t i s n o t f u l l y

u t i l i z e d t o hold f l o o d w a t e r . Storage i n groundwater r e s e r v o i r s avoids l o s s by e v a p o r a t i o n
and e n t a i l s no mosquito b r e e d i n g p o t e n t i a l . I n view of t h e enormous c o s t of a s i n g l e purpose
i r r i g a t i o n s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r , t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of underground s t o r a g e i s o f t e n promising,
p a r t i c u l a r l y where i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o lower t h e groundwater l e v e l by pumping. Storage systems
a r e n o t u s e f u l i f they a r e k e p t f u l l o r n e a r l y f u l l . I r r i g a t i o n by pumping d u r i n g t h e d r y
season w i l l provide t h e s t o r a g e space f o r t h e wet period recharge. Water f o r r e c h a r g i n g comes
from r i v e r s o r r i v e r s d i v e r t e d i n t o c a n a l systems. The w a t e r spreading i s performed by basins,
furrows, f l o o d i n g o r by t h e use of p i t s , s h a f t s and w e l l s . Each method has i t s advantages and
I n developing c o u n t r i e s where multipurpose dams have been b u i l t , excess power
disadvantages.
during off- peak and s u r p l u s power p e r i o d s may be used f o r water spreading f o r groundwater
recharging.
2.2.3

Preparing land f o r e f f i c i e n t i r r i g a t i o n

The o b j e c t i v e of p r e p a r i n g land t o r e c e i v e water a p p l i e d by s u r f a c e flow i s t o grade t h e

land t o a uniform s l o p e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n and remove t h e t r a n s v e r s e s l o p e a s much
as p o s s i b l e . Land can b e graded t o no s l o p e o r f l a t grade f o r wet crop c u l t i v a t i o n b u t f o r
l a r g e f i e l d s t h i s p r e s e n t s d r a i n a g e and mosquito breeding problems. The p r a c t i c e of land
f i l l i n g and grading i s d i s c u s s e d i n subchapter I I I F .

S t r a t e g i e s a p p l i e d t o wet r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n
Grains occupy about h a l f of t h e world's croplands and r i c e i s probably t h e most important
crop a s i t i s a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e food f o r o v e r h a l f of t h e world's population. Although 91% of
t h e r i c e crop i s grown i n t r o p i c a l Asia, r i c e can be c u l t i v a t e d i n any warm c l i m a t e provided
t h a t t h e h i g h consumptive u s e of 1.65 m of w a t e r p e r growth season can be met.
3.1

Monsoon r a i n o r . p r o v i d e n t i r r i g a t i o n

No s i n g l e element p l a y s a more d e c i s i v e r o l e i n t h e l i f e of t r o p i c a l Asia t h a n t h e

monsoon r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n . The s e a s o n a l i n u n d a t i o n of t h e f l o o d p l a i n s , l e a v i n g a r i c h d'eposit
of mud, coupled w i t h t h e warm humid c l i m a t e , c r e a t e s c o n d i t i o n s i d e a l f o r t h e growth of r i c e .
While h i g h l y developed i r r i g a t i o n is coming i n t o use i n o r d e r t o double crop p r o d u c t i o n , t h e
almost u n i v e r s a l p r a c t i c e i s t h e p r o v i d e n t o r n a t u r a l accumulation of w a t e r d u r i n g t h e r a i n y
season, w i t h h a r v e s t s r e s t r i c t e d t o one per y e a r .
3.2

Labour- intensive o r t r a d i t i o n a l Asian c u l t i v a t i o n

Most r i c e paddies a r e small t e r r a c e s w i t h l e v e l benches and d i k e s t o impound and s t o r e

water. The f i e l d s a r e ploughed a t t h e beginning of t h e r a i n y season and puddled up t o a f i n e
c o n s i s t e n c y f o r t r a n s p l a n t i n g s e e d l i n g s . The work i s c a r r i e d o u t by man and animal power.
About a month b e f o r e t h e r a i n y season, t h e seedbed i s p l a n t e d . When t h e young shoots a r e
20 t o 30 cm l o n g , t h e y a r e p u l l e d and t r a n s p l a n t e d t o t h e prepared r i c e paddy. The goal then
i s t o m a i n t a i n t h e paddy submerged i n 2.5-10 cm of w a t e r , b u t t h i s i s d i f f i c u l t t o a t t a i n when
r e l y i n g only on r a i n f a l l . About a week b e f o r e h a r v e s t , t h e paddy i s d r a i n e d and t h e f i e l d
dried

3.3

Malaria v e c t o r production i n t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t i v a t i o n

The t r a d i t i o n a l method of r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n o f f e r s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e i n t e n s i v e
b r e e d i n g of some s p e c i e s of anopheline mosquitos. A t f i r s t t h e widely- spaced young p l a n t s
a f f o r d l i t t l e p r o t e c t i o n t o t h e eggs and l a r v a e of anopheline mosquitos. As t h e p l a n t s , a s
w e l l a s weeds,. grow and f i l l o u t , - t h e s p a c i n g d i s a p p e a r s and a l a r v a l h a b i t a t i s c o n s t i t u t e d .
When t h e h e i g h t of t h e r i c e s t a l k s reaches 60-75 cm, t h e r e i s evidence t h a t anopheline
mosquitos have d i f f i c u l t y i n l a y i n g eggs on t h e water s u r f a c e and t h e l a r v a l h a b i t a t i s f a r
from b e i n g optimum. This i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e observed r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number of l a r v a e i n
t h e paddy d u r i n g t h e l a t e r s t a g e of r i c e growth. Following dewatering of t h e r i c e f i e l d f o r
h a r v e s t , t h e mosquito production t e r m i n a t e s . During t h e p e r i o d of n a t u r a l f l o o d i n g , two o r
t h r e e s i g n i f i c a n t peaks of anopheline production may be observed. F i g . IV-5 p r e s e n t s
confirmatory d a t a , o b t a i n e d from a s t u d y c a r r i e d o u t i n 1950 of m a l a r i a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i c e
f i e l d s i n t h e Western P a c i f i c . Two crop h a r v e s t s a r e made p o s s i b l e by t h e use of a r t e s i a n
w e l l s t o i r r i g a t e t h e paddy p r i o r t o t h e r a i n y season. Note t h a t t h e production of an
important m a l a r i a v e c t o r , An. minimus, i s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e crop c y c l e b u t r a t h e r w i t h
t h e beginning
- and end of t h e r a i n y s e a s o n s , May and October, when t h e streams a r e no l o n g e r a t
f l o o d s t a g e s and become c l e a r and cool w i t h t h e margins covered w i t h v e g e t a t i o n . The more
abundant v e c t o r An. s i n e n s i s breeds i n ponded water and r i c e f i e l d s .
3.4

Energy- intensive o r n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t i v a t i o n

The a c t u a l y i e l d of r i c e i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Asian method of f l o o d i n g i s a p t t o be lower

than t h a t o b t a i n e d by non-Asian a g r i c u l t u r a l methods. This i s because t h e former method
g r e a t l y r e l i e s on r a i n which may be s h o r t i n some y e a r s , and g e n e r a l l y does n o t u s e f e r t i l i z e r s
and p e s t i c i d e s . Sometimes c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s i s s u f f e r e d d u r i n g typhoon winds. The t r a d i t i o n a l
Asian r i c e y i e l d ranges from 1500 t o 2000 kg p e r h e c t a r e , w h i l e t h e energy- intensive methods
(making use of i r r i g a t i o n , f e r t i l i z e r s and p e s t i c i d e s ) t h a t a r e now p r a c t i s e d i n Japan, t h e
Republic of Korea and some o t h e r a r e a s a r e a b l e t o produce y i e l d s t h a t a r e t h e double of t h i s
and compare w i t h t h o s e o b t a i n e d o u t s i d e Asia.

Fig. IV-5.

Anopheline mosquito d e n s i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h two-crop wet r i c e

c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e Western P a c i f i c . Dry season crop i r r i g a t e d
w i t h groundwater.

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e l a b o u r i n t e n s i v e methods of r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n i n which t h e s e e d l i n g s
a r e t r a n s p l a n t e d by hand t o t h e flooded and prepared f i e l d , a high degree of mechanization may
be employed. The f i e l d s a r e ploughed, d i s k e d and harrowed, and contour l e v e e s a r e formed
b e f o r e t h e seed i s d r i l l e d i n t o t h e d r y s o i l o r spread over from t h e a i r . A f t e r s e e d i n g , t h e
r i c e can grow v e r y much a s any o t h e r g r a i n , w i t h only l i g h t i r r i g a t i o n t o keep up s o i l
moisture i f t h e r a i n s f a i l . It has been experimentally determined t h a t t h e h i g h e s t y i e l d of
r i c e i s obtained when young r i c e p l a n t s a r e flooded a f t e r 30 days' growth and t h e n k e p t submerged i n w a t e r 15-20 cm deep u n t i l t h e r i c e matures. Then t h e w a t e r i s slowly d r a i n e d s o a s

n o t t o weaken t h e s t r a w . A f t e r t h e f i e l d s have been two weeks w i t h o u t w a t e r , t h e machines can

e a s i l y r u n on them f o r h a r v e s t i n g . The method of d r i l l i n g seed has given way t o a e r i a l
s p r e a d i n g methods.
3.5

Malaria v e c t o r ~ r o d u c t i o ni n e n e r w - i n t e n s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n

I n r i c e f i e l d s where seeding i s done by b r o a d c a s t , mosquito production begins only a f t e r

t h e f i r s t f l o o d on t h e 30-day-old r i c e s e e d l i n g s . The depth of w a t e r on t h e elongated p l a n t s
i s such t h a t t h e p r o t e c t i v e cover f o r eggs and l a r v a e i s a t a maximum. Consequently, t h e
f i r s t month of f l o o d i n g r e s u l t s i n h i g h mosquito p r o d u c t i o n and d e n s i t i e s of more than 20
l a r v a e p e r m2 have been r e p o r t e d . A s t h e r i c e s t a l k s l e n g t h e n , they tend t o t h i n o u t a t t h e
w a t e r l i n e and t h e f l e x u o u s l e a f y p o r t i o n s a r e l a r g e l y above t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e . This r e s u l t s
i n diminished mosquito breeding and l i m i t s l a r v a l development t o open p l a c e s i n t h e f i e l d ,
such a s t u r n o u t s , s c o u r h o l e s and l e v e e g a t e s . The number of mosquito broods could be a s h i g h
a s s i x b u t u s u a l l y t h e f i r s t few produce s u f f i c i e n t d e n s i t i e s f o r m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n .
According t o e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e USA, one s t r a t e g i c d r a i n i n g a p p l i e d a t t h e proper time w i l l
s u f f i c e t o c o n t r o l d i s e a s e transmission.
A g r i c u l t u r a l technology i s p r o v i d i n g new v a r i e t i e s of r i c e which, i n some i n s t a n c e s ,
r e q u i r e fewer days t o mature and may permit an e x t r a crop d u r i n g t h e y e a r . Where supplemental
water i s a v a i l a b l e , more s t a n d i n g w a t e r i s l e f t on t h e f i e l d and more v e c t o r s of p u b l i c h e a l t h
importance a r e produced. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e s u l t a n t removal of t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of water
c o n t r o l w i l l p r o v i d e t h e farmer w i t h f l e x i b i l i t y i n h i s p l a n t i n g and h a r v e s t i n g d a t e s s o t h a t
a l l s t a g e s of r i c e growth a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e a r e a simultaneously. This w i l l complicate v e c t o r
c o n t r o l ( e . g . , of mosquitos, s n a i l s , o r r a t s ) by e i t h e r environmental management o r chemical
methods.
3.6

I n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g a t i o n and d r a i n a g e

A w a t e r management scheme has been developed which r e p l a c e s continuous submergence of

r i c e f i e l d s by a s e r i e s of f l o o d i n g and d r a i n i n g c y c l e s . This p r o v i d e s e x c e l l e n t v e c t o r
mosquito c o n t r o l although i t i s p r i m a r i l y intended f o r t h e c o n t r o l of r i c e p l a n t d i s e a s e s .
An i n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g a t i o n experiment& was c a r r i e d o u t i n s o u t h Portugal over 4 y e a r s ,
from 1936 t o 1939. The experimental a r e a covered a t o t a l of 1 . 5 3 h e c t a r e s ; t h i s was d i v i d e d
i n t o two p l o t s of approximately equal a r e a , i n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g a t i o n being t r i e d i n one p l o t
w h i l e t h e o t h e r served f o r comparison purposes. The methods of i r r i g a t i o n , i . e . , i n t e r m i t t e n t
v e r s u s continuous, were a l t e r n a t e d i n t h e two p l o t s y e a r l y . As t h e l o c a l v e c t o r ,
An. a t r o p a r v u s , t a k e s a t l e a s t 1 8 days t o complete i t s development from t h e egg t o t h e a d u l t
s t a g e s d u r i n g t h e warmest p a r t of t h e summer under l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , a 17-day c y c l e was adopt e d i n t h e experiment, i . e . , 10 days w i t h w a t e r turned on and 7 days w i t h f i e l d s d r a i n e d and
w a t e r turned o f f . The r i c e v a r i e t y p l a n t e d was "Chinez".
It was found from t h e experiment t h a t :

(5) The r i c e y i e l d was u s u a l l y h i g h e r w i t h i n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g a t i o n .

(L)

A r e d u c t i o n of a t l e a s t 80Z i n t h e number of l a r g e l a r v a e was o b t a i n e d w i t h i n t e r m i t t e n t

irrigation.

(2) I n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g a t i o n used l e s s water i n each p a r a l l e l t e s t run.

(d)

I n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g a t i o n d i d n o t harm t h e q u a l i t i e s of r i c e .

(5) There was l e s s weed and a l g a e growth i n f i e l d s under i n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g a t i o n .

a
I n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g-a t i o n i n r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n , and i t s
- H i l l . R.B. & Cambournac. F.J.C.
e f f e c t on y i e l d , w a t e r consumption and Anopheles production. American j o u r n a l of t r o p i c a l
medicine. 21:123-144 (1941).

Parallel with the principal experiment described above, trials of shorter durations were
conducted. While results in these trials were generally in agreement with those of the
principal experiment, the following two major findings were reported:

(5) In one area with sandy soil, the yield was less with intermittent irrigation during the
two consecutive years of the trial.

(L)

The yield comparison was more variable with other rice varieties.

Several trials of intermittent irrigation have been carried out in China in recent years
with generally promising results. Soil characteristics were again shown to be an important
factor affecting the applicability of the method. In China, the wet-and-dry cycle was operated by applying water to the fields once in a given number of days and letting it dry up
naturally. This greatly simplified the intermittent irrigation practice and eliminated any
possible wastage of water through drainage.
Intermittent irrigation may prove to be an effective method for the control of vector
mosquitos in ricefields and should be given due consideration. Its success depends on how
carefully the relevant factors are studied and the operations planned. When planning,
consideration should be given to soil texture, irrigation methods and facilities, water availability, variety of rice, the agricultural practices including fertilizer requirements,
species of mosquito vectors breeding in the ricefields and their role in the disease transmission, etc. Field trials must therefore be carried out in close collaboration with the
agricultural authorities to establish the applicability of the method under local conditions.
These trials will also demonstrate the usefulness of intermittent irrigation for purposes
other than vector mosquito control, so that the rank and file farmers will make it a standard
practice.
There are genera of pest mosquitos (such as Psorophora) which seek the drained fields for
depositing large numbers of eggs on the soil. Reflooding may be followed by the hatching out
of heavy populations of fiercely biting mosquitos where this species is present. The potential
problem of pest mosquitos should be borne in mind when considering intermittent irrigation for
vector mosquito control.

3.7

Other methods of control

It has
introducing
water or to
repetitive,

been variously reported that ricefield mosquito control may be accomplished by

larvivorous fish or by routine application of larvicides to incoming irrigation
the field surface to be flooded. These measures have value but are temporary,
and expensive in the long run.

A method of restricting malaria transmission in rice-growing areas by "dry belting"

villages is described in Chapter V, section 4.
4.

Strategies applied to the control of vegetation in mosquito breeding habitats

4.1

Relationship of plants to mosquito breeding

In reservoirs and natural ponds, three major groups of littoral herbs are found- terrestrial, wetland, and aquatic. Terrestrial herbs are those typically growing in relatively dry
soil and usually unable to survive a month of partial but continuous inundation during the
growing period. Wetland herbs are those typically growing in soil which is saturated during
the major portion of the growing period and are usually not adversely affected by partial
inundation throughout that period. Aquatic herbs are those growing in soil covered with water,
whose development is inhibited by extended periods of dewatering during the growing period.

4 .l .l

The " i n t e r s e c t i o n value" concept

I n s e c t i o n 1 . 3 of t h i s Chapter, w a t e r l e v e l management i n impounded w a t e r was d i s c u s s e d

a s a s t r a t e g y f o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of mosquito l a r v a e , b u t a second and even more important
e f f e c t i s t h e s t r a n d i n g of f l o a t a g e and i n h i b i t i o n of marginal p l a n t s which p r o v i d e t h e essent i a l a q u a t i c environment f o r eggs and l a r v a e . The s t r a t e g y c o n s i s t s i n a l t e r i n g t h e environment i n a way which, w h i l e n o t a c t u a l l y k i l l i n g eggs and l a r v a e , exposes them t o t h e p l a y of
n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s and t o p r e d a t o r s such a s f i s h , b e e t l e s , and dragon f l y n a i a d s .
The " i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e " concept h a s g e n e r a l l y been accepted a s an index of t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of a h a b i t a t f o r t h e b r e e d i n g of An. quadrimaculatus.
It i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e p e r i m e t e r of a f l o a t i n g mass of l e a v e s and d e b r i s has a major e f f e c t on t h e development
of mosquito l a r v a e t o adulthood.
The " i n t e r s e c t i o n value" i s defined a s t h e l e n g t h i n meters of i n t e r s e c t i o n ( f l o a t a g e - a i r
w a t e r ) a t t h e p l a n t i n t e r f a c e p e r m2 of w a t e r s u r f a c e . For example, i f twelve l i l y p a d s ,
20 cm i n diameter, f l o a t on one m2 of w a t e r s u r f a c e , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e i s c a l c u l a t e d t o
be :

which c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e f l o a t i n g l e a f a s a poor breeding h a b i t a t f o r anopheles mosquitos. I f

t h e number of pads i s small t h e l a r v a e i n an a r r a y around t h e f l o a t i n g l e a f a r e easy prey.
I f t h e number of pads p e r m' i s l a r g e , t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e of t h e water may be l a r g e l y unavaila b l e f o r mosquito p r o d u c t i o n and t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e i s extremely small because t h e l e n g t h
of t h e p l a n t i n t e r f a c e i s l a r g e l y reduced by overlapping l e a v e s ( s e e Fig. IV-6). The s e r i o u s ness of t h e f l o a t i n g l e a f t y p e of a q u a t i c p l a n t l i e s i n i t s a b i l i t y t o c o l o n i z e l a r g e a r e a s of
r e l a t i v e l y deep w a t e r , thereby o f f s e t t i n g t h e low i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e by t h e l a r g e s u r f a c e
a v a i l a b l e f o r producing mosquitos.
I t i s n e c e s s a r y a l s o t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e importance of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e f o r o t h e r
m a l a r i a v e c t o r s which, u n l i k e An. quadrimaculatus, breed i n f r e s h w a t e r p o o l s , b r a c k i s h
marshes, o r streams. An. minimus, an important v e c t o r i n Asia, i s a stream- breeding s p e c i e s
which i s a l s o found i n i r r i g a t i o n channels and d i t c h e s . The season of peak breeding i s a t t h e
beginning and end o f t h e r a i n y season when each h a b i t a t has a peak i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e . I n
Malaysia, Assam and elsewhere, t h e c l e a r i n g of small r a v i n e streams of t r e e s and v e g e t a t i o n
( t h u s exposing t h e w a t e r t o s u n l i g h t ) r e s u l t s i n an i n c r e a s e of An. minimus and epidemic
m a l a r i a . The s u n l i g h t encourages semiaquatic growth which impedes t h e n a t u r a l s w i f t flow of
h i l l streams and p r o t e c t s t h e mosquito l a r v a e from p r e d a t o r s . The i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e i s very
much h i g h e r than i n deep shade c o n d i t i o n s . The r o l e of automatic f l u s h i n g of s u c h a r e a s i n
lowering t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n value i s d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 5 below.

4.1.2

S p e c i f i c p l a n t -m o s q u i t o r e l a t i o n s h i p s

I n a few s p e c i a l i z e d s i t u a t i o n s , t h e presence o r absence of a m a l a r i a v e c t o r depends upon

t h e e x i s t e n c e of a p a r t i c u l a r type of p l a n t . The n a t u r a l c a v i t i e s of e p i p h y t i c bromeliads a r e
t h e e x c l u s i v e b r e e d i n g p l a c e f o r t h e K e r t e s z i a group, i n c l u d i n g An. b e l l a t o r i n South America
and t h e Caribbean. Other c a v i t i e s such a s coconut husks and s h e l l s , c u t bamboo and t h e a x i l s
of l e a v e s of banana and hemp a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h mosquito breeding. The genus Mansonia, which
i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r u r a l f i l a r i a s i s i n c e r t a i n p a r t s of A s i a , i s almost completely dependent
upon t h e presence of a s p e c i f i c p l a n t . The b r e a t h i n g tube o r siphon of Mansonia, u n l i k e t h o s e
of most mosquito l a r v a e , p i e r c e t h e a i r - c a r r y i n g t i s s u e s of c e r t a i n a q u a t i c p l a n t s i n s t e a d of
the water surface.

The "intersection value" of 12 lily

pads of 20 cm diameter is
12 X n X 0.20117= 7.54 m/m2

lm

The "intersection value" of 32 lily

pads of 20 cm diameter is
n X 0.20m = 5.03 m/m
16 X

The "intersection value" of 25 lily

pads of 20 cm diameter is
25 X r x0.20m = 15.71 m/m

Fig. IV-6.

I l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e " i n t e r s e c t i o n value" concept.

The " i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e " i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e number of l i l y pads
u n t i l i t i s maximum when t h e s u r f a c e i s f i l l e d w i t h o u t o v e r l a p p i n g ;
w i t h f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of pads, overlapping i s produced
and t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e decreases u n t i l t h e whole s u r f a c e i s
completely covered w i t h l i l y pads and t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e becomes
zero.

A good example of s e l e c t i v e p l a n t s t r a t e g y i s t h e c o n t r o l of "bromeliad m a l a r i a " i n

Trinidad. The cacao p l a n t a t i o n s were i n t e r p l a n t e d w i t h "immortelle" t r e e s ( E r y t h r i n a ) t o
provide shade. An i n v a s i o n of f o r e s t bromeliads plagued t h e shade t r e e s and allowed t h e
breeding of l a r g e numbers of m a l a r i a v e c t o r s . The c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y was t o d e s t r o y a l l t h e
bromeliads w i t h i n mosquito f l i g h t range of t h e v i l l a g e s , by hand removal, chemical h e r b i c i d a l
s p r a y , o r s e l e c t i v e c l e a r i n g of shade t r e e s . Chemical methods were e f f e c t i v e , b u t i n t h e long
run t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n s were t o p l a n t shade t r e e s , such a s e u c a l y p t u s , which do n o t s u p p o r t t h e
growth of bromeliads, o r e l s e p l a n t t h e cacao t r e e s c l o s e t o g e t h e r t o provide t h e i r own shade.

4.1.3

P l a n t s which a l l e g e d l y i n h i b i t mosquito breeding

A n o t a b l e group of s o - c a l l e d a n t i l a r v a l p l a n t s i n c l u d e s t h e muskgrasses (Chara and

The
N i t e l l a spp.) , f l o a t i n g - l e a f w a t e r s h i e l d s (Brasenia) and bladderworts ( U t r i c u l a r i a )
f i r s t two a r e r o o t e d submerged types which a l l e g e d l y g i v e o f f chemicals t o t h e w a t e r w h i l e t h e
bladderwort i s a carnivorous p l a n t which i s a b l e t o t r a p l a r v a e i n t o b l a d d e r - l i k e s t r u c t u r e s .
The low i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e of both of t h e submerged p l a n t s would n o t suggest heavy anopheline
breeding i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e . Even i f they a r e t r u l y a n t i l a r v a l , i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e whether

s u f f i c i e n t l y heavy s t a n d s can b e e s t a b l i s h e d when they a r e needed. These types do n o t t h r i v e

where anopheline b r e e d i n g i s h e a v i e s t , namely, shallow a r e a s w i t h v e g e t a t i o n t h a t i s f l e x u o u s ,
emergent o r i n f l o a t i n g mats. They p r e f e r c l e a r w a t e r , exposed t o t h e sun and of too g r e a t a
depth f o r r o o t e d emergent p l a n t s .
The f l o a t i n g l e a f h a s a low i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e and can, i n some i n s t a n c e s , cover t h e
e n t i r e water s u r f a c e . The w a t e r s h i e l d pads a c t u a l l y o v e r l a p l i k e s h i n g l e s on a roof and, i n
a d d i t i o n , t h e wetted p a r t s have a g e l a t i n o u s f i l m t h a t i s u n a t t r a c t i v e t o l a r v a e . The duckweeds Lemna, Wolffia and S p i r o d e l a a l s o form dense mats which completely cover t h e water
s u r f a c e s o t h a t mosquito b r e e d i n g i s minimal. F i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s , however, show t h a t t h i c k
p l e u s t o n ( i . e . , small b u t macroscopic organisms l i k e duckweed) w i l l cover t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
deeper w a t e r of t h e pond which o r d i n a r i l y would n o t have mosquito breeding. Considerably more
and more r e l i a b l e d a t a a r e needed on t h e u s e f u l n e s s of promoting new p l a n t types s i n c e no one
can p r e d i c t t h e outcome i n t h e event t h e introduced p l a n t s " take over" t h e environment. With
only p a r t i a l coverage, t h e l i l y pad o r duckweed " l i d on t h e pot" concept might become a
r e g r e t t a b l e m i s a p p l i c a t i o n of n a t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s . That i t i s dangerous t o g e n e r a l i z e i s shown
by t h e f a c t t h a t h i g h d e n s i t i e s of An. s a c h a r o v i i n Turkey have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Chara, a
p l a n t claimed t o i n h i b i t mosquito breeding elsewhere.
4.2
4.2.1

Water manipulated a s h e r b i c i d e
Required s c i e n t i f i c information

The most s e r i o u s p l a n t i n v a s i o n s of r e s e r v o i r s and l a k e s a r e caused by wetland and

a q u a t i c p l a n t s t h a t g i v e h i g h i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e s o r those t h a t extend t h e a r e a of mosquito
production e i t h e r because they grow i n deep w a t e r o r because they have an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y
r a p i d spread. The c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y w i l l depend on whether t h e p l a n t i s n a t i v e o r i n t r o d u c e d .
Native p l a n t s seldom g i v e r i s e t o e x p l o s i v e c o l o n i z a t i o n because of e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l f a c t o r s .
On impounded w a t e r i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s c o v e r dangerous imported s p e c i e s b e f o r e they spread
too f a r . I n t h e absence of t h e n e c e s s a r y s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n , u n s u i t a b l e t r e a t m e n t may
aggravate and extend t h e problem. There a r e numerous examples of t h i s .
To develop a s t r a t e g y of p l a n t c o n t r o l by n a t u r a l techniques, a minimum of knowledge must
be o b t a i n e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g :
The n a t u r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s p e c i e s .
The i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e o r anopheline breeding p o t e n t i a l .
The optimum h a b i t a t . Information i s r e q u i r e d on t h e p l a n t ' s h a b i t a t , i n c l u d i n g t h e k i n d
of w a t e r , whether f r e s h o r b r a c k i s h , depth of w a t e r , p r e f e r e n c e f o r shade o r s u n l i g h t ,
bed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and r e s i s t a n c e t o wave wash.
Reproductive d i s p e r s a l and m i g r a t i o n p o t e n t i a l s . I n some p l a n t s , such
hyacinth (Eichhornia c r a s s i p e s ) , t h e propagation i s asexual by o f f s e t s
When small p l a n t s a r e broken away from t h e main colony, each can s t a r t
bank-to-bank i n v a s i o n i s complete. I t has been observed t h a t a s i n g l e
E. c r a s s i p e s can g i v e r i s e t o 3000 p l a n t s i n 50 days.

a s t h e water
of small new plants.
a new colony u n t i l
p l a n t of

Previous c o n t r o l experience. Previous c o n t r o l methods may i n c l u d e mechanical removal and

c r u s h i n g , u s e a s fodder f o r animals, o r t h e use of h e r b i c i d e s . It i s important t o know
t h e r o l e of s e e d s , t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s on t h e p l a n t of w a t e r manipulation, and whether
t h e p l a n t has any n a t u r a l enemies.

4.2.2

Seed eermination

Almost all seeds of the woody plant species involved in mosquito breeding habitats,
including those of aquatic trees such as cypress, must be stranded or dewatered before germination takes place. This is a feasible control mechanism since the seeds float and can be
stranded where their growth would not be objectionable or where competition from existing
species would shade out the seedling. If the seeding time is known, a strategy of water
management or other control technique can be devised. It is thus possible to keep willow
seedlings in a narrow band high in the fluctuation zone of controlled water resource projects.
Almost all seeds of annual terrestrials can germinate only when dewatered. The maintenance of a flood stage as long as possible will guarantee cleaner water surfaces when natural
or artificial recessions occur.
Many wetland plants require dewatering for successful establishment. This would include
Echinochloa, Polygonum, Eragrostis, Cyperus and Ammannia, and prolonged inundation can manage
species belonging to these genera. The viability of the water-stored seed, however, can be
quite long, up to 70 years in one reported instance.
Unlike the seeds of terrestrials and wetland plants, those of true aquatics show a great
diversity in germination. Some may require dewatering, others germinate on the water surface
and strand, or soon settle to the inundated bottom. Therefore, the effect of water level
management on germination varies according to the particular plant. Temporary flooding, for
example, has no effect on the germination of seeds of lotus (Nelumbo) but prevents the development of smartweed (Polygonum) and favours the germination of spatterdock (Nuphar)
Temporary
dewatering of seeded areas, while not affecting the seeds of lotus, prevents the germination
of pondweed (Potamogeton) and promotes the development of wild millet seeds (Echinochloa).

4.2.3

Vegetative methods of reproduction

Many aquatic species do not rely on seeding, but spread from rootstock, runners, or
stolons, or by fragmentation. The stumps of woody plants do not sprout when under water.
\hen dewatered, the ability to sprout will depend on the water tolerance of the given species.
Old stumps will not sprout as well as young stumps of the same species. As a general rule,
woody and terrestrial herbs are destroyed by prolonged flooding and are injured by short
periods of inundation.
Aquatic herbs survive continuous flooding for periods and at depths that are limited for
each species. Lotus, for example, can be "drowned" by rapid flooding in 12 days, whereas root
stocks are not affected by depths up to 2.5 m. Dewatering of perennating structures has no
effect on woolgrass (Scirpus), but holds back pondweed (Potamogeton) and promotes the sprouting
of maiden cane (Panicurn).
4.3
4.3.1

Practical application
Shading by tree planting

Early workers in malaria control believed that shade was important in limiting anopheline
mosquito production. Shallow waters exposed to direct sunlight have a more abundant growth of
emergent and microscopic plants, thus providing necessary food and protection for mosquito
larvae. The larvae of a few anopheline species (such as umbrosus, punctimacula and
leucosphyrus) prefer the deeply shaded areas, but those of the more important vectors of
malaria prefer some sunlight. Shading by tree planting has been demonstrated to be useful in
the control of anopheline species such as gambiae, funestus, quadrimaculatus, fluviatilis,
minimus, and sundaicus. Some experimental demonstrations of the method have proved successful.
It was thought that selective preparatory clearing could leave stands of water-tolerant trees
such as bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and tupelo gum (~yssaaquatics) in shallow waters
of impoundment sites, but it was found that these species were "drowned" on flooding and
failed to survive. In southeastern USA it was shown, however, that the transplantation of

n u r s e r y s e e d l i n g s of t h e s e same s p e c i e s i n t o shallow water s i t e s i n r e s e r v o i r s , d e s p i t e a

d i f f i c u l t i n i t i a l growth p e r i o d of 2-3 y e a r s , e v e n t u a l l y succeeded i n o b t a i n i n g a measure of
mosquito c o n t r o l through shading.
I n 1967 and 1968, some 32 y e a r s a f t e r p l a n t i n g , t h e c o n t r o l of anopheline breeding i n
t h e s e t r e e p l a n t a t i o n s was e v a l u a t e d by examining l a r v a l d e n s i t y w i t h i n and o u t s i d e t h e
a r t i f i c i a l l y shaded a r e a s . The r e s u l t s were a s follows:
Area

Dips taken

T o t a l anopheline

No. / l 0 0 d i p s

Shaded

3085

95

Open

1680

308

18

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p l a n t i n g of s e e d l i n g s , shading of stream banks has been provided w i t h

c u t t i n g s of t h e thorny Duranta s p . i n Assam. Species of Eucalyptus, Ficus and Terminalia have
been used f o r shade purposes throughout t h e t r o p i c a l world. Willow ( S a l i x ) and cottonwood
(Populus) a r e commonly employed i n waterlogged a r e a s of i r r i g a t i o n systems. Tree p l a n t i n g on
i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l banks should b e avoided, however.
4.3.2

A r t i f i c i a l flooding

A r t i f i c i a l f l o o d i n g , even t o a depth of 30-40 cm f o r a period of one month, i s unable t o

k i l l t h e s e e d l i n g s of marginal p l a n t s once t h e y have a t t a i n e d some e l o n g a t i o n , except i n very
few c a s e s . The exceptions a r e ragweed, (Ambrosia), cocklebur (Xanthium), goldenrod (Solidago),
c r a b g r a s s ( D i g i t a r i a ) , and o t h e r h e r b s which f o l l o w t h e receding w a t e r . The aim of v e g e t a t i o n
c o n t r o l by f l o o d i n g i s t o keep t h e s e e d s and perennating s t r u c t u r e s under water t o prevent
germination o r s p r o u t i n g b e f o r e n a t u r a l r e c e s s i o n begins. Then f l o o d i n g completely covers t h e
margin s o t h a t no p l a n t extends above t h e s u r f a c e , drowning t a k e s p l a c e i n a few weeks f o r
most annual s p e c i e s . The seeds, r o o t s t o c k and f l o a t i n g stems a r e thus prevented from renewing
c o l o n i e s . The depth and d u r a t i o n of f l o o d i n g i s v a r i a b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t p l a n t s . Almost a l l
a r e k i l l e d by inundation f o r one growing season (about 200 d a y s ) , b u t some a q u a t i c s such a s
l o t u s can be d e s t r o y e d i n a s s h o r t a time a s 2 weeks. The d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t deep f l o o d i n g of
n a t u r a l a r e a s i s u s u a l l y n o t of s u f f i c i e n t d u r a t i o n t o c o n t r o l more than a few p l a n t s . I n
impounding r e s e r v o i r s i n t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s i t i s l i k e l y t h a t a l l rooted a q u a t i c s and almost
a l l annual p l a n t s c a n be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e wide p r o g r e s s i o n of pool l e v e l s a s t h e annual f l o o d
waters a r e c o l l e c t e d .
--

4.3.3

C u t t i n g and f l o o d i n g

I n ponds and c a n a l s where g r e a t depths of i n u n d a t i o n a r e n o t o b t a i n a b l e even d u r i n g f l o o d

p e r i o d s , i t i s a u s e f u l p r a c t i c e t o c u t t h e p l a n t and submerge t h e r o o t s t o c k , i n s t e a d of
shallow f l o o d i n g t h e e n t i r e p l a n t . The p l a n t s t h a t respond e s p e c i a l l y w e l l t o t h i s c u t and
f l o o d t r e a t m e n t a r e mainly monocots and i n c l u d e rush (Juncus), g i a n t c u t g r a s s ( Z i z a n i o p s i s ) ,
woolgrass ( ~ c i r p u s ) ,and c a t t a i l (Typha). These p l a n t s must be c u t d u r i n g t h e growing season,
p r e f e r a b l y b e f o r e s e e d s have developed. About one week of continuous shallow f l o o d i n g of c u t
Narrow
s t u b b l e w i l l g i v e e x c e l l e n t c o n t r o l . Cutting i s f a c i l i t a t e d by low w a t e r l e v e l s .
i n l e t s t o ponds and sloughs can be used f o r p l a n t c o n t r o l by e r e c t i n g temporary dams f o r
impounding water over t h e s t u b b l e .

4.3.4

Recurrent c u t t i n g

The theory of r e c u r r e n t o r r e p e a t e d c u t t i n g of a p l a n t f o r c o n t r o l i s based on t h e f a c t

t h a t t h e a b i l i t y t o send o u t perennating s t r u c t u r e i s l i m i t e d . Hibiscus and c a t t a i l can be
c o n t r o l l e d w i t h o u t f l o o d i n g by c u t t i n g t h e p l a n t two t o t h r e e times d u r i n g t h e growing season.
A f t e r each c u t t i n g t h e number of r e s p r o u t s w i l l be markedly diminished. Deep water f l o a t i n g
l e a f a q u a t i c s such a s l o t u s , w a t e r l i l y , and water c h e s t n u t (Trapa) a r e c u t i n s t a n d i n g water.

R e p e t i t i v e c u t t i n g of t h e food-producing s t r u c t u r e s ( l e a v e s ) w i l l d e p l e t e t h e food r e s e r v e i n
t h e r o o t s t o c k . The d e p t h and t u r b i d i t y of t h e water i s a f a c t o r . New c o l o n i e s of l o t u s , f o r
example, can be c o n t r o l l e d by one o r two c u t t i n g s i n r e l a t i v e l y t u r b i d w a t e r 1 m deep. Small
a r e a s may be c o n t r o l l e d by hand snapping of t h e p e t i o l e s . For l a r g e r c o l o n i e s , underwater
mowing machines (designed f o r t h i s purpose) may b e employed. These f l o a t i n g u n i t s can c u t
1 t o 2 h e c t a r e s p e r day provided t h a t t h e w a t e r i s a t l e a s t 0.5 m deep and t h e r e a r e no stumps
and snags.
4.3.5

S p e c i a l mechanical methods

Many a q u a t i c p l a n t s a r e spread by fragments which b r e a k o f f from t h e p a r e n t p l a n t , f l o a t

t o a new l o c a t i o n , and t a k e r o o t . Some p l a n t s of t h i s t y p e a r e a l l i g a t o r weed (Alternanthera),
water primrose ( J u s s i a e a ) , and Eurasian m i l f o i l (Myriophyllum). Attempts t o c o n t r o l such
p l a n t s by mechanical r a k i n g , r o l l i n g and c r u s h i n g may d e f e a t t h e i r purpose by producing
hundreds o f small r e p r o d u c t i v e fragments. Mats of f l o a t i n g water h y a c i n t h and a l l i g a t o r weed
have t o b e mechanically removed and d e p o s i t e d above t h e w a t e r l i n e . Most of t h e h y a c i n t h w i l l
d i e b u t a l l i g a t o r weed r o o t s n e a r t h e w a t e r l i n e w i l l r e s p r o u t . These procedures a r e only
temporary and expensive means of keeping n a v i g a t i o n channels open.
C u t t i n g o r grubbing below t h e r o o t crown i s an e f f e c t i v e method f o r e l i m i n a t i n g woody
p l a n t s such a s willow and b u t t o n b a l l , which do n o t r e s p r o u t from t h e r o o t s . Willow propagation
i s by seed and by branch c u t t i n g s , b u t n o t from stumps o r s t u b b l e c u t below t h e r o o t crowns.
Mowing down o r hand c u t t i n g of willow above t h e r o o t crown i n c r e a s e s growth s i n c e m u l t i p l e
s p r o u t s a r e produced from each stem c u t . One blow of t h e axe d e l i v e r e d by a t r a i n e d worker
below t h e ground l i n e w i l l permanently e l i m i n a t e t h e p l a n t . The technique i s a p p l i c a b l e when
t h i n n i n g out t h e willow t h i c k e t s used t o produce marginal shading f o r mosquito c o n t r o l
purposes ( s e e s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 1 ) .
4.3.6

Dewatering of a q u a t i c s p e c i e s

Although, a s mentioned i n s e c t i o n 4.2.2 above, t h e dewatering of many marginal p l a n t s

promotes seed germination and r e s p r o u t i n g , i t i s an e f f e c t i v e means of c o n t r o l l i n g c e r t a i n of
them. True a q u a t i c s p e c i e s a r e o f t e n k i l l e d o r damaged by dewatering. This i s e s p e c i a l l y
t r u e i n t h e temperate zone where dewatered p l a n t s may be s u b j e c t e d t o f r e e z i n g weather. Water
primrose which, u n l i k e a l l i g a t o r weed, does n o t s p r o u t from t h e r o o t s may be e f f e c t i v e l y
c o n t r o l l e d by dewatering i n t h e w i n t e r season. Where wide ranges of drawdown a r e p a r t of t h e
annual c y c l e , t h e rooted f l o a t i n g mat t y p e of p l a n t should p r e s e n t no major problem. These
rooted p l a n t s cannot s p r o u t i f a t a depth of 1 m and do not t h r i v e on d r y land above t h e waterl i n e . The c y c l e of wide r e c e s s i o n w i l l thus c o n t r o l most mosquito b r e e d i n g i n marginal
v e g e t a t i o n . R e s e r v o i r s i n t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s which o p e r a t e a t n e a r l y c o n s t a n t l e v e l a l l y e a r
round may have no a l t e r n a t i v e t o using chemical measures t o c o n t r o l such breeding.
An unfavourable h a b i t a t may be c r e a t e d f o r o t h e r than t h e rooted f l o a t i n g mat a q u a t i c
s p e c i e s by deepening and f i l l i n g t e c h n i q u e s , which may a i d i n mosquito c o n t r o l i n pools of
n e a r l y c o n s t a n t l e v e l . The c u t zone i s too deep f o r t h e a q u a t i c s p e c i e s and t h e s h o r e l i n e too
s t e e p t o g i v e any s i z e a b l e a r e a of mosquito production. Therefore, t h e depth of w a t e r
t o l e r a n c e i s one of t h e most important p l a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o be considered i n e f f o r t s t o
c o n t r o l a q u a t i c p l a n t s . This technique of topographic a l t e r a t i o n by f i l l i n g and deepening
( s e e subchapter IIIA) i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r f i s h ponds and sewage lagoons.
5.

Stream f l u s h i n e

5.1

Antimosquito a c t i o n

Some of t h e i m p o r t a n t v e c t o r s of m a l a r i a i n t r o p i c a l Asia a r e f l u v i a l o r stream- breeding

anophelines. The i n t e n s e l y domestic v e c t o r An. minimus p r e f e r s t h e edges of g e n t l y moving,
c l e a n , c l e a r w a t e r streams. I t s i d e a l h a b i t a t i s found i n small streams a f t e r t h e heavy r a i n s
have t e r m i n a t e d , when t h e r e l a t i v e l y low flow i s l a r g e l y cool c l e a r ground water w i t h g r a s s y
margins. The l a r v a e have d i f f i c u l t y s t a y i n g i n t h e d e s i r e d h a b i t a t i f t h e v e l o c i t y exceeds

8-10 cm/sec. This i s one reason why a l a r g e r i v e r w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e n a t u r a l w a t e r f l u c t u a t i o n s and deep shaded margins i s l e s s f a v o u r a b l e t o mosquito breeding t h a n small streams a r e .
S i g n i f i c a n t t r o p i c a l stream- breeding v e c t o r s i n c l u d e t h e anopheline s p e c i e s minimus
f l a v i r o s t r i s , f l u v i a t i l i s , maculatus, s u p e r p i c t u s , varuna, pseudopunctipennis and s e r g e n t i .
It i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t l i t t l e mosquito b r e e d i n g i s found i n any stream, b i g o r
s m a l l , t h a t has widely f l u c t u a t i n g w a t e r l e v e l s w i t h o c c a s i o n a l overflowing of t h e banks. A
s w i f t , muddy, t u r b u l . e n t flow, devoid of emergent v e g e t a t i o n , i s n o t an i d e a l l a r v a l h a b i t a t .
The l a r v a e of only a few hardy f l u v i a l mosquitos can h o l d onto overhanging v e g e t a t i o n o r
remain i n eddy p l a c e s long enough t o complete a l i f e c y c l e i n such c o n d i t i o n s . Adult mosquito
p o p u l a t i o n s do n o t i n c r e a s e i n geometric p r o g r e s s i o n u n t i l a f t e r t h e peak r a i n f a l l has passed.

When a sudden f l u s h of s t o r e d w a t e r i s r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e breeding stream channel, and

t h i s i s r e p e a t e d p e r i o d i c a l l y , t h e l a r v a l h a b i t a t i s a l t e r e d i n s e v e r a l ways. These s h o r t
(b) s t i r up
p e r i o d s of i n c r e a s e d w a t e r v e l o c i t y may (a) d i s l o d g e and expose l a r v a e and eggs;
t h e bottom sediments which may bury mosquito i n s t a r s ; (c) produce a wave- front w a t e r f l u c t u a t i o n c y c l e which a s s i s t s i n d i s l o d g i n g and perhaps s t r a n d i n g l a r v a e ; and (d) check t h e
i n v a s i o n of t h e marginal v e g e t a t i o n t h a t reduces s t r e a m v e l o c i t y and provides p r o t e c t i o n f o r
l a r v a e . The l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t mechanical f o r c e i s t h e major a n t i l a r v a l a c t i o n b u t
t u r b u l e n c e i s observed only i n t h e zone immediately downstream of t h e p o i n t of f l u s h w a t e r
r e l e a s e . The i n h i b i t i o n of p l a n t i n v a s i o n seems t o be t h e most observable a n t i l a r v a l mechanism
produced by p e r i o d i c f l u s h i n g . The w e l l f l u s h e d stream does n o t have any good p l a c e s i n which
t o "dip f o r l a r v a e " .
5.2

Dry streambed b r e e d e r s

The l a r v a e of a number of anopheline s p e c i e s such a s c u l i c i f a c i e s , albimanus, p a t t o n i ,

and a r g y r i t a r s i s a r e found c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e pools of d r y i n g stream beds. These a r e , f o r
t h e most p a r t , t r u e l a c u s t r i n e s p e c i e s and i t i s d o u b t f u l whether t h e technique of p e r i o d i c
f l u s h i n g , even i f p r a c t i c a b l e , would p r o v i d e adequate c o n t r o l . As t h e dry stream bed u s u a l l y
s t i l l c o n t a i n s a l o n g s e r i e s of ground d e p r e s s i o n s f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r , each f l u s h would r e q u i r t
c o n s i d e r a b l e volumes of w a t e r , t h u s making a g r e a t demand on t h e s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r which might
w e l l exceed t h e a v a i l a b l e inflow. The conclusion i s t h a t , f o r any c o n s i d e r a b l e number of
breeding p o o l s , such a s might b e found i n wide r i v e r beds, s l u i c i n g would n o t be massive
enough t o d e s t r o y t h e l a r v a e . The p o s s i b l e exception would b e t h e use of large- head w a t e r
s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s designed f o r o t h e r purposes t h a n mosquito c o n t r o l . Recently i n S r i Lanka
t h e emergency r e l e a s e of w a t e r from such a r e s e r v o i r was considered n e c e s s a r y i n m a l a r i a
control operations.
5.3
5.3.1

R a t i o n a l d e s i g n of f l u s h i n g
Inflow a t peak b r e e d i n g

It has been observed t h a t t o have a w e l l f l u s h e d s t r e a m , f l u s h i n g should s t a r t a t t h e

beginning of t h e b r e e d i n g season w i t h a c y c l e a s s h o r t a s one f l u s h p e r hour and should end
when t h e s t r e a m i s d r y i n g up w i t h only one f l u s h p e r week o r l o n g e r . It i s mandatory t h a t a t
l e a s t one o r two f l u s h e s p e r day b e provided a t t h e time of peak mosquito production. When
t h e i n f l o w i n t o t h e s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o compensate f o r t h e outflow r e q u i r e d
f o r one o r two f l u s h e s p e r day, i t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h any d i f f e r e n c e i n h a b i t a t
and l a r v a l d e n s i t i e s between f l u s h e d and unflushed streams. This demonstrates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s t r e a m inflow a t t h e time of peak mosquito p r o d u c t i o n and t h e h y d r a u l i c
d e s i g n of t h e f l u s h c y c l e s . I f t h e s e elements a r e n o t balanced, t h e scheme w i l l f a i l .

I n F i g- . IV-7, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s given between r a i n f a l l , runoff and t h e p r o d u c t i o n of

a d u l t mosquitos of t h e v e c t o r An. minimus f l a v i r o s t r i s . The a d u l t c a t c h e s throughout t h e y e a r
a r e monthly averages p e r t r a p , which was b a i t e d w i t h a carabao t e n hours per week. The
r e l a t i o n s h i p shown i s t y p i c a l f o r f l u v i a l v e c t o r s w i t h a peak number of a d u l t s a f t e r t h e r a i n s
have ceased and when t h e recharged groundwater l e v e l provides a n e a r c o n s t a n t stream flow of
c l e a r water. I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e i n f l o w f o r f l u s h i n g design i s taken t o be about 0.11 l / s

p e r h e c t a r e of d r a i n a g e a r e a . I n some t r o p i c a l a r e a s where t h e t e r m i n a t i o n of r a i n i s l e s s
s h a r p , twice a s much i n f l o w may b e a p p r o p r i a t e .

5
C

80 -

Adult A. minimus catches

(Traps baited 10 houdweek)

I \

2 70\

Maximum
record

60-

I
I

I
1

5- yea
average

10

\*-*-

'-. ./
b

JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUN. JUL. AUG. SEP. OCT. NOV. DEC.

Fig. IV-7.

5.3.2

R e l a t i o n s h i p of wet/dry t r o p i c a l r a i n f a l l and runoff p a t t e r n

on t h e production of An. minimus f l a v i r o s t r i s , t h e f Luvial
m a l a r i a v e c t o r of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .

Automatic v e r s u s manual f l u s h i n g

Many experienced workers p r e f e r t h e manual s l u i c e g a t e which i s simple and easy t o maint a i n . Automatic d e v i c e s , whether self- priming siphons o r t i p p i n g b u c k e t s , a r e n o t easy t o
d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t o r m a i n t a i n p r o p e r l y . Even t h e s i m p l e r automatic d e v i c e s r e q u i r e f r e q u e n t
v i s i t s by f i e l d people t o e n s u r e proper o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e c r i t i c a l breeding season. As
t h a t p e r i o d approaches, siphons must b e c a r e f u l l y checked, s i l t g a t e s c l o s e d , any l e a k s i n t h e
crown r e p a i r e d , and blockages c l e a r e d i n t h e priming v e n t s . F l o a t a g e i n t h e r e s e r v o i r must be
removed.
The disadvantage of t h e manual s l u i c e i s t h a t more t h a n two f l u s h e s p e r day may be
d i f f i c u l t t o o p e r a t e every day throughout t h e b r e e d i n g season i f many s i t e s a r e involved and
manpower i s l i m i t e d . For example, one v i l l a g e r e q u i r e d t h e o p e r a t i o n of 1 3 s l u i c e g a t e s t o
provide p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e a r e a w i t h i n t h e 1 . 6 km mosquito f l i g h t range.

Automatic d e v i c e s working day and n i g h t a r e b e s t f o r a l t e r i n g t h e s t r e a m h a b i t a t and

c o n t r o l l i n g mosquito breeding. When s t r e a m flows a b a t e , a s e r i e s of dams on a s i n g l e s t r e a m
can provide s u c c e s s i v e f l u s h e s u s i n g t h e same f l u s h i n g volume i n t u r n w i t h l i m i t e d waste.
5.3.3

Downstream d i s t a n c e of c o n t r o l

U n t i l r e c e n t work i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e d e s i g n and performance of many e x i s t i n g siphons i n

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , no s i g n i f i c a n t body of knowledge on f l u s h d e s i g n was a v a i l a b l e .
The c o n t r o l
of f l u v i a l v e c t o r s by f l u s h i n g was accomplished by t r i a l and e r r o r . Various i n v e s t i g a t o r s
determined t h e f l u s h d i s c h a r g e n o t s o much on t h e i n f l o w a t time of peak breeding, b u t r a t h e r
on a c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y f o r l a r v a e c o n t r o l , V , of a t l e a s t 0.44 m/s. Thus, t h e d i s c h a r g e r a t e
(Q) i n m3/s = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a r e a of stream (m2) x designed v e l o c i t y (V = 0.44 m/s). The
d i s t a n c e of l a r v a e c o n t r o l i n metres downstream could be e s t i m a t e d t o be:
Control l e n g t h (m)

Storage volume/l u s h (m3)

c r o s s - s e c t i o n a r e a (m2 )

Since t h e s t r e a m c r o s s - s e c t i o n a r e a (width X average depth) i s f i x e d , t h e downstream

c o n t r o l l e n g t h v a r i e s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e s t o r a g e volume a v a i l a b l e . A s might be expected, f i e l d
o b s e r v a t i o n s made d u r i n g t h e passage of a f l u s h i n a s t r e a m r e v e a l e d a wide v a r i a t i o n i n
v e l o c i t y a s t h e r u s h of w a t e r t r a v e r s e d pools and s h o a l s downstream. The e s t i m a t e of e f f e c t i v e
d i s t a n c e (h)of a n t i l a r v a l f l u s h d e r i v e d from t h e f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n of 1 3 d i f f e r e n t i n s t a l lations i s

where Q
= maximum d i s c h a r g e (m / S )
max
3
V = s t o r a g e volume p e r f l u s h (m )
W = average width of f l u s h e d stream (m)

S = average s l o p e of f l u s h e d stream (%)

A comparison of e s t i m a t e s o b t a i n e d from t h e above e m p i r i c a l formula and t h e computation
of t h e r a t i o , s t o r a g e volume/stream c r o s s - s e c t i o n , g i v e s f a i r l y good agreement c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
rough approximation of t h e elements employed i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . The g r e a t e s t disagreement
i s f o r t h e wide streams w i t h s l i g h t g r a d i e n t s , where t h e average depth i s most d i f f i c u l t t o
determine.

5.3.4

Automatic s e l f - p r i m i n g siphons

The advantage of t h e automatic siphon f o r antimosquito f l u s h i n g l i e s i n t h e s e l f i n i t i a t i n g and s e l f - a r r e s t i n g f e a t u r e s which g i v e t h e r e p e a t e d environmental d i s t u r b a n c e t h a t

i n h i b i t s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an i d e a l l a r v a l h a b i t a t . F i g . I V - 8 shows two b a s i c types of
s e l f - p r i m i n g siphons. I n b o t h , t h e r e s e r v o i r water l e v e l r i s e s a s t h e i n f l o w i s s t o r e d u n t i l
i t reaches t h e l i p of t h e upper limb and s e a l s t h e siphon. The s e a l i n g b a s i n h o l d s a i r w i t h i n
I n t h e MacDonald scheme, t h e w a t e r reaches t h e l e v e l
t h e siphon and t h e priming c y c l e begins.
of t h e a u x i l i a r y p i p e and escapes through i t , e j e c t i n g a i r from t h e crown and c r e a t i n g a
p a r t i a l vacuum. A s t h e e j e c t i o n of a i r c o n t i n u e s , t h e vacuum w i t h i n t h e siphon i n c r e a s e s s o
t h a t when w a t e r s p i l l s o v e r t h e c r e s t , f u l l prime and d i s c h a r g e s t a r t s w i t h o u t e x c e s s i v e l o s s
of w a t e r . The Legwen-Howard type wastes no water i n priming. Contrary t o t h e vacuum
p r i n c i p l e of t h e p r e v i o u s t y p e , priming i s e f f e c t e d when t h e a i r s e a l e d i n t h e siphon i s
compressed by t h e r i s i n g water l e v e l s . This i s p o s s i b l e because of a r a t h e r deep s e a l i n g
basin.

aa
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.
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(I]

The priming time i n minutes has been determined f o r p r o t o t y p e s and l a b o r a t o r y models of

t h e MacDonald siphon. I n t h e f i e l d , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o prime i t i f t h e i n f l o w (q) i s l e s s
t h a n 0.7 l / s e c . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e Legwen-Howard t y p e has an advantage. The e s t i m a t e of
priming time ( t p ) i s o b t a i n e d from t h e f o l l o w i n g formula:

where t p

priming time (min)

Va

volume of entrapped a i r (1)

i n low (11s)

a i r removal e f f i c i e n c y (25 f o r t h e MacDonald siphon)

It may be s e e n t h a t t h e priming time v a r i e s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e s i z e of t h e siphon and i n v e r s e l y

w i t h t h e inflow. By rearrangement of t h e priming time formula, t h e s i z e of t h e siphon f o r a
maximum 60-minute prime i s found t o b e a s f o l l o w s :

2
Siphon a r e a (m )
where h

3.60 (q-0.7)
K(0.91+h)

d i f f e r e n c e of w a t e r e l e v a t i o n s a t t h e e n t r a n c e and
e x i t of t h e siphon (m)

When a s t a n d a r d c r o s s - s e c t i o n i s developed, s e v e r a l siphons placed s i d e by s i d e and a t

p r e c i s e l y t h e same l e v e l can b e used t o g i v e t h e r e q u i r e d d i s c h a r g e head. For e x i s t i n g
s i p h o n s , t h e d i s c h a r g e c o e f f i c i e n t s range from 0.4 t o 0.2 because a i r i s n o t e n t i r e l y removed
from t h e crown. Smooth curves a r e expensive t o form and g i v e l i t t l e improvement i n d i s c h a r g e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o v e r cheap s q u a r e c o r n e r designs.
As t h e f l u v i a l v e c t o r s breed mainly i n t h e monsoon zones, dams must be s o designed and
b u i l t as t o e n s u r e p r o t e c t i o n from f l o o d damage. S i l t g a t e s must be open d u r i n g f l o o d s and
s i t e s c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d f o r good foundations. Fig. IV-9 gives s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s of a dam
and siphon d e s i g n .

PROFILE

F i g . IV-9.

-.------?

Design of dam and siphon f o r i n t e r m i t t e n t f l u s h i n g .

5.3 . 5 Design procedure and example

The minimum data for a preliminary design of a stream flushing system include the profile
and width of the portion of the stream that is less than 1.6 km (mosquito flight range) from
the village to be protected. The drainage area contributing to the flow must be estimated
from maps or in the field. The location of the first dam and siphon is fixed at about 1.6 km
upstream from the village. The practical maximum and minimum discharge heads are determined
so as to leave some dead storage in the reservoir for fish or other purposes and ensure that
the pool will not overflow.
After the storage volume and the area of cross section for the siphon have been calculated and estimated, the assurance of flush cycles at the design inflow is examined. The
minimum siphon discharge in order to ensure interruption must be checked to conform with the
requirement 0
>, 2q.
min
The location of the next dam downstream is determined by the effective flush distance
(540 m from dam 1 in the example). In this step-by-step design, siphon sites are added until
the reach within flight range has been covered by antimosquito flushing. It is convenient to
present the calculations in tabular form, as illustrated in Table IV-1.
6.

Coastal flooding and impounding

The principles of deep or shallow flooding have already been described as elements of
water management on impoundments or on flowing streams. The general subject of aquatic plant
management was discussed in section 4 above and the same techniques apply to a certain extent
to the marine water environment. This section will deal with the control of brackish coastal
marsh anopheline vectors. These species include sundaicus in Asia, melas and merus in Africa,
labranchiae, atroparvus and sacharovi in the Mediterranean, and albimanus, aquasalis and
grabhamii in the Americas. None of these species can develop in the salinity of the open
sea; they find their breeding habitat in landlocked marshes and swamps whose natural c o n n e ~ n
with the sea has been closed by wave action.
It is difficult to generalize on the pattern and range of tides throughout the tropical
coastal islands and continents. The difference between the high and low levels of a tidal
cycle can be as much as several metres or as little as 0.5 m (or even less). A strong tide
will almost dewater a well drained salt marsh below the vegetation line. A weak tide will
produce much less difference in ecology between high and low points.
6.1

Open marsh water management

In the United States and elsewhere, a high degree of natural salt marsh management has
been developed for beneficial purposes including mosquito control. No malaria mosquito
problem exists, but the salt marsh Aedes mosquitos create a very difficult problem. The
peculiarity of this group of mosquitos is that they deposit eggs on the moist earth in
depressions close to the high point of the tides. The eggs can remain viable for several
months. The eggs are hatched when rain storms or high tides flood the area. There is
essentially no breeding in the lower marsh elevations and the mosquitos all breed at the
ecological contour as defined by salt hay (Spartina patens) and reeds (Phragmites). Generally,
the strategy is to restore the tidewater fluctuation to all isolated pools and depressions.
Mosquito control consists of flushing the larvae from protective cover, stranding them,
altering vegetation, and destroying larvae by exposing them to predators or to the circulation
of raw cold sea water. The open marsh management techniques that are adequate for Aedes
control will be more than adequate to reduce Anopheles breeding.
The practice of diking, draining and excluding the tidal action on salt marshes (see subchapter IIIE, section 4.1.1) is not recommended when there is a risk that the entire marsh
area will be invaded by salt hay and other semiaquatic species, resulting in heavy production
of mosquitos in rainwater pools and depressions. Restoration of tides into the marsh will
"drown out" the undesirable marsh grasses and reestablish them at the top of the high tide

zone where l a r v a e may b e c o n t r o l l e d .

Table IV- 1.

Sample c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r suggested design procedure."

1. Data:
Siphon discharge head-ft.-h
Siphon minimum head-ft.-ho
Drainage area to siphon-sq. mi.
Stream slope a t res. site--%--a
Stream width a t res. s i b f t . 4
Downstream slope-ft./100 ft.-$
Downstream width-ft.--W
2. Volume per flush (V)
h'
h'b
V, = -

cu. ft.

2s

V = V,
3. Inflow

Vtho'
cu. ft.
h'

(q)
3q. mi. X

c.f.s.
X 60 c.f.m.
sq. mi.

4. Siphon croeu section (a)

5. Siphon discharge Q
= 0.k G
Q,

6.

c.f.8.

Filling time V/q

Priming time 69

min.
min.
77

Discharge time

60Q.n.

min.

Total time of cycle

Cycles/day

l440
totnl time

no.

7. Effective distance- D ft.

This i s an i l l u s t r a t i v e example of a d e s i g n procedure; i t i s

i r r e l e v a n t whether t h e r e s u l t s a r e i n E n g l i s h o r m e t r i c u n i t s .
The f i g u r e s given a r e of v a l u e a s examples only.

Another a p p l i c a t i o n of open marsh s t r a t e g i e s where t h e topography i s f l a t i s t o deepen

t h e marsh by excavating a clean-edged pond t o a depth below t h e low t i d e l e v e l . This w i l l
exclude emergent v e g e t a t i o n from t h e a r e a formerly covered by a s e r i e s of s m a l l g r a s s y p o o l s ,
which i s d i f f i c u l t t o d r a i n . A l l d i t c h e s and excavated ponds a r e connected s o t h a t t h e i r
l e v e l f l u c t u a t e s w i t h t h e t i d e s . Although anopheline mosquitos l a y t h e i r eggs on t h e w a t e r
s u r f a c e , t h e l a r v a e must have emergent v e g e t a t i o n and f l o a t a g e f o r food and p r o t e c t i o n . As
i n t h e w a t e r l e v e l management of impounded w a t e r , t h e t i d a l c y c l e of ebb and flow keeps t h e
v e g e t a t i o n zones i n n a t u r a l o r d e r , and s t r a n d s t h e d r i f t and f l o a t a g e a t t h e h i g h water mark.
The g r a s s - l i k e a q u a t i c s of h i g h i n t e r s e c t i o n v a l u e w i l l be dewatered a t low t i d e . Some minor
problems may a r i s e from t h e improper c o n s t r u c t i o n of s p o i l banks w i t h m a t e r i a l dug o u t from
d i t c h e s and ponds.

6.2

A r t i f i c i a l inundation

A marsh can be permanently flooded a t a h i g h l e v e l , although below t h e s p r i n g t i d e l e v e l ,

and maintained by d i k e s and s p i l l w a y s a t a c o n s t a n t pool e l e v a t i o n . This procedure of impoundment e l i m i n a t e s s u i t a b l e p l a c e s f o r ground o v i p o s i t i n g Aedes s p e c i e s , b u t w i l l n o t p r e v e n t t h e
Anopheles from o v i p o s i t i n g on w a t e r along t h e v e g e t a t e d margins of t h e pool. It i s i m p o r t a n t
t o m a i n t a i n some seawater c i r c u l a t i o n when t h e marsh i s used f o r w a t e r fowl and w i l d l i f e
breeding. This i s accomplished by l e t t i n g i n t h e s p r i n g t i d e through s p i l l w a y s s e t i n t h e
dikes e n c l o s i n g t h e marsh. The c o n s t a n t l e v e l f e a t u r e of t h i s management i s n o t d e s i r a b l e
f o r c o n t r o l of m a l a r i a v e c t o r s .

Fresh water swamps may be inundated by damming t h e o u t l e t s , thereby e l i m i n a t i n g t h e

o r i g i n a l b r e e d i n g a r e a . A r t i f i c i a l impoundments f o r w a t e r fowl breeding have flooded o u t t h e
breeding a r e a s of anopheles b u t where no p r e p a r a t i o n o r water l e v e l management was done, i t
merely r e s u l t e d i n s h i f t i n g t h e problem from one a r e a t o another. Proposals of t h i s n a t u r e
should be examined i n advance by h e a l t h agencies t o e n s u r e t h a t problems along t h e new shorel i n e a r e controlled.
7.

Chemical and p h y s i c a l a l t e r a t i o n

7.1

Desalination

As was s t a t e d i n s e c t i o n 6 above, s e v e r a l v e c t o r s of m a l a r i a p r e f e r b r a c k i s h w a t e r and

s e v e r a l ( i n c l u d i n g Anopheles albimanus) a r e a b l e t o breed i n f r e s h w a t e r a s w e l l a s i n s a l t
marshes. D e s a l i n a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , should n o t be undertaken when t h e b r a c k i s h w a t e r s p e c i e s
w i l l a l s o breed w e l l i n f r e s h w a t e r . I n some i n s t a n c e s , t h e l o c a l f r e s h w a t e r v e c t o r i s more
dangerous than t h e s a l t - w a t e r s p e c i e s . The replacement of An. melas w i t h t h e f r e s h water
An. gambiae, which t o l e r a t e s some s a l i n i t y , w i l l n o t r e p r e s e n t any g a i n i n t h e c o n t r o l of
m a l a r i a . This a l s o a p p l i e s t o c e r t a i n c u l i c i n e mosquitos.
I n c o a s t a l a r e a s , s a l t marshes a r e o f t e n reclaimed f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes. This can
be done only where an abundance of f r e s h water i s a v a i l a b l e f o r wet crop i r r i g a t i o n and f o r
l e a c h i n g and f l u s h i n g t h e excess s a l t s from t h e s o i l . I n Guyana, s e a defences and an i r r i g a t i o n system were b u i l t f o r growing cane and r i c e . The w a t e r r e s o u r c e s scheme was h i g h l y
developed w i t h n a v i g a t i o n l o c k s and c a n a l s , and h y d r o e l e c t r i c power f o r pumped d r a i n a g e .
Unfortunately, t h e r e s u l t i n g d e s a l i n a t i o n l e d t o t h e disappearance of t h e weak v e c t o r
An. a q u a s a l i s and t h e propagation of t h e s t r o n g v e c t o r An. d a r l i n g i , a f r e s h water b r e e d e r .
The r e s u l t i n g e f f e c t on m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n i s shown i n t h e following t a b l e :
Coastland Guyana m a l a r i o m e t r i c survey, 1944.
S c h o o l c h i l d r e n l e s s t h a n 14 y e a r s , s p l e e n r a t e (S.R.)
S a l t marsh a r e a s

I r r i g a t e d (desalinated) areas
No. on
rolls
-

No.
No.
exam'd
p
o
s
itive
-

No. on
rolls
-

S.R.

(%)

No.
No.
exam'd
p
o
s
itive
-

S.R.

(%)

School l

1393

501

310

62

School 3

2812

300

1.7

School 2

1544

192

94

49

School 4

9078

699

14

2.0

Total

2937

693

404

58

11890

999

19

1.9

I n t h e c a s e of t h e Asian c o a s t a l marsh b r e e d e r An. s u n d a i c u s , i t appears t h a t no i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n i s t o be expected from d e s a l i n a t i o n measures.

The technique of i n c r e a s i n g t h e s a l i n i t y of a b r a c k i s h marsh i s l e s s r i s k y t h a n t h e

r e v e r s e . There have been a number of s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h e e n c l o s u r e of t h e
marsh by d i k e s , t h e d i v e r s i o n of f r e s h w a t e r i n f l o w from t h e marsh, and t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of
s e l f - c l o s i n g t i d e g a t e s which impound t h e incoming s e a w a t e r . As e v a p o r a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s t h e
s a l t s , t h e s a l i n i t y soon approaches o r exceeds t h a t of t h e open s e a . No m a l a r i a v e c t o r can
develop i n such an environment, although i t has been claimed from l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s t h a t
An. melas can breed i n w a t e r w i t h 150X of t h e s e a w a t e r c h l o r i d e c o n t e n t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
change i n w a t e r s a l i n i t y , antimosquito f a c t o r s i n c l u d e e c o l o g i c a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e w a t e r
f l o r a and fauna. One such change r e s u l t s from t h e s a l t burning of v e g e t a t i o n i n c l u d i n g mangrove t r e e s . ~ u r r i c a n e sand typhoons can upset t h e s e p r o j e c t s by i n t r o d u c i n g f r e s h water i n t o
t h e swamp. Maintenance i s l i k e l y t o be r a t h e r high w i t h t h i s type of c o n t r o l .
The most convenient t i d a l a r e a f o r mosquito c o n t r o l on t r o p i c a l c o a s t s i s t h e mangrove
swamp. The mangrove excludes o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n and i s t h e only a q u a t i c t r e e t h a t grows i n t h e
t i d a l zone which o t h e r w i s e would b e overgrown w i t h c o a r s e marsh g r a s s e s . When p r o t e c t e d from
c u t t i n g f o r f u e l , mangroves become l a r g e and shade o u t v e g e t a t i o n . A s t r o n g t i d a l c y c l e
g r e a t l y l i m i t s t h e production of b r a c k i s h water anophelines: Thus, good d r a i n a g e i s a l l t h a t
i s needed f o r c o n t r o l . However, mangrove swamps have been h e a v i l y h a r v e s t e d i n most populat e d a r e a s and become i s o l a t e d from t h e s e a by d r a i n a g e o b s t r u c t i o n s . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,
mosquito b r e e d i n g i s heavy and u n c o n t r o l l e d i n emergent v e g e t a t i o n and f l o a t i n g m a t t e r lodged
i n t h e t r e e r o o t s . An. melas i n c o a s t a l A f r i c a i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b l a c k mangrove
(Avicennia) which grows high i n t h e t i d a l zone compared w i t h t h e more a q u a t i c r e d mangrove
(Rhizophora). The b e s t s t r a t e g y i s t o p l a n t and n o t c u t mangrove, and thus e s t a b l i s h a shady
open marsh w a t e r management.

7.3

Anaerobic decomposition

The major m a l a r i a v e c t o r s t o l e r a t e a wide v a r i e t y of c h l o r i d e s and o t h e r chemical

substances i n t h e w a t e r , b u t a r e g e n e r a l l y c l e a n w a t e r b r e e d e r s . While c u l i c i n e s p e c i e s often
t h r i v e i n p o l l u t e d w a t e r s , anophelines u s u a l l y do n o t . The An. gambiae group i s one p o s s i b l e
e x c e p t i o n , a l t h o u g h more hard d a t a a r e needed on t h i s A f r i c a n complex of v e c t o r s . &.
a r a b i e n s i s i n N i g e r i a and An. s t e p h e n s i i n I n d i a a r e s p e c i e s t h a t can s u r v i v e i n q u i t e p o l l u ted w a t e r .
Many streams and pools w i t h i n v i l l a g e s accumulate human and animal waste and s o l i d
r e f u s e . Waters t h a t a r e b l a c k i n appearance o r bubbly w i t h foul- smelling gases a r e devoid of
anopheles. The s e p t i c c o n d i t i o n i n d i c a t e s an o r g a n i c p o l l u t i o n load which d e p l e t e s t h e
d i s s o i v e d oxygen i n t h e water. The decomposition by anaerobic organisms i s slow and incomp l e t e and w i t h many complex end- products. The following o b s e r v a t i o n s have been r e p o r t e d on
c o n d i t i o n s i n h i b i t i n g anopheline mosquito breeding:

(a)

Anopheles l a r v a e cannot s u r v i v e i n w a t e r of low d i s s o l v e d oxygen c o n t e n t ;

(b)
-

V o r t i c e l l a and o t h e r c i l i a t e s (anaerobic macroorganisms) a r e i n d i c a t o r s of w a t e r u n f i t

f o r Anopheles ;

(c)

Decaying m a t t e r i n beds of a r t i f i c i a l impoundments causes them t o become o l i g o t r o p h i c

(peat bog- like) and poor producers of anopheline mosquitos;

(d)
-

Many c u l i c i n e s , b u t v e r y few a n o p h e l i n e s , can breed i n sewage s t a b i l i z a t i o n ponds;

(E) Seepage w a t e r s h i g h i n f l o c c u l a t e d i r o n (Fe 3 +) a r e u n a t t r a c t i v e t o anophelines.

A l l of t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s suggest t h a t t h e anaerobic c o n d i t i o n i s t h e c o n t r o l l i n g
f a c t o r . However, t h e r i s k of spreading an " e c o l o g i c a l f a l l a c y ' ' i s g r e a t i f i t i s assumed
t h a t a s i n g l e f a c t o r , such a s l a c k of d i s s o l v e d oxygen, i s t h e cause of anopheline i n h i b i t i o n .

It i s p o s s i b l e t o r e n d e r small ponds and d r a i n s u n f i t f o r anopheline mosquito breeding

by t h e a d d i t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s of h i g h oxygen demand. The l a r g e tonnage r e q u i r e d
obviously makes t h i s method i m p r a c t i c a l f o r l a r g e bodies of w a t e r . F r e s h l y c u t herbaceous
p l a n t s a r e t h e c h e a p e s t and most r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e biodegradable m a t e r i a l f o r mosquito c o n t r o l
use. The technique c o n s i s t s of e i t h e r f i l l i n g and compacting t h e water space o r , i n c a s e of
a stream, "roofing" a t t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e s o t h a t unobstructed flow may be maintained. The
n a t u r a l mechanisms thus brought i n t o o p e r a t i o n i n c l u d e d e p l e t i o n of oxygen, decomposition i n t o
byproducts, o r g a n i c bottom s l u d g e s , shading and mechanical b a r r i e r s t o o v i p o s i t i o n . The
measures a r e temporary s i n c e e v e n t u a l l y t h e w a t e r w i l l r e c o v e r from i t s g r o s s l y p o l l u t e d s t a t e .
Heavy t r o p i c a l r a i n f a l l w i l l s h o r t e n t h e e f f e c t i v e l i f e of t h e measure.

The use of i n d u s t r i a l wastes i n e i t h e r l i q u i d o r s o l i d form f o r a l t e r i n g t h e pH o r

t o x i c i t y of b r e e d i n g w a t e r s seems d e c e p t i v e l y cheap and e f f e c t i v e u n t i l a l l i m p l i c a t i o n s and
c o s t s a r e examined. The d i s c h a r g e of i n d u s t r i a l wastes i s l i a b l e t o dangerous m i s a p p l i c a t i o n .
I f chemicals a r e t o b e d e l i b e r a t e l y added t o t h e w a t e r , compounds s p e c i f i c a l l y manufactured
and recommended a s mosquito l a r v i c i d e s should be used.
The wisdom of p o l l u t i n g water even temporarily f o r m a l a r i a c o n t r o l i s h i g h l y questionable.
I t i s i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of water r e s o u r c e c o n s e r v a t i o n and t h e r e v e r s e of a
long- term s o l u t i o n . The widespread p o l l u t i o n of urban d r a i n s and streams by sewage i s n o t
i n t e n t i o n a l and, while i t may l i m i t m a l a r i a v e c t o r s , remains t h e p r i n c i p a l t h r e a t of
f i l a r i a s i s and e n c e p h a l i t i s t r a n s m i s s i o n a s w e l l a s t r a n s m i s s i o n of waterborne d i s e a s e s .

7.4

P h y s i c a l measures

Most of t h e p h y s i c a l measures a r e hydrodynamic i n c h a r a c t e r such a s f l o o d i n g , f l u s h i n g ,

f l u c t u a t i o n , wave a c t i o n and s u r f a c e a g i t a t i o n . Several of t h e s e measures have been d e a l t
w i t h i n previous s e c t i o n s .
Their main impact i s o f t e n i n d i r e c t by making t h e l a r v a l h a b i t a t
l e s s p r o t e c t i v e , b u t they have a d i r e c t e f f e c t i n c e r t a i n circumstances. For example, top
f e e d i n g f i s h can p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t c o n t r o l of mosquito l a r v a e i n a concrete- lined ornamental
pool. The same pool may be c o n t r o l l e d by a continuous a g i t a t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e w a t e r such a s
t h a t produced by f o u n t a i n j e t s . The a g i t a t i o n and wave a c t i o n produced by t h e f r e q u e n t
drawing of water from a w e l l i s o f t e n a l l t h a t i s needed t o prevent mosquito breeding. I n a
n a t u r a l s e t t i n g w i t h emergent v e g e t a t i o n , n e i t h e r of t h e s e measures would provide s u f f i c i e n t l y
effective control.
Water tanks and c i s t e r n s might be f i t t e d w i t h s u r f a c e a g i t a t i o n devices a s a measure of
mosquito c o n t r o l . A major urban v e c t o r of m a l a r i a , An. s t e p h e n s i , breeds i n permanent c l e a n
w a t e r c o n t a i n e r s . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of piped w a t e r has e l i m i n a t e d t h e need f o r r a i n w a t e r
c i s t e r n s i n t r o p i c a l c i t i e s , b u t t h e low mains p r e s s u r e has made numerous roof s t o r a g e tanks
necessary. I n s i s t i n g on " a i r broken" i n s t e a d of submerged i n l e t s f o r t h e s e tanks might f r e e
them of An. s t e p h e n s i by j e t water s u r f a c e a g i t a t i o n and, i n a d d i t i o n , reduce t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
of p o l l u t i o n of t h e p u b l i c w a t e r system by back siphonage.
The a p p l i c a t i o n t o r u r a l environments i s d e s c r i b e d i n S c h a r f f ' s Penang H i l l demonstration.5
A mountain stream i s d i v e r t e d t o small s t o r a g e pools on each f i e l d t e r r a c e t o
f a c i l i t a t e i r r i g a t i o n . Water cascades from upper t o lower pools through bamboo p i p e s which
d i s c h a r g e l m above t h e p o o l s ' s u r f a c e . The a g i t a t i o n thus produced i s s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n t r o l
mosquitos i n clean-edged pools.
Wave a c t i o n discourages mosquito development and reduces t h e marginal v e g e t a t i o n which
may p r o t e c t l a r v a e . S t e e p s h o r e l i n e s and wide c l e a r reaches i n t e n s i f y t h e wave a c t i o n .
Deepening and f i l l i n g techniques i n shallow ponds e f f e c t i v e l y produce t h e same e f f e c t .

- Scharff,

J.W.
A n t i m a l a r i a l d r a i n a g e from t h e p o i n t of view of t h e h e a l t h o f f i c e r .
Penang, Malaysia, Malaria Advisory Board, 1959 ( C i r c u l a r No. 1 0 ) .

FURTHER READING LIST

Antoine, M. Prevention of rural malaria by intermittent irrigation of ricefields.
de la Societg M6dico-Chirurgicale de llIndochine,g:612 (1936).
Boyd, M.F.

Bulletin

Malariology. Philadelphia, Saunders, 1949 (Volume 2).

Cochrane, E. & Newbold, C.E. Notes on design and performance of a flushing siphon. Annals
of tropical medicine and parasitology, 37:108 (1943).
De Boer, H. Malaria control by planting of swamps. Quarterly Bulletin of the Health
Organization. League of Nations, 5:138-139 (1936).
Farid, M.A. The Aswan High Dam Development Project. In: Stanley, N.F. & Alpers, M.P. (ed.)
Man-made lakes and human health. New York, Academic press, 1975, pp. 89-102.
Hackett, L.W.

Malaria in Europe.

An ecological study. London, Oxford University Press, 1944.

Hill, R.B. & Cambournac, F.J.C. Intermittent irrigation in rice cultivation and its effect on
yield, water consumption and anopheles production. American journal of tropical medicine,
Kruse, C.W. & Lesaca, R.M. Automatic siphon for the control of Anopheles minimus var.
flavirostris in the Philippines. American journal of hygiene, g : 3 (1955).
National Academy of Sciences. Pest control: An assessment of present and alternative
technologies. Volume 5: Pest control and public health. Washington, DC, 1976.
Oswald, W.J. Proceedings of the Third Conference on Biological Waste Treatment.
Manhattan College, 1960.

New Yor

Pearson, G.B. & Ayers, A.D. Rice as a crop for salt-affected soil in process of reclamation.
United States Department of Agriculture, 1960 (Production Research Report, No. 43).
Rozeboom, L.E. & Hess, A.O. The relation of the intersection line to the production of
A. quadrimaculatus Say. Journal of the National Malaria Society, ?:l69 (1944).
Russell, P.F. The control of Anopheles minimus mosquito larvae in the Philippines by stranding
and flushing. Philippine journal of science, 47:439 (1932).
Russell, P.F.

Human malaria, Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution, 1941 (AAAS, NO, 15).

Russell, P.F. & Rao, H.R. On the intermittent irrigation of ricefields to control malaria in
South India. Journal of the Malaria Institute of India, 4:321 (1942).
Russell, P.F. et al. Practical malariology. Philadelphia, Saunders, 1946.
Scharff, J.W. Antimalarial drainage from the point of view of the health officer. Penang,
Malaysia, Malaria Advisory Board, 1959 (Circular, No. 10).
Stanley, N.F.
Press, 1975.

&

Alpers, M.P. (ed.).

Man-made lakes and human health. New York, Academic

I

United States Public Health Service. Tennessee Valley Authority. Malaria control on impounded water. Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, 1947.

Watson, R.B. e t a l . A r e p o r t of one y e a r ' s f i e l d t r i a l of chlorguanide i n Southern Taiwan

(Formosa). J o u r n a l of t h e National Malaria S o c i e t y , 2 (No. 1 ) (1950).
Williamson, K.B.
The c o n t r o l of r u r a l m a l a r i a by n a t u r a l methods.
Nations E a s t e r n Bureau, 1936.
Worth, H.N.
The c o n t r o l of anopheline b r e e d i n g i n r i v e r beds.
(1937).
Society of T r o p i c a l Medicine and Hygiene, =:S21

Singapore, League of

T r a n s a c t i o n s of t h e Royal

Worth, H.N. & Subrahmanyan, K. A n t i l a r v a l f l u s h i n g of r i v e r s and streams i n Ceylon.

of t h e Malaria I n s t i t u t e of I n d i a , 3:81 (1940).

Journal

CHAPTER V
REDUCTION OF MAN/MOSQUITOCONTACT

CONTENTS

Page

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Mosquito-proofing of dwellings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Land occupancy and use r e s t r i c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
"Dry- belting" v i l l a g e s i n r i c e - c u l t i v a t i n g a r e a s . . . . . . . . . . . 158
I n d i v i d u a l p r o t e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Zooprophylaxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Basic s a n i t a r y measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
S i t e s e l e c t i o n and housing d e s i g n

Further reading l i s t

1.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

S i t e s e l e c t i o n and housing d e s i g n

It has been observed t h a t t h e h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of a d u l t mosquitos occur i n t h e

v i c i n i t y of t h e i r n a t u r a l b r e e d i n g h a b i t a t s and t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , mosquito d e n s i t i e s diminish
g r a d u a l l y a s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e b r e e d i n g s i t e i n c r e a s e s . Maximum f l i g h t ranges from
b r e e d i n g p l a c e s have been r e p o r t e d f o r some s p e c i e s of mosquitos. Few anopheline s p e c i e s
I n t h e t r o p i c s t h e f l i g h t range i s
t r a v e l more t h a n 4-5 km from t h e i r b r e e d i n g p l a c e s .
u s u a l l y s h o r t e r and i n European and temperate zones l o n g e r .

I f houses and v i l l a g e s could b e removed o r b u i l t away from breeding s i t e s and beyond t h e

normal f l i g h t range of t h e l o c a l v e c t o r mosquitos, man/mosquito c o n t a c t and d i s e a s e t r a n s mission would b e d r a s t i c a l l y c u r t a i l e d . Even when t h e l o c a l v e c t o r has a much l o n g e r f l i g h t
range, l o c a t i n g houses and v i l l a g e s 1.5-2 km away from mosquito s o u r c e s w i l l markedly reduce
man/vector c o n t a c t s i n c e only a f r a c t i o n of t h e mosquito p o p u l a t i o n w i l l r e a c h t h e v i l l a g e .
This f r a c t i o n can b e c o n t r o l l e d by o t h e r measures, and w i l l most l i k e l y be too s m a l l t o
e s t a b l i s h d i s e a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n . It would be u s e l e s s , however, t o l o c a t e a new v i l l a g e 2 km
away from an e x i s t i n g major anopheline mosquito h a b i t a t i f a t t h e same time no a c t i o n were
taken t o e l i m i n a t e o r c o n t r o l t h e minor o r temporary breeding f o c i and t o remove o r r e n d e r
u n s u i t a b l e t h e s h e l t e r s t h a t mosquitos may use along t h e i r f l i g h t path.
C e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t mosquito v e c t o r s a r e p e r i d o m e s t i c , i . e . , they breed and l i v e i n t h e
v i c i n i t y of human dwellings. They l a y t h e i r eggs i n a v a r i e t y of n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l w a t e r
c o l l e c t i o n s , each o f which becomes a p o t e n t i a l o r a c t i v e focus of mosquito breeding. Some
Anopheles a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h borrow p i t s , some Culex and Aedes w i t h d i t c h e s and
d r a i n s , and some Aedes w i t h a r t i f i c i a l c o n t a i n e r s . It i s t h u s e v i d e n t t h a t s i t e s e l e c t i o n
w i l l n o t be a n e f f e c t i v e mosquito c o n t r o l measure u n l e s s accompanied by land improvement,
g e n e r a l c l e a r i n g of t h e immediate surroundings of houses and v i l l a g e s , and b a s i c s a n i t a t i o n
development w i t h i n t h e community.

S i t e s e l e c t i o n , however, p l a y s an important p a r t i n reducing man/mosquito c o n t a c t .

V i l l a g e s l o c a t e d on h i g h ground and exposed t o wind c u r r e n t s a r e u s u a l l y f r e e r from mosquitos
than those l y i n g a t t h e f o o t o f h i l l s o r i n enclosed v a l l e y s where t h e a i r i s calmer and w a t e r
u s u a l l y more abundant. P r e v a i l i n g b r e e z e s may, however, favour t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of mosquitos
and extend t h e i r normal r a n g e of f l i g h t .
It i s t h e r e f o r e important t o l o c a t e v i l l a g e s on t h e
windward r a t h e r t h a n on t h e leeward s i d e of b r e e d i n g p l a c e s .
The l o c a t i o n of v i l l a g e s on h i g h e r ground o f f e r s t h e a d d i t i o n a l advantage of f a c i l i t a t i n g
n a t u r a l d r a i n i n g of r a i n w a t e r t o lower lands t h u s reducing t h e e f f o r t f o r s u r f a c e improvement
of t h e surroundings. Sandy and porous s o i l s which do n o t e a s i l y become waterlogged a r e prefera b l e f o r v i l l a g e s i t e s t o clayey and impermeable s o i l s which tend t o crack and l e a d t o t h e
formation of w a t e r pools.
A c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n housing d e s i g n i s t h a t , p r o v i d i n g they have adequate means of a c c e s s ,
mosquitos a r e more f r e q u e n t l y and abundantly p r e s e n t i n warm, dark and damp p l a c e s i n houses.
Dwellings t h a t l a c k l i g h t and v e n t i l a t i o n , o r have dark r e c e s s e s , cupboards, o l d c u r t a i n s o r
d r a p e r i e s and much f u r n i t u r e a t t r a c t mosquitos more t h a n rooms w i t h l a r g e windows, b a r e w a l l s ,
smooth c e i l i n g s and s p a r s e f u r n i t u r e . High indoor mosquito d e n s i t i e s have a l s o been a t t r i b u ted t o overcrowded occupancy, p a r t i c u l a r l y where i t i n c l u d e s s m a l l c h i l d r e n , and sometimes t o
t h e proximity of animal sheds and s t a b l e s . On t h e o t h e r hand, s u i t a b l y designed and l o c a t e d
s t a b l e s , u s u a l l y on t h e edge of v i l l a g e s between breeding s i t e s and human d w e l l i n g s , may
a t t r a c t mosquitos away from man and houses ( s e e s e c t i o n 6 below).
It has a l s o been found t h a t a t n i g h t mosquitos u s u a l l y approach a house from t h e leeward
s i d e guided by t h e c u r r e n t of odour- bearing warm a i r and, f o r some s p e c i e s , a l s o by t h e l i g h t
from t h e windows.

There i s evidence t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n and s i z e of a p e r t u r e s l e a d i n g i n t o a house i n f l u e n c e

t h e numbers of mosquitos e n t e r i n g i t ; t h i s s u b j e c t deserves f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
2.

~ o s q u i t o - p r o o f i n g of dwellings

Mosquito- proofing of d w e l l i n g s f o r d i s e a s e c o n t r o l has t h e twofold aim of p r o t e c t i n g man

from i n f e c t i v e mosquito b i t e s and p r e v e n t i n g mosquitos from feeding on i n f e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s .
There have been i n s t a n c e s where a d e c l i n e i n m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n was observed t o move
p a r a l l e l w i t h such housing improvement. On t h e o t h e r hand, i n t h e t r o p i c s where people remain
outdoors u n t i l l a t e a t n i g h t t h e r e have been i n s t a n c e s where t h e e f f e c t of t h i s measure on
d i s e a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n h a s been minimal.
Mosquito-proofing involves n o t only t h e c l o s u r e of windows and doors w i t h s c r e e n s b u t
a l s o t h e r e p a i r of c r a c k s and h o l e s and t h e blockage of a l l o t h e r openings through which
mosquitos might g a i n e n t r a n c e . I n many p a r t s of t h e world and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e t r o p i c s , t h e
n a t u r e of human d w e l l i n g s i n r u r a l a r e a s o f t e n precludes t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of mosquito- proofing.
This i s t h e c a s e where some r u r a l houses a r e made of t h a t c h w i t h l a r g e openings and o t h e r s
c o n s i s t of a roof without w a l l s . I n g e n e r a l , most r u r a l houses i n developing c o u n t r i e s do n o t
lend themselves t o proper s c r e e n i n g .
Where mosquito-proofing i s f e a s i b l e , p r i o r i t y should be given t o t h e space where t h e
family g a t h e r s i n t h e evening o r s l e e p s a t n i g h t . I n h o t c l i m a t e s i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o
s c r e e n a p o r t i o n of t h e outdoor space i n a cage- like frame.
Screening of houses w i t h wiremesh c l o t h has been i n use f o r over a c e n t u r y and s t a r t e d
long b e f o r e t h e d i s e a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n r o l e of t h e mosquito was demonstrated. I t was one f a c t o r

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e gradual d e c l i n e of m a l a r i a p r e v a l e n c e i n U S A . ~ , ~ The wiremesh c l o t h

should b e s e l e c t e d t o g i v e adequate p r o t e c t i o n , maximum v e n t i l a t i o n , and long l i f e . Wire
s c r e e n s i n humid c o a s t a l a r e a s a r e exposed t o t h e c o r r o s i v e a c t i o n of s e a a i r and t o v i b r a t i o n
induced by s t r o n g winds; f o r such s i t u a t i o n s , p l a s t i c mesh i s l e s s l i a b l e t o d e t e r i o r a t e
although f o r porches and wide openings it may r e q u i r e backing w i t h a welded mesh of t h i c k w i r e
t o prevent sagging under t h e wind p r e s s u r e . F i g . V- l shows t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s of a
s c r e e n door a s i n s t a l l e d by t h e Tennessee Valley A u t h o r i t y . This i s given a s an example; i t
can b e modified and adapted t o s u i t l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

er with Continuous Len

6.Msrh Galvan~zedSc

(Reproduced from:
~ a l a r i ac o n t r o l on
impounded w a t e r s .
Washington, DC,
United S t a t e s P u b l i c
Health S e r v i c e ,
Tennessee Valley
A u t h o r i t y , 1947,
p.193).

Fig. V- l.

Construction d e t a i l s of a s c r e e n door used by t h e Tennessee

V a l l e y Authority.

A v e r y r e a l o b j e c t i o n t o t h e e x t e n s i v e u s e of s c r e e n s i s t h e f a c t t h a t they o b s t r u c t t h e
passage of a i r , reduce v e n t i l a t i o n , and keep t h e h e a t i n t h e room. T e s t s w i t h 16-mesh monel
metal (0.22 mm d i a m e t e r ) and copper and bronze (0.38 mm diameter) s c r e e n s have shown a reduct i o n i n wind passage t h a t ranges from 30-50%. Consequently s c r e e n s should be s e l e c t e d t o
p r o v i d e a s much v e n t i l a t i o n a s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h s a f e t y . Wire meshes No. 16 and 18 (16 and
1 8 w i r e s p e r l i n e a r inch), w i t h r e s p e c t i v e l y 63 and 71 w i r e s p e r dm, a r e adequate f o r most
s i t u a t i o n s . Table V - l g i v e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of commonly used w i r e c l o t h .

Before a s c r e e n i n g programme i s launched, t h e p o p u l a t i o n concerned should be informed

about t h e p r o t e c t i o n t h i s measure o f f e r s a g a i n s t d i s e a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n and annoyance by
mosquitos. S t u d i e s should b e made of p e o p l e ' s behaviour, h a b i t s , t a s t e s , p r e f e r e n c e s , d e s i r e
f o r change and a b i l i t y t o adapt t o i t . Housing d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n should conform w i t h
a

- Boyd, M.F.

The i n f l u e n c e of o b s t a c l e s unconsciously e r e c t e d a g a i n s t anophelines

(housing and s c r e e n i n g ) upon t h e i n c i d e n c e of m a l a r i a . American j o u r n a l of t r o p i c a l medicine,
6:157 (1926).
b
- Byrd, H. Mosquitos: r o l e of c e r t a i n s p e c i e s i n prevalence of m a l a r i a . New Orleans
medical and s u r g i c a l j o u r n a l , 67:1417 (1914).

the findings of such studies, so that houses are acceptable. New features and installations
should be introduced gradually, always together with the re-education of the dwellers. New
houses should be designed to meet the requirements for mosquito-proofing.
3.

Land occupancy and use restrictions

When the land within the mosquito flight range is sparsely populated, it may be feasible
to persuade the inhabitants to move away from the mosquito-exposed zone by offering them, in
exchange, lands of equal or slightly greater value to compensate for the expense and trouble
of moving. Should this transaction involve heavy purchasing investments, or the people
strongly object to leaving their lands, it may be possible to induce them to move only their
dwelling sites out of mosquito reach, perhaps by offering them better houses.
The resettlement of people living in an area that will be flooded by the impoundment of
water when a dam is built is an unavoidable task for the responsible agency and the operation
is included in the programme and budget of the project. The opportunity can be used for
moving also the inhabitants of the land belt around the future reservoir away from the shores
where mosquito production and disease transmission may be expected (see section 1 above).
When the vector mosquitos are nocturnal feeders, as in the case of most anophelines, it
is a wise precaution to interrupt agricultural, recreational and other open air activities
near mosquito breeding and resting places in time to vacate the hazardous zone before the
mosquitos start being active.
4.

"Dry-be1t ing" villages in rice-cultivating areas

In most rice-growing areas the tendency is to use all available land for rice cultivation,
the rice fields frequently encircling the villages and towns very closely. Rice cultivation
by prolonged inundation is extremely attractive to mosquitos as it affords optimum conditions
for massive breeding of some malaria vectors (see Chapter IVY section 3), while the proximity
of the breeding place to human habitation allows the continuous transmission of the disease.
A logical but little practised measure for correcting or preventing this situation is to
restrict, as much as possible, the use of land surrounding human communities to the cultivation of dry crops which do not require prolonged land flooding. However, the scarcity of land
in many rice-growing areas of south-east Asia prevents the wide application of the method.
Another difficulty is the greater distance to be covered by farmers going to and from their
fields.
Experimental tests carried out mainly in Japan have shown that transplanted rice seedliw
will grow and even yield 50% more crops by the intermittent irrigation method. Therefore,
when water sources other than rainfall are available in sufficient quantity to permit periodic
watering, the introduction of intermittent irrigation for rice cultivation could be a positive
approach to malaria control in usually highly endemic regions (see Chapter IVY section 3.6).
Rice cultivation, with periodic but short intervals of flooding and drying, would not be
more hazardous than the cultivation of other plants similar in height and leaf size and shape;
the restriction on its cultivation near human communities would no longer be necessary.

5.

Individual protection

Several measures of protection against biting mosquitos have been in use for many years
with varying degrees of effectiveness. Some of them are accessible to most people living in
rural areas.
Bed nets provide a material barrier against the attacks of night-biting mosquitos and
some other insects. They have been widely used for centuries and, when properly made and used,
have a definite effect in preventing disease transmission and annoyance by mosquitos. However,
the day-biting habits of some mosquito species, inadequate maintenance of the nets, or simply

l a c k of c a r e a r e f a c t o r s t h a t reduce t h e i r value.
The f a b r i c of t h e c l o t h should be w h i t e , s o t h a t mosquitos r e s t i n g on it can be s e e n , and
s t r o n g enough t o s t a n d h a r d and long usage; c o t t o n and s y n t h e t i c t e x t i l e s a r e widely used.
The weaving should be f i n e s o t h a t t h e h o l e s a r e small enough t o p r e v e n t t h e passage of
mosquitos b u t a l l o w t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e v e n t i l a t i o n . A spacing of t h r e a d s of 1.0-1.8 mm has
proved t o g i v e adequate p r o t e c t i o n without undue hindrance t o t h e passage of a i r .
The u s u a l shape of t h e n e t i s e i t h e r c o n i c a l ( i n v e r t e d f u n n e l ) , wedge-like (camping t e n t ) ,
o r p r i s m a t i c (box w i t h v e r t i c a l w a l l s ) . The box- like n e t p r o v i d e s , w i t h approximately t h e
same amount of m a t e r i a l , a l a r g e r and more r e g u l a r i n s i d e space t h a n t h e o t h e r shapes. The
v e r t i c a l w a l l s permit f u l l e r u s e of t h e bed s u r f a c e ; t h i s i s an important advantage over t h e
cone and wedge (tent- shaped) n e t s .
The lower edges can b e weighted by t y i n g beads, pebbles o r o t h e r small heavy o b j e c t s t o
a s s u r e t h e continuous c o n t a c t of t h e n e t w i t h t h e m a t t r e s s o r can be tucked under t h e m a t t r e s s .
Before s l e e p i n g , t h e i n s i d e should b e i n s p e c t e d f o r any mosquitos p r e s e n t . Bed n e t s may be
impregnated w i t h p e s t i c i d e s o r mosquito r e p e l l e n t s . Bed n e t s w i t h a mesh a s wide a s 6 mm o r
over s i x times g r e a t e r t h a n u s u a l l y recommended, when s a t u r a t e d w i t h r e p e l l e n t , can d e t e r
mosquitos f o r about a week. This would c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e t h e a i r c i r c u l a t i o n .
Clothing when s u f f i c i e n t l y t h i c k , o r l o o s e from t h e body, i s an o b s t a c l e t o mosquito
b i t i n g . It has been an e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e and an army r e g u l a t i o n t o change t h e day c l o t h e s
a t s u n s e t i n t o long s l e e v e s and t r o u s e r s s o t h a t t h e l e g s and arms a r e n o t exposed t o mosquito
b i t i n g . Dark c l o t h i n g r e n d e r s t h e wearer more exposed t o a t t a c k by mosquitos.
I n s e c t r e p e l l e n t s should f u l f i l c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s such a s s a f e t y t o t h e u s e r , e f f i c a c y
a g a i n s t mosquito s p e c i e s of t h e a r e a , s t a b i l i t y , and l a c k of unpleasant odour and s t a i n i n g
p r o p e r t i e s . Recent r e s e a r c h has r e s u l t e d i n r e p e l l e n t s of more l a s t i n g e f f e c t than t h o s e used
i n t h e p a s t , such a s c i t r o n e l l a . I n t h e USA a l o n e , 7000 s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i c chemicals were being
t e s t e d a t one time. The m i x t u r e of compounds h a s produced r e p e l l e n t s s e v e r a l times more
e f f e c t i v e than c i t r o n e l l a . A t p r e s e n t , d i m e t h y l p h t h a l a t e and d i e t h y l t o l u a m i d e a r e most commonl y used.
I n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of r e p e l l e n t s t o t h e s k i n i t i s important t h a t a l l t h e exposed p a r t s
should b e t r e a t e d thoroughly and l i b e r a l l y because mosquitos w i l l soon f i n d t h e small a r e a s
Care should be taken t o
t h a t a r e n o t covered by t h e r e p e l l e n t o r were only l i g h t l y t r e a t e d .
avoid a p p l i c a t i o n n e a r t h e eyes a s i t may produce temporary b u t i n t e n s e i r r i t a t i o n . For
p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t m a l a r i a mosquitos, t h e r e p e l l e n t s should be a p p l i e d e s p e c i a l l y a t dusk and
dawn which i s when t h e anophelines a r e most f r e q u e n t l y a c t i v e . Mosquitos of o t h e r genera may
be a c t i v e a t d i f f e r e n t hours of t h e day.

As mosquitos can p i e r c e o r d i n a r y c l o t h i n g , t h e r e i s g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n when t h e c l o t h i n g

i s a l s o t r e a t e d w i t h r e p e l l e n t s . Aerosol d i s p e n s e r s o r o r d i n a r y hand s p r a y e r s a r e most
p r a c t i c a l f o r such a p p l i c a t i o n of r e p e l l e n t s . Impregnation of c l o t h i n g w i t h r e p e l l e n t can be
done a t t h e time of washing; a f i n a l r i n s e i n a s o l u t i o n o r emulsion ( c o n t a i n i n g 10-20% of
t h e r e p e l l e n t ) w i l l g i v e good p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e normal p e r i o d between washings.
6.

Zooprophylaxis

Zooprophylaxis i n v o l v e s t h e use of w i l d o r domestic animals, which a r e n o t t h e r e s e r v o i r

h o s t s of a given d i s e a s e , t o d i v e r t t h e blood- seeking mosquito v e c t o r s from t h e human h o s t s
of t h a t d i s e a s e .
Zooprophylaxis h a s long been recognized a s an important f a c t o r i n reducing
t h e endemicity of m a l a r i a i n c e r t a i n p a r t s of t h e world. It may a l s o b e e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t
o t h e r d i s e a s e s , such a s v a r i o u s v i r a l d i s e a s e s t r a n s m i t t e d by mosquitos. It i s most applicable
where t h e use of c a t t l e o r o t h e r l i v e s t o c k f i t s i n t o t h e l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l economy.
S i n c e man i s t h e only important v e r t e b r a t e r e s e r v o i r of m a l a r i a , zooprophylaxis i s doubly

e f f e c t i v e a s a c o n t r o l measure:
( a ) d i v e r s i o n of i n f e c t e d mosquitos t o o t h e r animals
d e c r e a s e s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t e s t o humans; and (b) f e e d i n g of mosquitos on "dead-end" h o s t s
p r e v e n t s t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e pathogen i n t h e r e s e r v o i r h o s t (man).
Both anopheline and c u l i c i n e mosquitos show wide v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e i r
blood- feeding p a t t e r n s . Some s p e c i e s , such a s An. d a r l i n g i and An. sundaicus, a r e s t r o n g l y
a n t h r o p o p h i l i c - showing a high p r e f e r e n c e f o r f e e d i n g on man. I n c o n t r a s t , some s p e c i e s such
a s An. a n n u l a r i s and An. s i n e n s i s , a r e s t r o n g l y z o o p h i l i c - showing p r e f e r e n c e f o r c a t t l e o r
o t h e r non-human h o s t s . Other mosquitos, such a s t h e An. maculipennis complex and Culex
q u i n q u e f a s c i a t u s (= Cx p i p i e n s f a t i g a n s ) e x h i b i t f a c u l t a t i v e f e e d i n g p a t t e r n s and feed
r e a d i l y on man a s w e l l a s o t h e r v e r t e b r a t e h o s t s . Some z o o p h i l i c mosquitos, such a s
An. pharoensis and Aedes vexans, show a h i g h p r e f e r e n c e f o r domestic mammalian h o s t s ; o t h e r s ,
such a s C u l i s e t a melanura and Cx p i p i e n s , may show a h i g h p r e f e r e n c e f o r a v i a n h o s t s ( o r n i thophilic).
P

Some mosquito s p e c i e s show high blood- feeding s e l e c t i v i t y w i t h i n v e r t e b r a t e c l a s s e s . For

example, i t has been shown t h a t Cx t a r s a l i s may show a high p r e f e r e n c e f o r columbiform b i r d s
o v e r o t h e r a v i a n h o s t s ; and Cx q u i n q u e f a s c i a t u s may show a h i g h p r e f e r e n c e f o r dogs over
o t h e r domestic mammals.
It should be emphasized t h a t h o s t a v a i l a b i l i t y and behaviour, composition of s p e c i e s , and
o t h e r e c o l o g i c f a c t o r s govern t h e s e l e c t i v i t y of mosquito blood- feeding p a t t e r n s . Thus, a
predominance of f e e d i n g upon one o r more s p e c i e s should n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a " d e l i b e r a t e
p r e f e r e n c e " by t h e blood- seeking mosquito; however, f o r convenience we r e e r t o s e l e c t i v i t y
i n t h e blood- feeding p a t t e r n s of mosquitos a s " host preference" . The f o r a g e r a t i o , which
simply compares t h e percentage of f e e d i n g upon a p a r t i c u l a r h o s t w i t h i t s percentage
composition of t h e t o t a l a v a i l a b l e h o s t s , has been used t o measure t h e degree of h o s t p r e f e r ence o r s e l e c t i v i t y 2

T h e o r e t i c a l l y , zooprophylaxis would be most e f f e c t i v e f o r mosquito s p e c i e s which have

z o o p h i l i c o r f a c u l t a t i v e blood- feeding p a t t e r n s . The z o o p h i l i c h a b i t s of An. s i n e n s i s
minimize i t s importance a s a m a l a r i a v e c t o r i n Asia and t h e western P a c i f i c ; and t h e h e t e r o p h i l i c h a b i t s of Cx t a r s a l i s , which f e e d s on a wide v a r i e t y of w i l d and domestic b i r d s and
mammals, i s probably an important f a c t o r i n t h e low endemicity of w e s t e r n equine and S t . Louis
e n c e p h a l i t i s i n t h e w e s t e r n United S t a t e s .
I n g e n e r a l , mosquitos a r e r a r e l y o b l i g a t e f e e d e r s upon a s i n g l e h o s t s p e c i e s . Even
h i g h l y z o o p h i l i c s p e c i e s of Anopheles w i l l feed upon man i f t h e i r p r e f e r r e d h o s t i s n o t a v a i l a b l e . Thus, t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of a l t e r n a t i v e h o s t s probably has a n important i n f l u e n c e on t h e
endemicity of mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s i n many p a r t s of t h e world.
Horses, c a t t l e , sheep, and o t h e r domestic animals o f f e r t h e b e s t p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e
a.p.p l i c a t i o n of zooprophylaxis a s an environmental technique. For example, t h e importance of
An. maculatus a s a m a l a r i a v e c t o r i n Malaysia and o t h e r t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s i s b e l i e v e d t o be
i n v e r s e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e abundance of c a t t l e i n t h e a r e a . The same i s b e l i e v e d t o be
t r u e w i t h r e g a r d t o Cx t a r s a l i s a s a v e c t o r of western equine and S t . Louis e n c e p h a l i t i s i n
r u r a l a r e a s of t h e w e s t e r n United S t a t e s . The replacement of domestic b e a s t s of burden by
farm t r a c t o r s has been b e l i e v e d t o be a f a c t o r i n i n c r e a s i n g m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n r a t e s i n
some a r e a s of South America where An. d a r l i n g i i s a primary v e c t o r of m a l a r i a . It i s
i n t e r e s t i n g t o s p e c u l a t e whether t h e abundance of dogs and t h e h i g h p r e f e r e n c e of Cx quinquef a s c i a t u s f o r c a n i n e blood i n some urban a r e a s of t h e t r o p i c s may n o t d e c r e a s e t h e r i s k of
human i n f e c t i o n w i t h f i l a r i a s i s .

- Hess,
studies

A.D. e t a l .
Mosquito news,

The use of t h e f o r a g e r a t i o technique i n mosquito h o s t p r e f e r e n c e

(1968).

28:386-389

I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of zooprophylaxis f o r t h e c o n t r o l of mosquito-borne
d i s e a s e s , i t i s important t o d i s t i n g u i s h between r e s e r v o i r h o s t s and dead-end h o s t s . For
example, i n r u r a l a r e a s where western equine e n c e p h a l i t i s i s endemic, hundreds of house
sparrows n e s t i n g i n t h e t r e e s and o u t b u i l d i n g s around farmhouses may d i v e r t many blood- seeking
Cx t a r s a l i s mosquitos from humans; however, s i n c e t h e house sparrows s e r v e a s i n t e r m e d i a t e
r e s e r v o i r h o s t s f o r v i r u s a m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h e end r e s u l t i s an i n c r e a s e r a t h e r than a d e c r e a s e
i n t h e amount of v i r u s t r a n s m i s s i o n t o humans. On t h e o t h e r hand, c a t t l e a r e dead-end h o s t s
which do n o t s e r v e a s s o u r c e s of v i r u s i n f e c t i o n f o r v e c t o r mosquitos; t h e r e f o r e , t h e d i v e r s i o n of blood- feeding mosquitos from humans t o cows b o t h decreases t h e amount of v i r u s
t r a n s m i s s i o n t o humans and p r e v e n t s t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r of v i r u s . I n c o n t r a s t
t o cows, horses a r e apparent h o s t s and s u b j e c t t o c l i n i c a l d i s e a s e i n t h e same way a s humans.
They must, t h e r e f o r e , be immunized a g a i n s t v i r a l e n c e p h a l i t i s i f they a r e t o p l a y a r o l e i n
zooprophylaxis.
I n many s i t u a t i o n s , mosquito v e c t o r s produced i n r u r a l h a b i t a t s invade a d j a c e n t v i l l a g e s
This i s t r u e f o r
i n s e a r c h of blood meals and t r a n s m i t d i s e a s e t o t h e human population.
various Anopheles v e c t o r s of m a l a r i a a s w e l l a s c u l i c i n e s , such a s Cx t a r s a l i s . For example,
i n Indonesia, An. a c o n i t u s breeding i n r i c e f i e l d s invades nearby v i l l a g e s and t r a n s m i t s
m a l a r i a . I n such s i t u a t i o n s , a zooprophylactic technique might be used i n v o l v i n g t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t , around t h e v i l l a g e s , of i n t e r c e p t o r zones populated w i t h c a t t l e o r o t h e r domest i c animals. I n t h e USSR, t h e h e a l t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a d v i s e s on t h e l o c a t i o n of c a t t l e s h e d s
and houses i n r e l a t i o n t o mosquito breeding s i t e s . It i s g e n e r a l l y recommended t h a t , wherever
p o s s i b l e , s t a b l e s should b e arranged a s a continuous row along t h e p e r i p h e r y of t h e s e t t l e ment. Distance between s t a b l e s and houses should vary from 250 t o 300 m.
Zooprophylaxis
would n o t , of course, be p r a c t i c a b l e u n l e s s t h e r a i s i n g of c a t t l e o r o t h e r l i v e s t o c k were
compatible w i t h l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and economy. Neither would i t be e f f e c t i v e i f
t h e mosquito f l i g h t p a t t e r n s were a p p e t e n t i a l ( i n s e a r c h of a blood meal), o r i f t h e mosquito
It would be l e s s e f f e c s p e c i e s e x h i b i t e d migratory f l i g h t p a t t e r n s ( e . g . , Ae. s o l l i c i t a n s ) .
t i v e i f t h e mosquitos concerned were d a y b i t e r s and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s were l o c a t e d
o u t s i d e i n t e r c e p t o r zones w i t h i n mosquito i n f e s t e d a r e a s .
S t u d i e s on t h e blood- feeding h a b i t s of mosquitos a r e being c a r r i e d o u t i n many a r e a s of
t h e world, and i n c r e a s e d emphasis i s being given t o determining t h e i r r e l a t i v e p r e f e r e n c e s f o r
man and o t h e r v e r t e b r a t e s . These s t u d i e s w i l l provide v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e extended
use of t h e method i n t h e c o n t e x t of environmental management techniques.

7.

Basic s a n i t a r y measures

The l a c k of b a s i c s a n i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s and s e r v i c e s o r , when a v a i l a b l e , t h e i r d e f e c t i v e

design
and c o n s t r u c t i o n o r t h e i r improper
use and maintenance can produce s i t u a t i o n s t h a t
.
.
i n c r e a s e man/mosquito c o n t a c t . Although t h e mosquito h a b i t a t s t h a t r e s u l t from inadequate
s a n i t a t i o n a r e o f t e n s m a l l i n e x t e n t i n d i v i d u a l l y , they can be s o numerous and s o c l o s e t o
human dwellings t h a t they may have a g r e a t e r d i s e a s e transmiss on p o t e n t i a l than l a r g e r b u t
fewer and more d i s t a n t ones. Some of t h e s m a l l e r h a b i t a t s may even go undetected and t h u s
escape monitoring and c o n t r o l .
Population growth i n many c i t i e s i n developing c o u n t r i e s i S s o r a p i d t h a t p u b l i c
u t i l i t i e s and s e r v i c e s soon become inadequate and remain s o i n d e f i n i t e l y . Among t h e s e
u t i l i t i e s , w a t e r supply s u f f e r s t h e most. The water i s i n s u f f i c i e n t , t h e system p r e s s u r e i s
low, and t h e s e r v i c e i s u n r e l i a b l e w i t h f r e q u e n t breakdowns and leakages. People s t o r e water
i n t h e i r houses a s a safeguard a g a i n s t a water f a i l u r e ; underground c i s t e r n s , roof t a n k s ,
w a t e r j a r s , and o t h e r v e s s e l s a r e used f o r t h i s purpose.
To i n c r e a s e t h e supply, r a i n - w a t e r
may be c o l l e c t e d and unused w e l l s reopened. In r u r a l a r e a s , except where piped w a t e r supply
and house connexions a r e a v a i l a b l e , t h e household s t o r a g e of water i s almost u n i v e r s a l . A l l
t h e s e r e s e r v o i r s and c o n t a i n e r s , u s u a l l y l e f t unprotected and uncovered, may become s u i t a b l e
h a b i t a t s f o r mosquitos s u c h a s t h e anopheline m a l a r i a v e c t o r s d t h a l i , s t e p h e n s i , c l a v i g e r
and varuna. The b e s t Dermanent s o l u t i o n t o t h i s ~ r o b l e mwould be t o improve t h e water supply;
-- a temporary measure i s t o prevent mosquito access t o t h e s e water c o n t a i n e r s by p r o v i d i n g them

w i t h proper covers o r s c r e e n s . A p l a s t i c f l o a t i n g mesh s c r e e n has been proposed f o r t h e o l d

50- gallon o i l drums commonly used a s w a t e r c o n t a i n e r s and promises t o be e f f e c t i v e and acceptable t o the population.
The problem of small w a t e r c o l l e c t i o n s e x i s t s i n b o t h urban and r u r a l a r e a s . Water pools
a r e formed i n ground excavations and d e p r e s s i o n s , i n h o l e s i n s t r e e t s and y a r d s , e t c . , and a r e
due t o domestic wastewater, w a t e r through s p i l l a g e o r leakage from i n d i v i d u a l o r community
w a t e r supply systems o r r a i n - w a t e r . This s u b j e c t i s d e a l t w i t h i n subchapter I I I E , s e c t i o n 3.
Many mosquitos, p a r t i c u l a r l y some Aedes and Culex s p e c i e s which a r e v e c t o r s of a r b o v i r u s
d i s e a s e s and f i l a r i a s i s , c a n breed i n man-made c o n t a i n e r s and o t h e r s c r a p m a t e r i a l s , such a s
m e t a l , c a r t o n , g l a s s , p l a s t i c , e t c . , which (when abandoned on t h e ground) c o l l e c t and hold
r a i n - w a t e r . Larvae of t h e s e v e c t o r s have been found i n s a r d i n e t i n s , c a r t y r e s , broken
b o t t l e s , rubber b o o t s , e t c . I n urban a r e a s , only an e f f i c i e n t s e r v i c e of r e f u s e c o l l e c t i o n
and d i s p o s a l , combined w i t h p u b l i c education and p a r t i c i p a t i o n , can reduce t h e tremendous
number of t h e s e l a t e n t and a c t i v e sources of mosquito production. Refuse d i s p o s a l can be done
by b u r i a l , i n c i n e r a t i o n , composting, e t c . Buried waste should be covered and compacted ( s e e
subchapter I I I F ) .
As c e r t a i n mosquito v e c t o r s of a r b o v i r u s and f i l a r i a l i n f e c t i o n s (such a s Culex p i p i e n s
and o t h e r Culex s p e c i e s ) can breed i n contaminated w a t e r , p i t l a t r i n e s , c e s s p o o l s , sewers and
even sewage t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s may provide b r e e d i n g s i t e s . Cesspools should always be k e p t
covered and t h e sewage flow should b e r a p i d enough t o p r e v e n t o v i p o s i t i o n . The problem of
v e c t o r mosquito b r e e d i n g i n sewage t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s o r i n p i t l a t r i n e s p e n e t r a t i n g i n t o ground
w a t e r may have t o b e overcome by chemical c o n t r o l methods.
It i s t h e r e f o r e c l e a r t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of e f f i c i e n t , b a s i c s a n i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s
and s e r v i c e s w i l l b e d i r e c t l y b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e c o n t r o l of many mosquito-borne d i s e a s e s ,
mainly through t h e r e d u c t i o n and e l i m i n a t i o n of mosquito s o u r c e s .

FURTHER READING LIST

Boyd, M.F.

An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o malariology.

Boyd, M.F.

Malariology.

Cambridge, MA, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1930.

P h i l a d e l p h i a , Saunders, 1949 (Volume 2 ) .

B r i t i s h M i n i s t r y of Health and Local Government, Welsh O f f i c e . Safeguards t o be adopted i n

t h e o p e r a t i o n and management of waterworks, London, H.M. S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , 1967.
Cairncross, S. & Feachem, R. Small water s u p p l i e s .
Hygiene, 1978 (Ross B u l l e t i n , No. 1 0 ) .

London, The Ross ~ n s t i t u t eof Tropical

C h r i s t o p h e r s , S.R. & M i s s i r o l i , A. Housing and m a l a r i a : r e p o r t t o t h e League of Nations

Commission on Malaria. Q u a r t e r l y B u l l e t i n of t h e Health Organization. League of Nations,
2:355-482 (1933)

Cox, C.R.
Operation and c o n t r o l of water t r e a t m e n t processes.
Organization, 1964 (Monograph s e r i e s , No. 49).

Geneva, Vorld Health

Some o b s e r v a t i o n s of antimosquito s c r e e n i n g and s c r e e n i n g m a t e r i a l s .

E a r l e , W.C.
journal of p u b l i c h e a l t h and t r o p i c a l medicine, 8:227 (1932).

P u e r t o Rico

Improved housing a s a f a c t o r i n m a l a r i a c o n t r o l .
F u l l e r t o n , H.R. & Bishop, E.L.
26:465-468 (1933).
medical j o u r n al, -

Southern

Gloyna, E.F. Waste s t a b i l i z a t i o n ponds.

s e r i e s , No. 60).

Geneva, World Health Organization, 1971 (Monograph

G r a n e t t , P.

S t u d i e s of mosquito r e p e l l e n t s .

J o u r n a l of economic entomology, 2 : 5 6 3 (1940).

Hackett, L.W. Housing a s a f a c t o r i n m a l a r i a c o n t r o l .

T r o p i c a l Medicine and Hygiene, g : 3 5 (1933).

Transactions of t h e Royal S o c i e t y of

Indian C e n t r a l P u b l i c Health Engineering Research I n s t i t u t e .

Nagpur, 1970.

Rural s a n i t a t i o n r e s e a r c h .

Kiker, C.C.
Housing w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o m a l a r i a c o n t r o l . I n : Symposium on human m a l a r i a .
Washington, DC, American A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Advancement of Science, 1941 ( p u b l i c a t i o n No. 15).
Small sewage d i s p o s a l system (with s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t r o p i c s ) .
Macdonald, O.J.S.
London, Lewis , 1952.
(With
Rajagopalan, S. Guide t o simple s a n i t a r y measures f o r t h e c o n t r o l of e n t e r i c d i s e a s e s .
Geneva,
World
Health
Organization,
1974.
a s e c t i o n on food s a n i t a t i o n by M.A. Shiffman).
Excreta d i s p o s a l f o r r u r a l a r e a s and small communities.
Wagner, E.G. & Lanoix, J . N .
World Health Organization, 1958 (Monograph s e r i e s , No. 39).
Water supply f o r r u r a l a r e a s and small communities.
Wagner, E.G. & Lanoix, J.N.
World Health Organization, 1959 (Monograph s e r i e s , No. 42).

Geneva,

Geneva,

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 225, 1961 (Expert Committee on t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h a s p e c t s of

housing: f i r s t r e p o r t ) .
WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 292, 1964 (Environmental change and r e s u l t i n g impacts on
h e a l t h : r e p o r t of a WHO Expert Committee).

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 297, 1964 (Environmental h e a l t h a s p e c t s of m e t r o p o l i t a n

planning and development: r e p o r t of a WHO Expert Committee).
WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 318, 1966 (Water p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l :
Commi t t ee)

'

r e p o r t of a WHO Expert

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 353, 1967 (Appraisal of t h e h y g i e n i c q u a l i t y of housing and

i t s environment: r e p o r t of a WHO Expert Committee).
WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 367, 1966 (Treatment and d i s p o s a l of w a s t e s :

r e p o r t of a

WHO S c i e n t i f i c Group).
WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 368, 1967 (Mosquito ecology:
Group).

r e p o r t of a WHO s c i e n t i f i c

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 404, 1968 (Water p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l i n developing c o u n t r i e s :

r e p o r t of a WHO S c i e n t i f i c Group).
WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 420, 1969 (Community w a t e r supply:

Committee)

r e p o r t of a WHO Expert

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 484, 1971 ( S o l i d wastes d i s p o s a l and c o n t r o l :

WHO Expert Committee)

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 501, 1972 (Vector ecology:

r e p o r t of a

r e p o r t of a WO S c i e n t i f i c Group).

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 511, 1972 (Development of environmental h e a l t h c r i t e r i a f o r

urban ~ l a n n i n e : reDort of a WHO S c i e n t i f i c Group.

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 517, 1973 (Reuse of e f f l u e n t s : methods of wastewater t r e a t ment and h e a l t h s a f e g u a r d s . Report of a WHO Meeting of F x p e r t s ) .

WHO Technical Report S e r i e s , No. 541, 1974 (Disposal of community wastewater:

WHO Expert Connni t t e e )

r e p o r t of a

CHAPTER V1
PLANNING ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR MOSQUITO CONTROL

CONTENTS
Page

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
The planning of integrated control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Problem definition and priority rating . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General principles

Delimitation of operational areas or selection of project sites

Feasibility studies

......................

Selection of methods of control: the comprehensive approach

..

............
Major land and water resource development projects . . . . . . .
Control at community level with local participation . . . . . .
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vector-borne disease control programmes

Further reading list

1.

.............................

173

General principles

The techniques and methodologies described in preceding chapters are generally applicable
(a) in planning programmes specifically and primarily for mosquito control, (b) in planning
mosquito control as an integrated part of development projects, and (c) in recognizing and
evaluating mosquito control benefits derived from development and community improvement
projects.
There are considerable differences in planning environmental management for mosquito
control programmes currently in operation and for new programmes. A prerequisite for both is
the existence or establishment of mechanisms of coordination and institutional arrangements to
ensure that the programme is consistent with other public needs and priorities. Traditionally,
health ministries have played a leading role in the establishment and operation of public
health mosquito control programmes and in efforts to have the mosquito control aspects
considered when planning the development projects.
From examples cited in the foregoing chapters it is clear that a variety of environmental
management techniques are being used singly or in combination in many existing mosquito
control programmes. Present programmes are the result of gradual developments over several
decades, and the tendency is towards integrated control programmes including environmental
management methods, biological agents, and insecticides. For control programmes which still
rely heavily upon insecticides, a shift towards greater reliance on environmental management
may become necessary in the future owing to problems of vector resistance. The need for

greater programme effectiveness and reduced long-term costs may also be reasons for considering a shift to source reduction measures even though major capital expenditures may sometimes
be involved initially. The economic feasibility of such a shift is established by comparing
the estimated annual costs over the expected life of the source reduction measures, including
amortization and maintenance, with the expected savings in expenditure for insecticides and
in the cost of their application. Mosquito control projects (such as drainage, filling,
diking, and dewatering) may provide opportunities for land reclamation and development
benefits which may reduce incremental costs allocated to mosquito control.
In the planning of new mosquito control programmes, two requirements must in general be
met: that of dealing with existing problems resulting from natural or man-made vector sources,
and that of tackling both the existing and potential vector problems connected with the
construction of a new water resource. The latter are dealt with in more detail below.
No two dam (and reservoir) projects are exactly alike. Each project has its own characteristics determined by the physiography of the site, its location, design features of the
structure, and operating schedules to serve the purposes for which it is constructed. For any
specific project the potential mosquito control problem is determined by the climate, the size
and topography of the reservoir area, the condition of the area to be flooded with regard to
drainage and vegetation, and the expected water level schedules to be followed (operating rule
curves) to meet project requirements. If due attention is given to mosquito control in the
earliest stages of project planning, it is possible through design, proper preimpoundage
preparation of the area to be flooded (see subchapter IIIA), and judicious planning of reservoir operating schedules (see Chapter IVY section 1.3) to mitigate the potential problems and
reduce or possibly eliminate the need for special postimpoundage mosquito control operations,
such as larviciding.
Excessive mosquito populations associated with irrigation systems are most often caused
by faulty engineering design, and incorrect irrigation, drainage, and management practices.
The mosquito sources are often associated with both the engineering and the agricultural
aspects of irrigation and are thus amenable to correction or prevention, through proper planning. Irrigation systems and practices designed to attain maximum efficiency and to minimize
water wastage tend also to avoid creating conditions favourable to mosquito propagation. However, some current design features and practices are not best suited for mosquito control.
For example, in large irrigation projects, the slopes of the main canals are usually reduced
so that larger land areas can be irrigated. The lessened flow velocity and the consequent
vegetation growth are favourable to mosquito production. Similarly, prolonged flooding of
rice fields is still a common practice although intermittent irrigation has shown its effectiveness for mosquito control with little or no effects on the crop.
For mosquito control in new communities, the principal considerations are site selection,
disposal of waste water, surface drainage, disposal or proper handling of water-holding
containers, and housing standards that reduce man/mosquito contact (see Chapter V).
The wide-scale application of environmental management for mosquito control can be included in primary health care programmes and will contribute to the goal of health for all by the
year 2000. Simple environmental management measures taken by communities can assist in
reducing mosquito vector habitats. Individuals can contribute to mosquito control and general
community development, but special education is frequently needed. Individuals can limit the
number of breeding places on their own premises by minor drainage and removal of water-holding
containers. They can also provide personal protection for themselves and their families by
the use of mosquito nets, space sprays, etc. (see Chapter V).
2.

The planning of integrated control

The principles enunciated in a policy statement adopted by the American Mosquito Control
Association in 1979 are indicative of modern approaches to mosquito control. Although stated
for general mosquito control purposes, the principles reproduced below also apply to vector

control programmes.
The American Mosquito Control Association advocates management of mosquito populat i o n ~ ,when and where necessary, by means of integrated programmes designed to benefit
or to have minimal adverse effects on people, wildlife, and the environment. This
integrated pest management policy recognizes that mosquito populations cannot always
be eliminated but often must be suppressed to tolerable levels for the well-being of
humans, domestic animals, and wildlife, and that selection of scientifically sound
suppression methods must be based on consideration of what is ecologically and
economically in the long-term best interest of mankind. The following principles are
advocated.
(1) Mosquito control measures should be undertaken only when there is adequate
justification, based upon surveillance data.
Integrated mosquito management programmes should be tailored to the needs and
(2)
requirements of the local situation. The combination of methods for mosquito control
should be chosen after careful consideration of the efficacy, ecological effects, and
costs versus benefits of the various options, including public education, legal action,
natural and biological control, elimination of breeding sources, and insecticide
applications.
( 3 ) Mosquito breeding sources, whether natural or created by human activity, should
be altered in such a manner as to cause the least undesirable impact on the environment.

( 4 ) Insecticides and application methods should be used in the most efficient and least
hazardous manner, in accordance with all applicable laws and regulations and available
scientific data. The registered label requirements for insecticides should be followed.
When choices are available among effective insecticides, those offering the least
hazard to non-target organisms should be used. Insecticides should be chosen and used
in a manner that will minimize the development of resistance in the mosquito populations.
( 5 ) Personnel involved in mosquito management programmes should be properly trained
and supervised, and certified in accordance with relevant laws and regulations, and
should keep current with improvements in management techniques through continuing
education and/or training programmes.

For vector control programmes, principle (1) may be broadened to include epidemiological
data. Furthermore, in the assessment of the effects of measures to control the vectors of
one disease, the benefits from the complete or partial control of a number of other vectorborne diseases should be included.
A considerable body of knowledge about many mosquito species is needed for planning
effective control programmes. Information on some important species was presented in
Chapter I, and Tables are included in Annex 1. Additional information on local species needs
to be collected, compiled and analysed.
3.

Problem definition and priority rating

Before a vector control programme is planned, some information will usually be available
on disease prevalence and on the ecology of the vectors. Data may also exist which will
enable the relative public health and socioeconomic importance of the disease to be assessed.
To establish the priority of the vector control programme relative to other health activities
of the area, data on other major communicable diseases of the area are needed. Such information will also be useful at later stages of programme development for the selection of control
methods that may also alleviate other health problems. Where data are incomplete, it may be
necessary to carry out small-scale epidemiological surveys.

Information on the prevalence and sources of mosquito vectors in the area is analysed and
major sources are identified. These may be natural breeding areas, man-made irrigation
schemes, rice cultivation systems, or artificial lakes. Potential future sources of vectors,
such as prospective water resource development projects in the area, should also be considered.
An evaluation should be made of any past programmes or current activities for control of
mosquito-borne diseases in the area. Particular attention should be directed to the effectiveness of the control methods employed, the problems encountered, and programme administration
and costs.
To obtain an overall view of the problem, information is needed on the demographic,
physiographic, clirnatological, topographical and geographical features of the area, population
distribution, water resource development projects, and related engineering data such as
streamflow, drainage, and water control operations.
The findings of the problem definition study should be reviewed with the governmental
agencies of the area responsible for public health, agriculture, public works, industrial
development, conservation, water resources, tourism, etc. The purpose is to obtain the views
of these agencies as to the potential benefits or impacts of a vector control programme for
their programmes. The review also serves to identify opportunities for joint planning and
possibly joint funding of projects, in which mosquito control is included with other objectives
such as flood control, hydroelectric power generation, navigation, irrigation, drainage, land
reclamation and development, or fish and wildlife enhancement.
4.

Delimitation of operational areas or selection of project sites

In large-scale vector control projects, it is to be expected that the areas for which a
control programme is being considered will include different epidemiological and ecological
conditions with resulting differences in disease transmission potential and in the appropriate
control measures. Delimited sectors of the designated control area can be used for conducting
feasibility studies and preliminary detailed planning of vector control programmes to provide
the basis of a total programme plan of operations.
The geographical location of a water resource development project is determined primarily
by the purpose of the project, the area to be served, and technical requirements for construction and operation of the works. In considering alternative schemes for site development,
however, the assessment of the relative difficulties and costs of vector control may be an
important factor, and it is for this reason that data must be collected at an early stage.
Vector-borne disease control should also be an important factor in the selection of sites
for housing the construction workers and for resettling the populations that have been
displaced by the project.
Feasibility studies
Prior to the project planning stage, feasibility studies are conducted to determine
whether the control objectives can be attained with available methods and resources, taking
into consideration the local technical, operational, administrative and socioeconomic
conditions.
The relationships of population groups to vector sources have a great bearing on costeffective vector control strategies. For example, a strategy including a large-scale
programme of larval control would be more likely to be cost-effective in densely populated
urban areas than in rural areas. As indicated above, these relationships provide a sound
basis for subdividing the control area into sectors to be used for feasibility studies.
The technical feasibility of environmental management methods will depend on the efficacy
of available control measures in the proposed control area. In some cases, small-scale field
trials of the control measures may be needed to confirm their efficacy and technical

feasibility. If the feasibility of available control methods seems to be questionable, new

methodologies and equipment may have to be developed and assessed in a field operation before
a soundly based control programme can be initiated.
In the selection of methods to be incorporated in an integrated control programme, operational feasibility as well as technical feasibility must be considered. This requires study
of the practicability of applying various control methods under the local geographical,
physical, social and climatic conditions. This study should take account of communications,
housing, agricultural practices, human habits and customs, water resources and existing public
health programmes and organization.
The results of the sector studies can be combined to provide preliminary estimates of the
resources required and the costs for implementing the total programme. Usually, only direct
costs are included in the sector cost estimates. For the total programme costs, technical
planning, management and administrative costs need to be added. Provision should also be made
for special investigations and field trials for programme improvement and continuing evaluation
of programme effectiveness.

A feasibility study should also take into account the rules and procedures on the allocation of funds and accounting of expenditure, the recruitment and training of personnel,
procurement of supplies and materials, maintenance and repairs of transport, legislation and
legal support, as well as any other administrative and managerial matters related to the
programme.
Only control measures which pass the tests of both technical and operational feasibility
should be considered for application in the control programme. Comparative cost estimates
will indicate the cost-effectiveness of alternative control strategies and, in turn, indicate
the methods of control for each sector that would be most cost-effective. In cases where
direct benefits to other interests are to be realized, these should be taken into account.

6.

Selection of methods of control:

the comprehensive approach

Following the feasibility studies, and if it is decided to proceed, detailed surveys are
usually needed. These will include preliminary engineering studies if major projects are
concerned. The project should be developed within the total health and socioeconomic context
of the area to ensure that other diseases are taken into account in the selection of control
measures. This comprehensive approach involves the careful selection of a combination of
methods on the basis of their efficacy, feasibility of application, costs, suitability to
local conditions and acceptability to the population. Within the wide scope of water resources
development, where many different and possibly conflicting interests may be involved, a
coordinated approach is essential in all phases of development.

7.

Vector-borne disease control programmes

Although no two situations involving the development of a vector control programme are
identical, some generalizations may be made. In urban areas characterized by high population
density, source reduction measures should be emphasized. Where the mosquito control operations extend beyond the geographical jurisdiction of a municipality or where overlapping
jurisdictions are involved, the formation of mosquito control districts may be required but
these should be consistent with the pattern of basic health services.
The situation in suburban areas of towns is sometimes more serious. Mosquito production
is usually more intense because of the presence of more surface water for mosquito breeding,
and if the resulting health problems are severe, other measures of control may have to be
combined with environmental management operations and the provision of basic sanitary measures.
In these and in rural areas, the control strategy should consist of a combination of
measures with more emphasis at first on chemical control to bring about a rapid decline in

mosquito density and disease transmission. As environmental management operations are

developed and strengthened, the application of pesticides can be reduced and gradually replaced
by non-chemical measures.
In rural areas and arid zones, excessive mosquito populations are frequently due to rnanmade habitats. Vector control efforts have to be directed to measures which involve conservation and optimum use of the limited water supply. In tropical zor~eswith an oversupply of
water, drainage and land reclamation may be emphasized as methods for source reduction. However, adequate mosquito control cannot usually be achieved through environmental management
alone, since it is difficult to provide sufficient coverage of existing and potential breeding
places. Integrated strategies and selection of courses of action similar to those recommended
above for urban areas should be applicable to most rural situations.
Organization and management of operations. Large-scale projects for environmental
management require a high degree of technical direction, efficiency in operational activities,
and sound management. The director and key staff should be technically qualified and have
basic management skills for administering a large organization of people. The technical staff
should understand the technical operations of public works, such as irrigation and drainage,
and water supply and drainage systems, in order to deal effectively with technical personnel
responsible for these works.
Organization patterns must of necessity be tailored to individual situations and placement of the project in the governmental structure.
Training of staff. Basic to all environmental management for mosquito control is a
nucleus of trained personnel including an entomologist with broad training in aquatic ecology
and a knowledge of control methods, and an operations director who could be an environmental
or public health engineer trained in vector control. In some situations all of the functions
may have to be performed by only one engineer who will then be responsible for training
ancillary staff such as laboratory and entomology technicians in the application of their
skills to environmental control, and for organizing training programmes for field personnel.
Pilot operations. As mentioned above, pilot operations may be needed to determine the
technical feasibility of a proposed control method. These trials provide excellent training
opportunities. When integrated control programmes are being planned, adequate allowance
should be made for extended pilot operations.
Engineering surveys and design studies. Some source reduction projects may involve small
or simple drainage or water control operations which the average workman can perform using
a simple hand level or no instrument at all (see Chapters I1 and VII). Such operations might
include side drainage to primary drainage channels and drainage of shallow depressions in
filled areas. Most source reduction projects will, however, require trained engineers to
conduct instrument field surveys, make designs, and estimate the cost of alternative schemes.
In projects primarily for mosquito control, the role of the vector control specialist is to
identify the areas to be considered, develop performance specifications, arrange for engineering surveys, design and cost studies, and arrange for final designs and construction. In
multipurpose projects, his role is usually limited to indicating how specific features of the
project might be designed to optimize mosquito control benefits and to evaluating the effectiveness of alternative schemes to that end.
It is unlikely that a vector control organization will have staff qualified to conduct
engineering and design studies. Contracts may be made with professional engineering companies,
or the engineering staff of departments of public works or other appropriate governmental
agencies can be used.
Impact on the environment. Environmental management measures may produce a significant
impact on the environment. In some countries, environmental impact studies may require
extensive surveys, considerable financial resources, specialized manpower, and legal and

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s u p p o r t . I n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , t h e impact s t u d y may c o n s i s t i n g a t h e r i n g a v a i l a b l e knowledge from s p e c i a l i s t s and t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e ; t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s may p r o v i d e

p r a c t i c a l a s s i s t a n c e i n planning t h e p r o j e c t . Where such procedures a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e , a
simple m a t r i x of t h e type d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 11, s e c t i o n 4 , and i n Annex 3 can be h e l p f u l
i n t h e assessment of environmental impacts, a t l e a s t d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s of p r o j e c t
development.
8.

Major land and w a t e r r e s o u r c e development p r o j e c t s

There i s much documented information on mosquito c o n t r o l e f f o r t s r e l a t e d t o major water

r e s o u r c e development p r o j e c t s such a s dams, r e s e r v o i r s , and i r r i g a t i o n schemes, b u t l e s s
a t t e n t i o n has been given t o mosquito c o n t r o l problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o t h e r types of p r o j e c t s
such a s channel dredging, l a n d d r a i n a g e , l a n d r e c l a m a t i o n , road c o n s t r u c t i o n , and water
management f o r r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n .
As s t a t e d above, t h e b a s i c approach should b e t o i n c o r p o r a t e mosquito c o n t r o l f e a t u r e s
i n p r o j e c t d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n . A t t h e same time, a c l o s e c o o p e r a t i v e working r e l a t i o n s h i p
must be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h e h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s i n a l l phases of p r o j e c t development, and t h e
p r o j e c t a u t h o r i t i e s and management must a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e c o n t r o l of
mosquitos of p u b l i c h e a l t h importance i s n o t weakened b u t i s r a t h e r improved.

(5) comDuring t h e planning phase, t h e h e a l t h component of t h e p r o j e c t should i n c l u d e :

p i l i n g d a t a on t h e h e a l t h s t a t u s of t h e a r e a and o t h e r r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s such a s v e c t o r
densities;
(L) undertaking surveys t o supplement t h e d a t a , b r i n g i n g them up t o d a t e , o r
extending them i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l ; and (c)
- i d e n t i f y i n g p r e s e n t h e a l t h problems and p r e d i c t i n g
p o s s i b l e f u t u r e r e p e r c u s s i o n s of t h e p r o j e c t . F e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s , c o s t - e f f e c t i v e a n a l y s e s ,
e t c . , should t a k e t h e h e a l t h component i n t o account.

(a)

establishing c r i t e r i a
During t h e design phase, t h e h e a l t h component should i n c l u d e :
f o r t h e minimization of h e a l t h h a z a r d s , and (h) a d v i s i n g d e s i g n e r s on t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of
these c r i t e r i a i n t h e d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s and o t h e r works and i n t h e planning and d e s i g n of
operations.
During t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n phase, t h e following h e a l t h safeguards w i l l need t o be e s t a b lished:
(a) p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t d i s e a s e , and medical c a r e of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n l a b o u r f o r c e ,
i n c l u d i n g c o n t r o l of l o c a l v e c t o r s ; (L) advice on adequate housing, s a n i t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s ,
inspection t o ensure t h a t
and s e r v i c e s f o r t h e l a b o u r f o r c e and r e s e t t l e d i n h a b i t a n t s ;
c o n s t r u c t i o n i s i n compliance w i t h approved designs a s r e l a t e d t o v e c t o r c o n t r o l f e a t u r e s ;
and (g) o r g a n i z a t i o n of programmes f o r h e a l t h education and community p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

(c)

A t t h e beginning of t h e o p e r a t i o n s phase, t h e h e a l t h o r g a n i z a t i o n should be ready t o

s u r v e i l l a n c e , s c r e e n i n g and t r e a t m e n t of i n f e c t e d p e r s o n s ,
undertake such a c t i v i t i e s a s :
h e a l t h t r a i n i n g of i r r i g a t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r a l p e r s o n n e l , and p u b l i c h e a l t h education and
development of community p a r t i c i p a t i o n ;
(L) continued monitoring of t h e works f o r t h e i r
e f f e c t on v e c t o r d e n s i t i e s ; and (c) e v a l u a t i o n of v e c t o r d e n s i t y and d i s e a s e change, t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of v e c t o r c o n t r o l a n d s a n i t a t i o n , e t c . , and f u r t h e r s t e p s t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d f o r
good environmental management.

(a)

E f f e c t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n c a l l s f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of c o o r d i n a t i n g boards and committees

w i t h i n t h e framework of t h e p r o j e c t a t v a r i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l s . The boards and
committees should be a p a r t of t h e p r o j e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n and should have c a r e f u l l y defined
d u t i e s and a r e a s of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . They should have t h e f u l l support of t h e p r o j e c t management, r e i n f o r c e d ( i f need be) by a p p r o p r i a t e l e g i s l a t i o n . Meetings of t h e boards and
committees should be r e g u l a r .
The p o t e n t i a l a d v e r s e h e a l t h e f f e c t s of w a t e r r e s o u r c e s development p r o j e c t s a r e of v i t a l
It i s t h e r e f o r e e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e M i n i s t r y of Health
concern t o p u b l i c h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s .
should have adequate powers and r e s o u r c e s t o c o n t r o l t h e v e c t o r s of p u b l i c h e a l t h importance

in water resources projects. It is desirable that official authorizations for the planning,
design, construction, operation and maintenance of major water resources development projects
should define the responsibility of the project management to comply with the vector control
requirements.

9.

Control at community level with local participation

At the community level, the available resources, equipment and technical skills are
frequently limited but this does not necessarily preclude the successful application of simple
environmental management measures for vector control through cooperative local participation.
For such participation to be effective, the planning of basic sanitation measures (including
vector control) must include technologies which are conducive to labour-intensiveness and
decentralization, and which meet the needs of a large percentage of the people in the
community

Appropriate technology approaches to community vector control and sanitation are just as
applicable to the unplanned settlements of migrant workers, who are frequently brought
together for the construction of water resources development projects, as they are to established communities. In the former case, however, the need is greater and the task is
frequently more difficult and has less probability of success.
Simple technology that is available and easily adaptable to many community situations
can deal with, for example, the improvement of surface drainage, the filling in of small land
depressions, the removal of containers that provide larval habitats, encouragement of the use
of bed nets and repellents, and the promotion of better house construction (see Chapter V).
In the established communities, vector control activities should be integrated with
primary health care and carried out by community workers. Technical assistance for planning
and supervision and certain incentives may need to be provided by vector control staff.
The selection and establishment of priorities for health and development projects are the
prerogatives of the community leaders, but health workers can assist by identifying health
problems, suggesting priorities, and proposing corrective measures by cornunity action and
alternative approaches with the estimated manpower and equipment requirements. Health workers
will need to continue to assist in developing specific work plans, in training personnel, and
advising on the allocation of funds and equipment where necessary. The success of individual
projects will in part depend on the training of the community workers responsible for carrying
them out. Health personnel should also assume major responsibility in providing training to
local health workers for the extended health education of the public.
10.

Evaluation

Evaluation is the measurement of the progress achieved towards the planned objectives.
It consists in regularly collecting data on various aspects of programme development and
comparing them with the set targets. Evaluation needs to be continuous and should lead to the
design and introduction of corrective measures to overcome deficiencies, and perhaps also to
a revision of goals and targets. For environmental management projects, evaluation should
cover the epidemiological aspects, environmental impact, and the economic aspects.
Operational evaluation assesses the progress of administrative, technical and financial
operations. It is carried out to maintain high operational standards.
Epidemiological evaluation measures the impact of the measures against the vectors and
disease. It is carried out by comparison of data collected through a regular reporting
system or through epidemiological surveys. The results may indicate the need for a change in
strategy if they fall short of the targets.
The environmental impact assessment will keep watch on the physical modification of the

environment and its effects on the biota (see section 7 above, Chapter I1(section h), and
Annex 3)

In the economic studies, usually the benefits other than vector control are assessed and,
if possible, quantified. These may include assessment of the additional water and land for
agriculture and urbanization, improvements in environmental quality, and overall improvement
in socioeconomic conditions.
FURTHER READING LIST
American Mosquito Control Association. Mosquitos and their control in the United States.
Fresno, California, 1979.
Bainbridge, J. & Sapirie, S. Health project management. A manual of procedures for formulating and implementing health projects. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1974. (WHO Offset
Publication No. 12).
Morgan, R.P.

UNIDO and appropriate industrial technology. Science,

203

(4383):835

(1979).

National Academy of Sciences. Pest control: an assessment of present and alternative

technologies. Volume 5 of Pest control and public health. Washington, DC, 1976.
WHO Technical Report Series, No. 549, 1974 (WHO Expert Committee on Malaria: sixteenth report).
WHO Technical Report Series, No. 561, 1975 (Ecology and control of vectors in public health:
twenty-first report of the WHO Expert Committee on ~nsecticides).
WHO Technical Report Series, No. 649, 1980 (Environmental management for vector control:
third report of the WHO Expert Committee on Vector Biology and Control).
World Health Organization. Manual on larval control operations in malaria programmes.
Geneva, 1973 (WHO Offset Publication No. 1).
World Health Organization. Manual on personal and community protection against malaria in
development areas and new settlements. Geneva, 1974 (WHO Offset Publication No. 10).
WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. Report on the Seminar on the Preventionand
Control of Vector-borne Diseases in Water Resources Development Projects, Alexandria, and
Egypt, 21-27 March 1978; the Sudan, 28 March-6 April 1978 (Unpublished document VBC/EM/78.1).

CHAPTER V11
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES FOR THE VECTOR CONTROL WORKER
CONTENTS
Page

1.

Introduction

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Procedures for implementing simple environmental management

works

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2.1 Review and analysis of the existing data and reports . . . . . . . 177
2.2 Preliminary reconnaissance and problem identification . . . . . . . 177
2.3 Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.4 Selection of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.5 Detailed design and construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
2.6 Operation and maintenance of constructed works . . . . . . . . . . 182
2.7 Monitoring and follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.
Organization of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.1 The executing body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.2 Reorientation of the vector control service . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.2.1 Training of staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.2.2 Pilot operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.2.3 Organizational reorientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.3

Application of environmental management measures in new

programmes

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.4 Community participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.5 Primary health care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.
Design and construction hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.1 Calculation of earthwork for filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.1.1

4.2

Determination of the area of the top surface of a

land depression
4.1.1.1 Marking out right angles on the ground

......................
......
4.1.2 Determination of the mean depth of a land depression . . . .
Velocity of flow in open channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

186
189
189
191

Page

4.3

4.4
4.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.3.1 General hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.3.2 Design of drainage ditches: some examples . . . . . . . . . 198
4.3.3 Setting an alignment between two points which are not
withinsight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Improvement of shorelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Some basic facts about concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Drainageditches

Plane surveying for environmental management works for vector

control
5.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4

5.2

5.3

Plane surveying and geodetic surveying

Measurement of lengths and direction
Measurement of angles
Measurement of elevation

. . . . . . . . . . . 207

. . . . . . . . . . . . 207
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.2.1 Levelling procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.2.2 Profile levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.2.3 Establishing grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.2.4 Cross-section levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.2.5 Levelling for construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.2.6 Substitute tools for levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Plane-table surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3

5.3.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
. . . . . . . . . . 220
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Field party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.3.4.1 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.3.4.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Introduction
The instrument
Methods of surveying with the plane-table
5.3.3.1 Setting up the table
5.3.3.2 Traversing
5.3.3.3 Plotting the detail
5.3.3.4 Measuring elevations

Further reading list

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

1.

Introduction

The v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e w i l l u s u a l l y b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r implementing small and simple

Its s t a f f should
environmental management measures a s p a r t of t h e d i s e a s e c o n t r o l programme.
be capable of p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n i n g and c a r r y i n g o u t such measures, aimed p r i n c i p a l l y a t eliminating vector breeding s i t e s . Public health inspectors o r s a n i t a r i a n s attached t o the vector
c o n t r o l s e r v i c e may be r e q u i r e d t o d i r e c t t h e work i n t h e f i e l d and o r g a n i z e t h e u n s k i l l e d
workers i n i t s execution. They should be p a r t i c u l a r l y prepared f o r such f i e l d a c t i v i t i e s .
Much of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s Manual i s addressed b o t h t o v e c t o r c o n t r o l workers and t o
engineers engaged i n w a t e r r e s o u r c e s and o t h e r development p r o j e c t s , b u t t h e p r a c t i c a l guidel i n e s i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e concerned only w i t h works and o p e r a t i o n s which v e c t o r c o n t r o l
These works, even though t h e y seem small
workers may be r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y o u t by themselves.
and simple, may be a s e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g mosquito production a s l a r g e r and more impress i v e undertakings.
I n cases where t h e g u i d e l i n e s prove i n s u f f i c i e n t , v e c t o r c o n t r o l f i e l d s t a f f should
always f e e l f r e e t o r e f e r m a t t e r s t o and r e q u e s t h e l p from t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s a s w e l l a s from
s p e c i a l i z e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s o r agencies (where a v a i l a b l e ) a t t h e f i e l d l e v e l . The v e c t o r
c o n t r o l s e r v i c e should a l s o e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n c l o s e c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e departments
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w a t e r r e s o u r c e s development, and r e q u e s t t e c h n i c a l support a s and when
r e q u i r e d . Community p a r t i c i p a t i o n and cooperation w i t h primary h e a l t h c a r e s e r v i c e s should
a l s o be sought.

2.

Procedures f o r implementing simple environmental management works

For t h e implementation of environmental management works, t h e g e n e r a l sequence of

a c t i v i t i e s i s usually a s follows:
(a)

Review and a n a l y s i s of e x i s t i n g d a t a and r e p o r t s on v e c t o r s , d i s e a s e s , and t h e i r c o n t r o l .

(b) Preliminary r e c o n n a i s s a n c e , t o c o l l e c t a d d i t i o n a l g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n and t o i d e n t i f y t h e

mosquito problem.
(c) Land surveying, i n c l u d i n g topographical surveying, a s r e q u i r e d , t o provide d e t a i l e d
geographical i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e a r e a concerned f o r use i n t h e planning and d e s i g n p r o c e s s .
(d) S e l e c t i o n of environmental management measures t o b e a p p l i e d , based on d a t a c o l l e c t e d
through ( a ) , (b) and ( c ) .
(e) D e t a i l e d d e s i g n of t h e environmental management works r e q u i r e d , i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n
p l a n s and c o s t e s t i m a t e s .
(f)

Construction.

(g)

Operation and maintenance of t h e c o n s t r u c t e d works

(h) Continued e v a l u a t i o n of t h e impacts on v e c t o r o r d i s e a s e i n c i d e n c e and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n

of c o r r e c t i v e measures.

The v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s l i s t e d above a r e d i s c u s s e d , s t e p by s t e p , i n t h e subsequent

I t may be noted t h a t not a l l t h e s t e p s and a c t i v i t i e s a r e needed f o r every job and
sections.
s e v e r a l of them can be omitted i n t h e c a s e of small o p e r a t i o n s .

2.1

Review and a n a l y s i s of e x i s t i n g d a t a and r e p o r t s

C o l l e c t e x i s t i n g d a t a and r e p o r t s on v e c t o r s , d i s e a s e s and t h e i r c o n t r o l and a n a l y s e them

w i t h a view t o i d e n t i f y i n g t h e g e n e r a l v e c t o r and d i s e a s e problem i n t h e a r e a a s w e l l a s t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n gaps.
2.2

Preliminary reconnaissance and problem i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

Step 1.

V i s i t t h e a r e a concerned and c o l l e c t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e following:

t h e p r e v a l e n c e of m a l a r i a and o t h e r vector- borne d i s e a s e s , i f n o t a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e ;

t h e number i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n , and l o c a t i o n of t h e i r permanent and temporary h a b i t a t i o n ;

- whether t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s and crops a r e i r r i g a t e d o r r a i n - f e d ;

t h e c l i m a t e , r a i n f a l l (magnitude and s e a s o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ) , temperatures, groundwater

t a b l e , and s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ;

- t h e l o c a t i o n and e x t e n t of each e x i s t i n g (and p o t e n t i a l ) mosquito source; i n t h e case

of w a t e r c o l l e c t i o n s , determine from where t h e w a t e r comes ( s u r f a c e runoff o r groundwater
s o u r c e s ) , t h e water l e v e l o r d e p t h , and t h e d u r a t i o n and season of w a t e r accumulation;
v e g e t a t i o n growth; and t h e mosquito o r d i s e a s e p o t e n t i a l (what environmental management
measures, s i n g l y o r i n combination, would provide a s o l u t i o n ? ) ;
- i f d r a i n a g e i s considered a s a p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n , determine any p o s s i b l e o u t l e t , i t s
d i s t a n c e from (and i t s e l e v a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o ) t h e lowest p o i n t of each water c o l l e c t i o n , and i t s c a p a c i t y t o c a r r y away t h e a d d i t i o n a l flow (would p a r t i a l d r a i n a g e p r o v i d e
a solution?) ;

i f f i l l i n g i s considered a s a p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n , determine any p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s of

f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l and t h e i r l o c a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e water c o l l e c t i o n s (would margin
improvement by deepenin g and f i l l i n g , p l u s i n t r o d u c t i o n of l a r v i v o r o u s f i s h , p r o v i d e a
solution?) ;

t h e use being made of t h e w a t e r c o l l e c t i o n s ( i f a n y ) , and whether t h e i r e l i m i n a t i o n

( e i t h e r by d r a i n a g e o r f i l l i n g ) i s a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n ;

i f f l u s h i n g i s considered a s a p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n i n t h e case of a d i t c h o r s t r e a m ,
determine t h e q u a n t i t y of water a v a i l a b l e f o r f l u s h i n g , and p o s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s f o r t h e
Storage s t r u c t u r e ;

- i f o t h e r m a n i p u l a t i v e measures (such a s s a l i n i t y changes) a r e b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , d e t e r mine t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r such measures and t h e requirements f o r t h e i r implementation;

t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of l a b o u r i n t h e a r e a , and t h e p r o s p e c t s of p a r t i c i p a t i o n by t h e
l o c a l communities i n t h e envisaged work f o r environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n .

Step 2. Based on t h e f i n d i n g s of t h e reconnaissance, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e number and s i z e

of t h e e x i s t i n g mosquito s o u r c e s t o b e d e a l t w i t h , t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l o f f i c e r a t t h e
c e n t r a l o r d i s t r i c t l e v e l should:

- determine ( a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e ) t h e magnitude and t h e complexity of t h e environmental

management work involved; and
- determine whether o r n o t t h e job can be adequately handled by t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l s t a f f .

Step 3. If the job is too large or complex for the vector control staff, refer it to the
appropriate department for action. Follow-up by the vector control service will be
required.
If the job can be handled by the vector control staff or by the community under their
guidance, proceed with land surveying.
2.3

Surveying
Step 1.

Obtain and study the available maps of the area concerned.

Step 2. Determine what additional surveying is required, if any. For simple fillings
or drainage there will be no need for surveying, in most instances. For larger jobs that
can be handled by vector control staff, plane-table surveying, contour levelling and
traverse levelling would probably be sufficient in most situations. Basic surveying
methods are described in section 5 below.
Step 3.
2.4

Organize and carry out the surveying.

Selection of methods

Environmental management measures that have proved useful for vector control have been
given in Chapter I1 and are also mentioned in Annex 2. These methods have been described in
detail in Chapters I11 and IV; however, in these two chapters, in particular in the former,
the emphasis has been largely given to the application of environmental management measures
in water resources development projects for the prevention, reduction or control of vector
breeding. The selection and application of these measures purely for vector control, either
singly or in appropriate combinations, obviously depends on the individual situation; however,
consideration should be given to as many alternative solutions as possible so that a suitable
and effective method of control is found.
Most water accumulations can be eliminated or controlled in several ways; an analysis
should be made to determine whether the particular water body should be drained (or filled)
and reclaimed for agricultural or other productive use, whether it should be converted to a
reservoir or lagoon with improved margins by deepening and filling, or whether the water
should be conserved by diversion to a reservoir at a suitable point. In some instances, a
slight lowering of a swamp's water level can draw off water from the shallow margins and stop
mosquito breeding while the deeper areas can be stocked with larvivorous fish. In other
situations, raising the water level by installing a low dam at the downstream end may flood
the flat shallow margins and strand the mosquito larvae or destroy them by wave action and
predators. The possibility of water level fluctuation should also be investigated. Where
very high flood water conditions occur occasionally, the excess flood flow should be by-passed
through its natural route to protect drains (see subchapter IIIC, section 4). In coastal
situations, the manipulation of water salinity in the swamp may provide the desired control.
Therefore, complete draining or filling of a water body may not be the best solution and
should not invariably be resorted to. The more economical and simpler environmental management works should be given first consideration.
In principle, the selection of a measure (or a combination of measures) for application
the cost/effectiveness of the measure as compared with
in a given situation depends on: (a)
the operational and financial feasibility of the measure; and
alternative measures; (b)
(c)
other considerations, including acceptability to the population, side benefits, and the
extent and importance of other vector and disease control measures applied. The following
basic steps should be followed in this selection process:

Step 1. Based on the findings of the preliminary review and reconnaissance and the
details of the land survey, list the various environmental management measures that alone
(or combined) could provide effective mosquito control.
Step 2.

Study the operational feasibility of each alternative.

Step 3.

Estimate the cost of each alternative.

Step 4.

Study the financial feasibility of each alternative.

S t e ~5.

Assess the effectiveness of each alternative.

Step 6. Compare the cost/effectiveness of each alternative.

Step 7. Examine other advantages (including side benefits) and the disadvantages of each
alternative.
Step 8. Make the selection.

A village pond that breeds mosquitos can be used as an example to illustrate how this
procedure may be applied in selecting an environmental management measure for mosquito control.
The various steps are shown below:
a
Step 1. Possible solutions:- drainage, filling, margin improvement by deepening and
filling plus introduction of larvivorous fish, mosquito proofing, and larviciding. Larviciding
is not an environmental management measure but is included in this example so that its
recurring cost may be compared with the costs of long-term measures.
Step 2. From the survey we know that (a) the pond serves no useful purpose to the local
inhabitants, (b) there is a stream near the village where the pond water can be drained, and
(c) there is also a high spot in the village from which earth can be removed for filling the
pond. Larvivorous fish are available. The houses (about 50) in the village are so constructed that they can readily be screened. Larvicides, sprayers, and labourers are also available
for carrying out larviciding. Therefore, all the five alternatives are technically feasible.
Note that if no suitable outlet is available in the vicinity of the village (or the pond),
the alternative of surface drainage would have to be discarded because it is not operationally
feasible.
Step 3.

(a)

b
Costs for the five alternatives are estimated as follows:-

Drainage:

...............
............

Digging the drainage ditch

Maintenance (no operation cost)
(b)

5200
100/year

Filling:

......................
............

Initial cost
Maintenance (no operation cost).

6400
negligible

- There could be other solutions, but the example given is limited to five alternatives
in order not to complicate the case.
b
These costs are fictitious and are given only as an example.

Deepening and f i l l i n g , p l u s l a r v i v o r o u s f i s h :

.............
..................
.......

Cost f o r deepening and f i l l i n g

I n t r o d u c t i o n of f i s h
Maintenance, i n c l u d i n g v e g e t a t i o n removal

3500
negligible
260/year

Mosquito p r o o f i n g :

............
..............

Screening t h e doors and windows

Maintenance and replacement
Larviciding:

......................
...............

I n i t i a l cost
Recurrent c o s t of l a r v i c i d e s , o p e r a t i o n s , and
replacement of equipment

negligible
1200/year

S t e p 4. F i n a n c i a l f e a s i b i l i t y . An amount of 56500 has been budgeted f o r community

improvement and c a n b e used f o r d r a i n a g e and f i l l i n g purposes. There i s a l s o a budget item of
$1500 p e r y e a r f o r mosquito c o n t r o l . Therefore a l l a l t e r n a t i v e s o t h e r than mosquito proofing
a r e f i n a n c i a l l y f e a s i b l e . The f i n a n c i n g of mosquito p r o o f i n g would depend on t h e w i l l i n g n e s s
and t h e f i n a n c i a l means of t h e home owners, which would r e q u i r e f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
S t e p 5. The r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e f i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s i n v e c t o r c o n t r o l , a s f a r
a s t h i s s o u r c e ( t h e pond) i s concerned, may be r a t e d a s follows:
Drainage: 95%; F i l l i n g : 100%; Deepening and f i l l i n g , p l u s l a r v i v o r o u s f i s h :
Mosquito p r o o f i n g : 80%; L a r v i c i d i n g : 90%.
S t e p 6.

90%;

Comparison of c o s t / e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

Cost comparison of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s can be made on t h e b a s i s of e i t h e r t h e " t o t a l annual

In the
c o s t s " o r t h e " c a p i t a l i z e d costs" , b o t h i n v o l v i n g compound i n t e r e s t computations.
example g i v e n h e r e , t h e comparison i s made o n \ t h e b a s i s of t h e t o t a l annual c o s t s (AC), which
can be expressed a s:

where C i s t h e c a p i t a l c o s t , r t h e i n t e r e s t r a t e , n t h e number of y e a r s d u r i n g which t h e

investment w i l l b e recovered, and OM t h e o p e r a t i o n and maintenance c o s t .
The c o s t comparison of t h e f i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s i s shown i n t h e Table o v e r l e a f , assuming
n = 20 y e a r s and r = 10%. The a m o r t i z a t i o n c o s t i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e formula

Cut & fill

plus
larvivorous Mosquito
Drainage Filling
fish
proofing Larviciding
5200

6400

3500

10 000

520

640

350

1000

Total annual cost (AC) ($)

711

752

671

2175

1200

Effectiveness (%)

95%

100%

90%

80%

90%

AC
Cost/effectiveness ( %effectiveness) (4)

748

752

746

2719

1333

Capital cost ($)

Interest on investment (Cr) ($1
Amortization (
0 & M cost ($)

It is seen from the above comparison that drainage, filling, and cut and filling plus
larvivorous fish have about the same cost/effectiveness; the other two alternatives can be
eliminated on account of cost/effectiveness considerations alone.
Step 7.

Other considerations.

The three promising alternatives can now be compared with respect to other considerations
as follows:

Drainage
Annual costs/% effectiveness
Possible future use of the
pond area

Acceptance by the population

Step 8.

Filling

Cut & fill

plus
larvivorous
fish

$748

Q752

not much use

is foreseen

can be made
a public park,
a recreation area,
or possibly used
for housing

raising fish,
recreation

Preferred

Preferred

OK

$746

Selection of an alternative.

In the light of the above comparison, probably "cut and fill plus larvivorous fish", the
environmental management alternative with the least initial cost, will be selected as the
method to eliminate the mosquito problem. "Filling" will probably be the second choice in
view of its other advantages, though it is slightly less cost/effective than drainage. This
is of course only a simplified example; real field situations are much more complicated. The
possibility of community participation and many other factors that also need to be taken into
consideration in the selection are discussed in Chapter VI.

2.5

D e t a i l e d design and c o n s t r u c t i o n

Once t h e a p p r o p r i a t e environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n measure has been s e l e c t e d , t h e n e x t

a c t i v i t y i s t o p l a n t h e d e t a i l e d d e s i g n of t h e work t o be c a r r i e d o u t . However, f o r very
small jobs (such a s simple d r a i n a g e o r f i l l i n g ) a d e t a i l e d d e s i g n would probably n o t be neede4
and they can be s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h proper o r g a n i z a t i o n . Organization, s u p e r v i s i o n
and t e c h n i c a l support a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y important when t h e work i s t o be performed by t h e
communities themselves o r by v o l u n t a r y l a b o u r e r s provided by t h e communities. For l a r g e r jobs
it may be necessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e amount of earthwork involved o r t o d e s i g n a d r a i n , d i t c h ,
e t c . , b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a r t s . Some h i n t s on t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e mediums i z e d environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n works a r e given i n s e c t i o n 4 below. Large d r a i n a g e schemes
would r e q u i r e complicated h y d r o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s , h y d r a u l i c and s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n of c a n a l s and
a n c i l l a r y s t r u c t u r e s , d e t a i l e d c o s t e s t i m a t e s , and comprehensive c o n s t r u c t i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
and p l a n s . Large- scale l a n d f i l l i n g and grading p r o j e c t s u s u a l l y aim a t balanced c u t and f i l l ,
i n v o l v i n g l a b o r i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n s . The s e r v i c e s of engineers and perhaps power equipment w i l l
be needed f o r such j o b s , and no a t t e m p t i s made t o cover t h e s e s u b j e c t s i n t h i s Manual.
2.6

Operation and maintenance of c o n s t r u c t e d works

For l a r g e - s c a l e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s development p r o j e c t s , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l procedures and

schedules of t h e schemes should b e w e l l thought o u t and c l e a r l y drawn up d u r i n g t h e planning
and d e s i g n s t a g e s . I n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l procedures and s c h e d u l e s , due
c o n s i d e r a t i o n should be given t o t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l requirements and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e
environmental m a n i p u l a t i v e measures. The importance of maintenance cannot be over-emphasized.
S u i t a b l e maintenance programmes should a l s o be c h a r t e d o u t d u r i n g t h e p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n
s t a g e s , and t h e r e q u i r e d f i n a n c e s should be provided f o r i n t h e p r o j e c t ' s r e c u r r e n t budget.
Small drainage and f i l l i n g jobs would r e q u i r e very l i t t l e maintenance.

2.7

Monitoring and follow-up

The impact of t h e c o n t r o l measures on t h e v e c t o r and d i s e a s e s i t u a t i o n should be

continuously monitored. Data such a s v e c t o r d e n s i t i e s ( a d u l t and l a r v a l ) and d i s e a s e i n c i d ences, a s s e l e c t e d by t h e entomologist and t h e e p i d e m i o l o g i s t , may be used a s b a s e s f o r
e v a l u a t i o n . C o r r e c t i v e measures should b e introduced i f t h e e v a l u a t i o n r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t
t h e measures a p p l i e d a r e n o t p r o v i d i n g t h e d e s i r e d c o n t r o l .
3.

Organization of work

3.1

The executing body

Small and simple environmental management jobs can be undertaken by t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l

s t a f f a s p a r t of t h e c o n t r o l programme. Community p a r t i c i p a t i o n must be secured because i t
ensures a c c e p t a b i l i t y and maintenance of t h e works, once completed, and a l s o h e l p s t o reduce
c o s t s . Some of t h e s e jobs can b e c a r r i e d o u t by t h e involved communities themselves, w i t h
t e c h n i c a l and m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t from t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e a s and when r e q u i r e d .
The v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e may be a b l e t o handle c e r t a i n types of l a r g e r - s c a l e work, i f
i t has an adequate q u a l i f i e d s t a f f and i f s u p p o r t i s a v a i l a b l e (when r e q u i r e d ) from o t h e r
departments such a s p u b l i c works, i r r i g a t i o n and d r a i n a g e , e t c . For r e a l l y l a r g e - s c a l e and
complex j o b s , departments o t h e r than v e c t o r c o n t r o l where a l a r g e and experienced engineering
s t a f f e x i s t s would be s u i t a b l e t o t a k e up t h e e x e c u t i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The s e r v i c e s of
c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m s and c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t r a c t o r s a r e a l s o r e s o r t e d t o when t h e s i z e
and n a t u r e of t h e job s o j u s t i f y .
It i s seen t h a t t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e i s d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e only f o r t h e implement a t i o n of small t o medium-scale environmental mnagement jobs. However, f o r t h e s u c c e s s of
v e c t o r c o n t r o l e f f o r t s , i t should p l a y a very a c t i v e promotional and c o o r d i n a t i v e r o l e i n t h e

water r e s o u r c e s development p r o j e c t s t h a t a r e undertaken by o t h e r departments i n o r d e r t o

ensure t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e environmental management measures f o r v e c t o r c o n t r o l a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d
i n t h e s e p r o j e c t s . It must b e borne i n mind t h a t o f t e n l a r g e - s c a l e environmental management
measures can h a r d l y b e j u s t i f i e d on v e c t o r c o n t r o l b e n e f i t s a l o n e . Therefore every a t t e m p t
should be made t o l i n k such measures w i t h an economic a c t i v i t y (e.g., d r a i n a g e o r f i l l i n g f o r
land r e c l a m a t i o n , ponding f o r f i s h c u l t u r e , e t c . ) , s o t h a t t h e s e measures can be j u s t i f i e d on
economic grounds i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l b e n e f i t s , and can be financed by funds other
than the vector control allocations.
3.2

R e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e

A t p r e s e n t , environmental management measures a r e a p p l i e d only on a very l i m i t e d s c a l e i n

a few o p e r a t i n g v e c t o r c o n t r o l programmes. Therefore, t h e experience, e x p e r t i s e , s e r v i c e s and
f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e w i t h e x i s t i n g programmes i n t h e environmental management f i e l d a r e a l s o
very l i m i t e d . The i n t r o d u c t i o n and expansion of t h e s e measures should thus be i n s t a g e s i n
o r d e r t o prevent any undue i n t e r r u p t i o n i n t h e normal running of t h e programme.
The most p r a c t i c a l approach i s t o begin w i t h t h e t r a i n i n g of s t a f f and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n
of p i l o t o p e r a t i o n s t o a s s e s s t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f e a s i b i l i t y , c o s t / e f f e c t i v e n e s s and o t h e r
i m p l i c a t i o n s of applying t h e v a r i o u s environmental management measures a s p a r t of t h e
programme. A t a l a t e r s t a g e , t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e must be s u i t a b l y r e o r i e n t e d towards
the i n t e g r a t e d use of t h e s e measures.
3.2.1

Training of s t a f f

The s t a f f of v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e s need t o b e conversant w i t h t h e v a r i o u s environmental

management methods and w i t h t h e techniques and equipment r e q u i r e d t o apply them s o t h a t they
w i l l be a b l e t o p l a n o p e r a t i o n s i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e s e methods i n an i n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y .
Senior o f f i c i a l s of n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s who w i l l be p o t e n t i a l t r a i n e r s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
c o u n t r i e s should b e n e f i t from i n t e r n a t i o n a l seminars o r workshops on environmental management
f o r v e c t o r c o n t r o l o r on i n t e g r a t e d v e c t o r c o n t r o l . A f t e r such t r a i n i n g , t h e s e persons should
o r g a n i z e n a t i o n a l courses f o r t h e i r own s t a f f . This manual could be used a s an important
r e f e r e n c e document i n b o t h t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l and t h e n a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g courses.
3.2.2

P i l o t operations

P i l o t o p e r a t i o n s should i n v e s t i g a t e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y and i m p l i c a t i o n s of v a r i o u s environmental management methods and t h e i r c o s t / e f f e c t i v e n e s s under d i f f e r e n t f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s , and

develop a p p r o p r i a t e o p e r a t i o n a l procedures and p r a c t i c e s f o r an i n t e g r a t e d f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n
of a l l methods.
I n t h e s e l e c t i o n of s i t e s f o r p i l o t o p e r a t i o n s , p r i o r i t y should be given t o a r e a s where
environmental management measures a r e most needed ( e . g . , a r e a s w i t h v e c t o r r e s i s t a n c e problems,
development p r o j e c t s , and urban s i t u a t i o n s ) , and a r i d a r e a s where t h e s e measures a r e most
cost/effective.
The o p e r a t i o n s should be e x t e n s i v e enough and cover a s l a r g e an a r e a a s
necessary t o allow c o n c l u s i v e assessment of t h e r e s u l t s . They should be p r o p e r l y planned and
implemented; t h e r e l e v a n t procedures, a s suggested i n s e c t i o n 2 of t h i s Chapter, may be found
useful.
A d u r a t i o n of 2-3 y e a r s may be necessary f o r p i l o t o p e r a t i o n s , b u t some p r e l i m i n a r y
r e s u l t s may be a v a i l a b l e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n even a f t e r t h e f i r s t y e a r . ' P i l o t a r e a s can a l s o be
used f o r t h e p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g of s t a f f

3.2.3

Organizational r e o r i e n t a t i o n

The v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e needs t o b e a p p r o p r i a t e l y reorganized i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s new

a c t i v i t i e s , n o t a b l y (a) t h e planning and a p p l i c a t i o n of environmental management measures a s
an i n t e g r a l component of t h e c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y , and (b) t h e maintenance of c l o s e r c o o r d i n a t i o n
and c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r h e a l t h s e c t o r s and w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e , i r r i g a t i o n , p u b l i c works

and o t h e r development p r o j e c t s , It may b e necessary t o c r e a t e a new d i v i s i o n o r s e c t i o n

w i t h i n t h e s e r v i c e t o d e a l w i t h t h i s new a r e a of a c t i v i t i e s , and most of t h e r e t r a i n e d s t a f f
can t h e n be absorbed i n t h i s d i v i s i o n o r s e c t i o n which should be headed, i d e a l l y , by a s a n i t a r y
engineer.
The r e o r i e n t a t i o n should b e very c a r e f u l l y planned and should be implemented i n consonance w i t h t h e g r a d u a l change of emphasis towards t h e environmental management measures t h a t
have longer- term e f f e c t s . The r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e s e r v i c e should a l s o t a k e p l a c e i n t h e
p r o v i n c i a l and f i e l d l e v e l s .
While b u i l d i n g up i t s t e c h n i c a l c a p a b i l i t y , t h e v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e should a l s o
g r a d u a l l y b u i l d up i t s s t o c k of equipment f o r c a r r y i n g o u t simple environmental management
works and f o r t h e i r maintenance.
A p p l i c a t i o n of environmental management measures i n new programmes
I n new v e c t o r c o n t r o l programmes, environmental management should b e taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a
t i o n from t h e beginning of surveys and planning and a t t h e time of f o r m u l a t i n g an i n t e g r a t e d
c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y . During reconnaissance s u r v e y s , a t t e n t i o n should be given t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s u i t a b l e a r e a s f o r environmental management o p e r a t i o n s . Data on topography, hydrology
and geology should b e c o l l e c t e d a l o n g w i t h epidemiological and entomological i n f o r m a t i o n , t o
allow t h e planning of environmental management measures a s p a r t of t h e c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y ( s e e
s e c t i o n 2 of t h i s Chapter). The v e c t o r c o n t r o l s e r v i c e t o be e s t a b l i s h e d should i n c l u d e a
s u i t a b l y s t a f f e d u n i t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r environmental management.
Normally, vector- borne d i s e a s e c o n t r o l programmes aim a t an i n i t i a l s h a r p r e d u c t i o n i n
d i s e a s e p r e v a l e n c e and t r a n s m i s s i o n . This can be achieved through t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of i n s e c t i c i d e s , o r through chemotherapy, b o t h of which have t h e advantage of producing q u i c k r e s u l t s .
It i s t h e r e f o r e r e a s o n a b l e t h a t r e l i a n c e should be placed on such measures d u r i n g t h e e a r l y
s t a g e s of a c o n t r o l programme, and t h e environmental management methods should g r a d u a l l y be
allowed t o t a k e o v e r t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n and maintenance of t h e g a i n s i n t h e following y e a r s .
It must b e noted t h a t t h e environmental m o d i f i c a t i o n measures u s u a l l y t a k e time t o be
It may be necessary t o i n t r o d u c e t h e s e measures
implemented and need s p e c i a l i z e d e x p e r t i s e .
a t t h e beginning of t h e programme, s o t h a t they w i l l become e f f e c t i v e i n due time.
3.4

Community p a r t i c i p a t i o n

It i s recognized t h a t i n t h e implementation and maintenance of environmental management

works f o r v e c t o r c o n t r o l much can b e achieved through community p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Ef f o r t s t o
e n l i s t t h e c o o p e r a t i o n and p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e people a r e u n l i k e l y t o b e e f f e c t i v e , however,
u n l e s s t h e proposed a c t i o n s a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i r r e a l needs and concerns.

The needs of a community u s u a l l y cover s e v e r a l s e c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g h e a l t h , and t h e

It h a s been observed t h a t t h e g e n e r a l populap r i o r i t i e s vary from one community t o another.
t i o n i s a p p r e c i a t i v e of t h e i n t e g r a t e d approach of primary h e a l t h c a r e , i n which vector- borne
d i s e a s e c o n t r o l i s a n e s s e n t i a l element i n combination w i t h o t h e r h e a l t h and s o c i a l s e r v i c e s .
The following s t e p s may b e suggested f o r promoting community p a r t i c i p a t i o n :
( a ) Carry o u t surveys ( i ) t o study t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e p o p u l a t i o n towards h e a l t h and d i s e a s e
i n g e n e r a l and towards vector- borne d i s e a s e c o n t r o l i n p a r t i c u l a r , ( i i ) t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n
on t h e e x i s t i n g community i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and community l e a d e r s , and ( i i i ) t o i d e n t i f y t h e
p r i o r i t y h e a l t h needs of t h e community.
(b) Design t h e t e c h n i c a l programme t o meet t h e r e a l needs and concerns of t h e people, and
t r a n s l a t e i t i n t o terms which make s e n s e and a r e w i t h i n t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e popuLation f o r
implementation.

(c) Jointly with the community leaders, prepare a practical plan of action, specifying in
detail what is to be done by the population, and in what way it is to be done, taking into
account the existing comunity infrastructure.
(d) Work out a plan for the provision of incentives, if desirable and feasible.
(e) Jointly with the community leaders, educate the population by informing them of the plan,
convincing them of its relevance to their needs and ensuring their active participation.
Help the community to organize and implement the planned activities, and follow up and
(f)
maintain the spirit of community participation.
It
only if
action,
willing

3.5

should be borne in mind that a programme involving community participation can succeed
the population concerned are sufficiently well prepared so that they will demand
they are ready to take part in or even carry out the work by themselves, and they are
to preserve the gains achieved through the action taken by proper maintenance.

a
Primary health c a r e

Primary health care (PHC) is a system designed to attack community health problems
through promotive, preventive, curative and rehabilitative actions, as required. The PHC
approach forms an integral part of the country's health care system (of which it is the keystone), and of the overall social and economic development of the nation and the community.
Vector-borne disease control is one of the functions of primary health care and environmental management measures for vector control are practicable at comunity level by the
community members. The vector control programme should therefore take all possible steps to
ensure the integration in primary health care activities of environmental management measures
for vector control.
4.

Design and construction hints

4.1

Calculation of earthwork for filling

For very small filling jobs, it may not be necessary to estimate the amount of earthwork
involved. For medium-sized jobs, an approximate estimation of the quantity of the filling
material required is useful. For large-scale jobs, greater accuracy and more extensive land
measurement will be required.
In theory, the following formula gives the volume of fill:
V = Adm
3

where V is the volume of the depression to be filled (m ),

2

A is the surface area of the pond (m ), and

dm is the mean depth of the pond (m).
To apply the above formula, the surface area and the mean depth of the depression will
need to be known. As all natural land depressions are of irregular shapes and depths, the
difficulty in determining these two measurements, in particular the latter, to a high degree
of accuracy is obvious. Methods for obtaining approximate values for small to medium-sized
jobs are described in sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 below.
a
See also: Alma-Ata 1978. Primary health care. Geneva, World Health Organization,
1978 ("Health for All" Series, No. 1).

The a c t u a l volume of e a r t h r e q u i r e d f o r
t h a t c a l c u l a t e d s i n c e allowance must b e made
may be assumed t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y of m a t e r i a l
c a l c u l a t e d volume ( f o r coarse- textured sandy
4.1.1

f i l l i n g t h e land d e p r e s s i o n w i l l b e more t h a n
f o r subsidence, s h r i n k a g e and compaction. It
a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e d w i l l vary from 1.1 times t h e
s o i l ) t o 1.4 times ( f o r f i n e - t e x t u r e d clay- loam).

Determination of t h e a r e a of t h e top s u r f a c e of a land d e p r e s s i o n

(a) I n t h e c a s e of a s m a l l , rounded o r egg-shaped pond, two f i e l d measurements w i l l be

s u f f i c i e n t f o r determining i t s a r e a w i t h adequate accuracy: one on i t s major a x i s o r t h e
l o n g e s t p o s s i b l e measure, a , and t h e second a t r i g h t a n g l e s a t t h e w i d e s t s e c t i o n , b ( s e e
Fig. VII- 1). The pond should b e s m a l l , say 20-25 m i n l e n g t h , s o t h a t i t can b e t r a v e r s e d by
a measuring t a p e w i t h o u t e x c e s s i v e sagging.
The s u r f a c e a r e a (A) may b e c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e following formula:

A = $

n ab

WHO 811087

Fig. V I I - 1 .

Measurements f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of a
small pond. The a r e a w i l l be c l o s e t o $ .n. ab.

(b) I n t h e c a s e of a n i r r e g u l a r pond, t h e following a r e t h e s t e p s t o t a k e t h e f i e l d measurements and t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s u r f a c e a r e a :

F i e l d measurements
S t e p 1.
polygon.

Mark a r e c t a n g l e t h a t e n c l o s e s t h e pond which i s considered a s an i r r e g u l a r

The marking of t h e r e c t a n g l e on t h e ground i s u s u a l l y made by d r i v i n g s t a k e s a t t h e

c o r n e r s and, i f n e c e s s a r y , a t i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s . A t i g h t l y s t r e t c h e d cord t i e d t o t h e
s t a k e s forms t h e s i d e s of t h e r e c t a n g l e . Provided t h a t t h e a n g l e s a t t h e c o r n e r s a r e r i g h t
a n g l e s (90) and t h e p a r a l l e l s i d e s a r e e q u a l , t h e d i r e c t i o n , l o c a t i o n and l e n g t h of t h e s i d e s
a r e a r b i t r a r y ; i n t h i s way, t h e most convenient ground ( f l a t and unobstructed) can be chosen
f o r the rectangle.
Step 2. Measure t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i s t a n c e ( o r t h e s h o r t e s t d i s t a n c e ) from each v e r t e x
( o r c o r n e r ) of t h e i r r e g u l a r polygon t o t h e n e a r e s t s i d e of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d r e c t a n g l e . A
simple method f o r marking o u t r i g h t a n g l e s i s d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 4.1.1.1 below.
A l l measurements a r e taken e i t h e r a l o n g o r a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e s i d e s of t h e r e c t a n g l e .
I n most c a s e s t h e two l o n g e r s i d e s of t h e r e c t a n g l e a r e used, b u t when d i s t a n c e s from t h e
pond p e r i p h e r y t o t h e s e s i d e s i s too l o n g , t h e two s h o r t e r s i d e s can b e used l i k e w i s e . I f
t h e ground i s t h i c k l y covered w i t h v e g e t a t i o n , i t should be c l e a r e d beforehand.
Step 3.

Keep a r e c o r d of t h e measurements, supplemented by a s k e t c h .

Fig. VII-2 shows t h e measurements needed f o r p l o t t i n g t h e o u t l i n e of an i r r e g u l a r pond.

From t h e v e r t i c e s , o r p o i n t s where t h e p e r i m e t e r changes d i r e c t i o n a b r u p t l y (A, B, C , e t c . ) ,
p e r p e n d i c u l a r s a r e marked o u t t o t h e n e a r e s t s i d e of t h e r e c t a n g l e and t h e i r l e n g t h s a r e
The d i s t a n c e s between t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r l i n e s (al, b l , c l , e t c . )
measured ( a 2 , b 2 , c 2 , e t c . ) .
a r e measured a t t h e same time. I n p r a c t i c e i t i s e a s i e r , and t h e r i s k of e r r o r i s l e s s , i f
t h e measurements along t h e s i d e of t h e r e c t a n g l e a r e taken w i t h t h e zero mark of t h e t a p e

f i x e d a t t h e c o r n e r s t a k e , s o t h a t t h e measured d i s t a n c e s a r e a l , (al+bl), (al+bl+cl), e t c .

These two s e t s of measurements form what i s known i n geometry a s a system of r e c t a n g u l a r
coord i n a t e s , and they a r e used i n p l o t t i n g t h e o u t l i n e of t h e pond on paper.

The actual
boundary
of the pond

'The inscriber,
irregular
~olygon

F i g . VII-2.

Measurements needed f o r p l o t t i n g t h e o u t l i n e of
a n i r r e g u l a r pond.

The measurement of t h e p e r i m e t e r of t h e pond from v e r t e x t o v e r t e x (AB, BC, CD, e t c . )

w i l l provide a means f o r checking t h e accuracy of t h e o t h e r measurements, when t h e s e a r e
p l o t t e d on paper.
The measurements a r e u s u a l l y taken w i t h a s t e e l o r c l o t h measuring t a p e , 30 t o 50 m long.
A p a i r of s t r a i g h t r o d s o r s t a f f s , about 2 m long w i t h a p o i n t e d end, a r e used t o a l i g n
t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s . These rods can a l s o be used f o r reaching muddy edges i f t h e end- ring
of t h e t a p e can b e hooked t o a screw a t t h e end of t h e rod. L i g h t w e i g h t p i p e s a l s o make good
measuring r o d s . Stakes used f o r marking t h e r e c t a n g u l a r frame should be about 5 X 5 cm i n
c r o s s - s e c t i o n , s t r a i g h t , and l o n g enough t o be e a s i l y v i s i b l e ; t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n e c e s s a r y
i n ground t h a t i s covered w i t h h i g h g r a s s .

C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e a r e a
Step 1.

P l o t t o s c a l e t h e o u t l i n e of t h e pond on paper.

The drawing of t h e shape of t h e pond on paper i s done by f i r s t p l o t t i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s

of each p o i n t ( o r v e r t e x ) on a s u i t a b l e s c a l e w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o two p e r p e n d i c u l a r l i n e s o r
axes drawn on t h e paper. Then connect t h e a d j a c e n t p o i n t s and t h e r e s u l t i n g polygon w i l l
r e p r e s e n t t h e pond. The measured d i s t a n c e s of t h e s i d e s of t h e polygon (AB, BC, CD, e t c . ) can
now be used t o check t h e accuracy. Should any g r o s s d i s c r e p a n ci e s be found, b o t h t h e paper
p l o t t i n g and t h e f i e l d measurements should b e reviewed i n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r t h e mistakes.
S t e p 2.

Calculate the area.

Once t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e pond i s drawn on p a p e r , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e a r e a

enclosed by t h e polygon i n s e v e r a l ways. One method i s t o d i v i d e t h e polygon i n t o t r i a n g l e s
and t o c a l c u l a t e t h e a r e a s of t h e t r i a n g l e s by u s i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e formula. An i l l u s t r a t i v e

example of t h i s method i s given below.

books on surveying.
Example:

a
D e s c r i p t i o n s of o t h e r methods- may b e found i n t e x t

C a l c u l a t e t h e a r e a o f t h e polygon a s shown i n F i g . VII-2

by d i v i d i n g it i n t o t r i a n g l e s .

(1)

Divide t h e polygon i n t o t r i a n g l e s ( s e e Fig. VII- 3).

(2)

Using a s i d e o f t h e polygon a s b a s e , draw t h e h e i g h t of each t r i a n g l e .

(3)

Measure t h e h e i g h t s of t h e t r i a n g l e s from t h e drawing.

(4)

C a l c u l a t e t h e a r e a s of t h e t r i a n g l e s u s i n g t h e following formula:-

A = kbh, where A i s t h e a r e a , b t h e b a s e , and h t h e h e i g h t .

(5)

Add up t h e a r e a s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l t r i a n g l e s t o o b t a i n t h e a r e a of t h e polygon.

..

WHO 611069

---

----

Sides of polygon, actually measured in the field.

Supplementary sides of triangles.
Heights(h) of triangles, measured from drawing.

Area of a t r i a n g l e A = kbh, where b i s t h e b a s e and h i s t h e h e i g h t .

etc.
A1 = Area of T r i a n g l e (i); A2 = Area of T r i a n g l e
2
2
A5 = 4 6.50 m X 4.00 m = 13.00 m2
A = k 3.35 m X 2.70 m = 4.52 m2
1
A6 = 4 2.55 m X 4.30 m = 5.48 m2
A = % 5.35 m X 2.90 m = 7.76 m
2
2
A7 = 4 3.90 m X 3.30 m = 6.44 m2
A = 5 4.85 m X 4.75 m = 11.52 m2
3
A = 4 2.90 m X 5.75 m = 8.34 m
A +A +A +
+A7 = 57.06 m
4
1 2 3
Area of t h e polygon = A +A +
+A7 = 57.06 m
1 2

0;

........

........

Fig. VII-3.

C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e a r e a of an i r r e g u l a r polygon by d i v i d i n g i t
into triangles.

a
- O t h e r methods i n c l u d e : (a) d i v i d i n g t h e polygon i n t o s t r i p s of equal w i d t h and
(b) c a l c u l a t i n g
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a r e a u s i n g e i t h e r "the t r a p e z o i d a l r u l e " o r 'lSimpson's r u l e " ;
t h e a r e a by u s i n g c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e v e r t i c e s ; (c) measuring t h e a r e a from t h e drawing u s i n g
a planimeter.
b
Another formula f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e a r e a of a t r i a n g l e
where a , b and c

a r e t h e t h r e e s i d e s of t h e t r i a n g l e and

A i s A = Js(s-a)(s-b)(s-C)

%(a+b+c).

Marking o u t r i g h t a n g l e s on t h e ground
To t a k e f i e l d measurements f o r determining t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of a pond ( s e e above), i t may
b e necessary t o s e t o u t a p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a l i n e from a p o i n t o u t s i d e i t . l b o simple means
f o r a c h i e v i n g t h i s a r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e ( s e e Fig. VII-4).
A cord is t i e d t o form a loop of 3 . 6 m; t h r e e markers a r e f i x e d s o a s t o d i v i d e t h e loop
i n t o t h r e e p o r t i o n s of 0.9 m, 1 . 2 m and 1 . 5 m which correspond t o t h e two s i d e s and hypotenuse
of a right- angled t r i a n g l e . The markers could b e k n o t s , coloured c o t t o n o r r i n g s f i r m l y
secured; small r i n g s have t h e advantage of producing s h a r p a n g l e s when p u l l e d t o s t r e t c h t h e
cord. To s e t o u t a p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a l i n e from a p o i n t o u t s i d e i t , a cord i s t i e d t o a peg
a t t h e p o i n t and s t r e t c h e d towards t h e l i n e . One of t h e s i d e s of t h e t r i a n g u l a r loop i s made
t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e cord from t h e o u t s i d e p o i n t and t h i s cord i s swung sideways u n t i l t h e
o t h e r s i d e of t h e t r i a n g u l a r loop c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e l i n e .
Another method of marking o u t a p e r p e n d i c u l a r i s t o s t r e t c h a cord from t h e o u t s i d e p o i n t
and mark t h e two p o i n t s where i t i n t e r s e c t s t h e l i n e . The p e r p e n d i c u l a r w i l l pass by t h e midp o i n t between t h e two marks on t h e l i n e ( s e e F i g . VII- 4).

The point

The point

Triangular
loop \

WHO 811090

Fig. VII-4.

4.1.2

f
Procedures f o r marking o u t a p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a l i n e .

Determination of t h e mean depth of a l a n d d e p r e s s i o n

F i e l d measurement of t h e depths a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s i n t h e land d e p r e s s i o n i s

n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o determine t h e mean depth. Given t h e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s of n a t u r a l depress i o n s , i t is obviously d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n an a c c u r a t e f i g u r e . I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e l a r g e r t h e
number of f i e l d measurements, t h e g r e a t e r t h e accuracy w i l l be.
I t i s suggested t h a t f o r t h e f i e l d measurement of t h e d e p t h s , two p e r p e n d i c u l a r axes
should f i r s t b e e s t a b l i s h e d , one i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e l e n g t h of t h e d e p r e s s i o n and t h e
o t h e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e width.
I d e a l l y , t h e axes should c r o s s t h e d e e p e s t a r e a s of t h e
d e p r e s s i o n . The depths w i l l b e measured along t h e axes a t s u i t a b l e i n t e r v a l s , depending on
t h e d e g r e e of accuracy r e q u i r e d ( s e e F i g . VII- 5). A d d i t i o n a l measurements may be made a t
random i f d e s i r e d .

at 1 m intervals
axis

WHO 811091

axis

0 Depth measurements along long and short axes

Depth measurements at random

Mean depth =

Sum of depth measurements

Number of measurements

Fig. VII-5.

Field measurements of depths of a land depression.

In case the land depression has distinct sections of different depths, the depression
should be divided into shallow and deeper parts for the calculation of surface area, mean
depth and volume. This is illustrated in Fig. VII-6.

Part 2

PLAN

SECTION A

Fig. VII-6.

-A

A l a n d d e p r e s s i o n having d i s t i n c t s e c t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t depths
should b e d i v i d e d i n t o s e p a r a t e p a r t s i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of
s u r f a c e a r e a , mean depth and volume.

f t h e d e p r e s s i o n i s n o t f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r , t h e depth can be determined by l e v e l l i n g ( s e e

s e c t i o n 5.2 below). I n t h e c a s e of a pond, soundings w i l l be needed t o determine t h e d e p t h s .

4.2

V e l o c i t y of flow i n open channels

Perhaps t h e most f r e q u e n t r e q u e s t put forward by h e a l t h o f f i c i a l s t o e n g i n e e r s and

d e s i g n e r s of i r r i g a t i o n systems i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e water v e l o c i t y i n c a n a l s and d r a i n s . This
m a t t e r i s c r u c i a l a s on i t p r i m a r i l y depends whether t h e m a l a r i a mosquito can l a y eggs o r t h e
s c h i s t o s o m i a s i s s n a i l can s e t t l e and m u l t i p l y .
The w a t e r v e l o c i t y i n open c a n a l s depends on t h r e e f a c t o r s : t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t , t h e
geometry of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n , and t h e roughness ( o r smoothness) of t h e channel s u r f a c e .
The h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t (S) i s t h e l o s s of energy p e r u n i t l e n g t h a s t h e water flows i n
open o r closed c o n d u i t s . I n c a n a l s i t corresponds t o t h e s l o p e of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e moving
water, which i s roughly t h e same a s t h e s l o p e of t h e c a n a l bed when measured between two
d i s t a n t points.
a
- F o r sounding i n a small pond, t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e i s used a s a r e f e r e n c e . A rope w i t h
knots t o mark t h e metres and coloured g r a d u a t i o n s a t 10 cm i n t e r v a l s can be used t o measure
t h e w a t e r depths a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s of t h e pond. The water depths must f i r s t be a d j u s t e d t o
t h e f i n a l ground l e v e l o f f i l l i n g t o c a l c u l a t e t h e earthwork r e q u i r e d .

The geometry o f t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n i s expressed by t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s (R), a l s o known a s

t h e h y d r a u l i c mean d e p t h , which i s t h e r a t i o of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a (A) t o t h e wetted
Fig. VII-7 i l l u s t r a t e s how t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s changes f o r c a n a l s of t h e
p e r i m e t e r (W.P.).
same c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a b u t w i t h d i f f e r e n t geometry (shape) of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n .

RECTANGULAR SECTION

W.P.

RECTANGULAR SECTION

W.P.

= 1 + 1 + 2 = 4 m

TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION

WHO 81 1093

SEMlCl RCULAR SECTION

A =

W.P. = 1.414
,
l

F i g . VII-7.

2 + 1 = 3.828 m

= 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 m

IT X

1.128

W.P. = a
R=-=
3.544

2
2 = 2 m

1.128 = 3.544 m
0.5641~1

Values of h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s f o r c a n a l s of t h e same c r o s s - s e c t i o n
but w i t h d i f f e r e n t h y d r a u l i c shape.

The roughness of t h e channel s u r f a c e i n f l u e n c e s water v e l o c i t i e s because of t h e r e s i s t a m

i t p r e s e n t s t o t h e flow. It depends on t h e n a t u r e of t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t forms o r l i n e s t h e
channel a s w e l l a s t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e channel. It i s u s u a l l y expressed i n terms of a
c o e f f i c i e n t , which i s c a l l e d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of roughness (n). Obviously an u n l i n e d e a r t h
c a n a l has g r e a t e r roughness, i . e . , a h i g h e r n v a l u e , t h a n a c o n c r e t e - l i n e d c a n a l , e s p e c i a l l y
when t h e former i s i n f e s t e d w i t h v e g e t a t i o n growth.

S e v e r a l formulas have been devised t o e x p r e s s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e v e l o c i t y of

flow i n an open channel and t h e t h r e e i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s d e s c r i b e d above. The Manning formula
i s commonly used and i s p r e s e n t e d below f o r easy r e f e r e n c e :

where

V = mean v e l o c i t y (m/sec)
R = h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s (m) = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of water
prism d i v i d e d by wetted p e r i m e t e r

S = hydraulic gradient
n = c o e f f i c i e n t of roughness; v a l u e s of n f o r d i f f e r e n t
channel l i n i n g s a r e shown i n Table V I I - 1 .

Graphical s o l u t i o n s of Manning's formula can be o b t a i n e d by t h e use of a nomograph a s

shown i n F i g . VII-8.
Once t h e mean v e l o c i t y (V) i s o b t a i n e d , t h e r a t e of d i s c h a r g e o r t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y
of t h e c a n a l (Q i n m 3 /sec) can b e c a l c u l a t e d from t h e formula Q = AV, where A i s t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h e c a n a l i n m 2 .
As can be seen from Manning's formula, t h e r e a r e t h r e e ways t o i n c r e a s e t h e mean v e l o c i t y
i n an open channel: by reducing t h e roughness, by i n c r e a s i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s , o r by
increasing the hydraulic gradient.

As regards h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s , t h e most e f f i c i e n t of a l l p o s s i b l e h y d r a u l i c shapes of a

canal s e c t i o n i s a s e m i c i r c l e , open a t t h e top and flowing f u l l . The b e s t polygonal s e c t i o n
i s one circumscribed about a s e m i c i r c l e ; t h e g r e a t e r t h e number of s i d e s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e
e f f i c i e n c y . Hydraulic e f f i c i e n c y i s of importance c h i e f l y a s a means of reducing t h e s i z e and
t h e c o s t of t h e waterway f o r a given c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y on a given s l o p e . However, t h i s
t h e o r e t i c a l approach o f t e n c o n f l i c t s w i t h p r a c t i c a l f a c t o r s t h a t have a g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e on
c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s , n o t a b l y t h e e a s i n e s s and convenience of working.
The h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t of a canal depends on t h e topography of t h e l a n d , and t h e r e f o r e
i t s manipulation i s s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s . F i r s t , many l a r g e i r r i g a ted p l a i n s a r e r a t h e r f l a t , thus o f f e r i n g l i t t l e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r manoeuvring. Secondly, t h e
d e s i g n engineer i s i n t e r e s t e d i n keeping t h e w a t e r a t t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e e l e v a t i o n s o a s t o
command t h e l a r g e s t a r e a f o r i r r i g a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e l o c a t e s t h e c a n a l s along t h e h i g h e s t
t e r r a i n and g i v e s them t h e minimum s l o p e t h a t i s compatible w i t h t h e p r e v e n t i o n of s i l t
d e p o s i t i o n . It must a l s o b e noted t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y v a r i e s w i t h t h e s q u a r e r o o t of t h e s l o p e ;
t h i s means t h a t doubling t h e s l o p e w i l l only r e s u l t i n a 41% i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y .
It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e p r a c t i c a l way t o i n c r e a s e t h e flow v e l o c i t y i s t o reduce t h e roughness of t h e canal s u r f a c e . This can be r e a d i l y achieved by c a n a l l i n i n g . Lined c a n a l s w i l l
n o t only i n c r e a s e t h e v e l o c i t y b u t w i l l a l s o t o l e r a t e a h i g h e r v e l o c i t y . Canal l i n i n g has
been d e a l t w i t h i n s e c t i o n 6 of subchapter I I I B .

--. . .

. . Mannmg's
. . . .

Table VII-1.

coerrlclenc

01

roughness (n) for unlined and lined canals.

Surface conditions

Value of n

Surface conditions

Unlined canals

Lined canals (cont'd)

Smooth natural earth canals, free from

weed growth, little curvature . . . .

SOIL-CEMENT

Small canals in good condition

. . . .

Earth canals with considerable aquatic

weed growth . . . . . . . . .
Earth cana!s with thick aquatic weed
growth . . . . . . . . . . .
Rock canals - main canals

. . . .
. . . .

small canals

smooth and uniform

jagged and irregular

.
.

. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .

well-finishea

--

rough

C EMENT M O RT AR (hand finished)

. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .

--

normal

..

maximum

SHOTCRETE (Gunitc)
-

normal

. . . . . . . . . . .

maximum

Lined canals
CEMENT
-

PRECAST
CONCRETE

BLOCKS

(slabs)

. .

. .
. . . .

exceptionally good finish (rare)

well-finished for straight canal reaches

- worldwide adopted value for wellfinished linings

-

. . . . . . . . . .

CONCRETE

- very well-finished linings .

-

Value of n

. . . . . . . .

BRICK

. . .

brickwork in cement mortar

exposed brick surface (design figure)

--

exposed brick surface (actual measured value) . . . . . . . . .

worldwide adopted value for average finished linings . . . . . . .

- widely adopted value for poor finish

or for curved reaches (France) .

. .

poorly finished, badly maintained

canals . . . . . . . . . . .

ASPHALTIC

CONCRETE

machine placed

--

smooth

rough

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .

EXPOSED
RIALS

PREFABRICATED ASPHALT MATE-

. . . . . . . . . . .

B URIED

MEMB R A N E A N D C O MP A C TED EARTH

LINING

--

small canals

. . . . . . . . .

large canals

. . . . . . .

- 195
F i g . QII- 8.

Nomograph f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e Manning formula

(metric u n i t s )

70 OOC
60 OOC
moo(
400M
moo(
2000(

10 000
W C
800C
700(
600(
50oc
400C

30X

ZOOS

ImO.
900
800
70C
600

SOC
400

m
200

10090
80
70
60

50
40

30
20

'

/'
10-

4.3
4.3.1

Drainage d i t c h e s
General h i n t s

Ditches dug by hand up t o 40-50 cm depth may b e a s narrow a s 25-30 cm. However, should
a g r e a t e r depth b e needed, t h e width of t h e d i t c h w i l l a l s o have t o be i n c r e a s e d . This
i n c r e a s e i s t o provide s u f f i c i e n t shoulder room f o r t h e l a b o u r e r , a s he w i l l have t o s t a n d on
t h e bottom of t h e t r e n c h t o work. A f l a t bed of 50 cm width may make i t p o s s i b l e f o r d i g g i n g
t o about l m depth. Thus, f o r small d r a i n a g e j o b s , t h e s i z e of t h e d i t c h i s determined more
by t h e s i z e of t h e d i g g e r than t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y r e q u i r e d of t h e d i t c h .
I n m a l a r i a c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s , i t i s f r e q u e n t l y d e s i r a b l e t o use a d i t c h w i t h a narrow
bottom w i d t h o r a V c r o s s - s e c t i o n , s o t h a t d u r i n g low flow p e r i o d s t h e flow w i l l c o n t i n u e
w i t h i n t h e narrow c r o s s - s e c t i o n without becoming a meandering channel a t t h e bottom where
mosquitos could breed. However, f o r l a r g e - s c a l e d r a i n a g e p r o j e c t s , t h e d i t c h e s u s u a l l y have
a bottom width equal t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n t h e depth. This i s p r i m a r i l y based on c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
of h y d r a u l i c e f f i c i e n c y ( s e e s e c t i o n 4.2 above). Two t y p i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n s of d r a i n a g e
d i t c h e s a r e shown i n Fig. VII-9.

Fig. VII-9.

Two t y p i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n s
of d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s .

VEE SHAPED

Spread spdil

Slow awav
from ditch

Low levee
Water surface

type of soil
Provision shall be made to prevent water
from ponding behind spoil banks

TRAPEZOIDAL
Slope top of spoil
Shaped spoil away from ditch
Minimum side (alte
Side slope-angle
of repose 3:1 max

Spread
spoil

Bottom width
as required

The s i d e s l o p e of a d i t c h depends l a r g e l y on t h e type of s o i l involved. F i n e g r a i n e d

s o i l s , such a s c l a y , w i l l t o l e r a t e a much s t e e p e r s l o p e than t h e c o a r s e r t e x t u r e d s o i l s . Even
f o r c l a y , a s i d e s l o p e s t e e p e r t h a n 1:l i s n o t recommended (except f o r v e r y s m a l l d i t c h e s )
because of t h e tendency of a d i t c h bank t o " s l i d e i n " o r "cave-in" a f t e r becoming wet. I n
c o a r s e r t e x t u r e d s o i l s a 2:l s l o p e may be a d v i s a b l e , and very sandy s o i l s may r e q u i r e s l o p e s
of 3 : l .
The grade (or g r a d i e n t ) of a d i t c h i s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t d i c t a t e d by l o c a l topographic
c o n d i t i o n s , i . e . , t h e a v a i l a b l e f a l l ( d i f f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n ) and t h e g e n e r a l ground s l o p e
i n t h e a r e a concerned. The grades used f o r d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s range from 0.0005 t o 0.006,
i . e . , 0.5 m t o 6 m f a l l per 1000 m l e n g t h .
The flow v e l o c i t y i n a d r a i n a g e d i t c h i s u s u a l l y designed t o avoid e i t h e r undue e r o s i o n
o r e x c e s s i v e s i l t i n g . It t h e r e f o r e depends l a r g e l y on t h e s o i l t e x t u r e i f u n l i n e d , o r on t h e
type and m a t e r i a l of l i n i n g i f l i n e d . Very s o f t s o i l o r sand may erode w i t h v e l o c i t i e s l e s s
t h a n 0.3 m/sec, w h i l e f i r m s o i l s may t o l e r a t e v e l o c i t i e s of 1.5 m/sec. Under average
m/sec have proved t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y ( s e e Table VII-2).
c o n d i t i o n s , v e l o c i t i e s of 0.3-0.9
A s t h e flow v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d . b y t h e d i t c h g r a d i e n t , i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o
o b t a i n a reasonably h i g h d i t c h v e l o c i t y i n f l a t land. Where t h e d e s i r e d f a l l i s n o t a v a i l a b l e ,

t h e flow w i l l be s l u g g i s h , and s i l t i n g and t h e growth of a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n w i l l u s u a l l y be

i n c r e a s e d , thereby r e q u i r i n g more maintenance.

Table VII-2.

Maximum v e l o c i t i e s t h a t a r e s a f e a g a i n s t e r o s i o n

Type of s o i l

Mean v e l o c i t y
(mlsec)

Very f i n e l o o s e sand

0.23-0.30

F i n e l o o s e sand

0.30-0.45

Coarse sand o r l i g h t sandy s o i l

0.45-0.60

Average sandy s o i l

0.60-0.75

Sandy loam

0.75-0.85

Average loam, a l l u v i a l s o i l ,
volcanic ash

0.85-0.90

Firm loam, c l a y loam

0.90-1.15

S t i f f c l a y s o i l , ordinary
gravel s o i l
Coarse g r a v e l , c o b b l e s , s h i n g l e s

1.50-1.85

Conglomerates, cemented g r a v e l ,
s o f t s l a t e , tough hard- pan, s o f t
sedimentary rock

1.85-2.45

Hard r o c k

3.00-4.50

I n s t e e p t e r r a i n , "drop s t r u c t u r e s " w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o d i s s i p a t e t h e energy due t o t h e

flow and t o avoid having a d i t c h grade r e s u l t i n g i n v e l o c i t i e s above t h e s a f e l i m i t f o r t h e
l o c a l s o i l s t h a t would cause e r o s i o n , c o l l a p s e of t h e banks, s c o u r i n g of t h e bed and o t h e r
damage.
For t h e d r a i n a g e of l a r g e a r e a s , t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of a d i t c h i s determined on t h e
b a s i s of t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y r e q u i r e d and t h e flow v e l o c i t y . The l a t t e r , i n t u r n , depends
on t h e g r a d i e n t a v a i l a b l e . The shape and dimensions of t h e d i t c h c r o s s - s e c t i o n a r e u s u a l l y
f i x e d by t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e d e s i r e d s i d e s l o p e , t h e h y d r a u l i c e f f i c i e n c y , and t h e
convenience f o r work. Examples showing t h e procedures f o r d e s i g n i n g d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s a r e
given i n s e c t i o n 4.3.2 below.
To f a c i l i t a t e excavation, s t a k e s about 1 m long a r e placed a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s of about
30 m a l o n g t h e proposed alignment t o mark t h e c e n t r e l i n e of t h e d i t c h . E l e v a t i o n s of t h e
d i t c h bed a t each s t a k e a r e computed and t h e s t a k e s a r e marked t o i n d i c a t e t h e c o n s t a n t h e i g h t
above t h e d i t c h bed. The e q u a l l y spaced s t a k e s can a l s o be used f o r work d i s t r i b u t i o n , s o
t h a t each l a b o u r e r g e t s an equal t a s k . I n s h o r t d i t c h e s , 50-100 m long, t h e s e s t a k e s a r e
enough f o r guiding t h e e x c a v a t i o n of t h e d i t c h ; f o r longer d i t c h e s t h e u s e of frames, a s
explained i n s u b c h a p t e r I I I E , s e c t i o n 5 , i s i n d i c a t e d .

Before t h e d i t c h i s excavated, a s t r i p of land about 2 m wider than t h e top width of the

d i t c h should b e c l e a r e d of t h i c k v e g e t a t i o n , rocks and o t h e r o b s t a c l e s .
It
shallow
depth.
observe

i s a good p r a c t i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when employing u n s k i l l e d people, t o f i r s t d i g a

t r e n c h , check t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e s l o p e and then proceed t o t h e d e f i n i t i v e d i t c h
A way t o check t h e uniformity of t h e s l o p e i s t o pour i n a few buckets of water and
i f i t r u n s evenly along t h e whole d i t c h .

So t h a t t h e l a b o u r e r s may work on d r y ground, a few metres of t h e d i t c h on t h e pool s i d e

a r e t h e l a s t t o be dug; when t h e d i t c h i s f i n i s h e d and t h e s l o p e has been checked f o r evenn e s s , t h e e a r t h t h a t holds the water i n t h e pool is removed gradually. As t h e water rushes
through t h e d i t c h i t washes away any o b s t r u c t i o n i n i t s course.
The s p o i l banks of a d i t c h should be moved back from the edge s o a s t o l e a v e a "berm"a
t h a t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y wide t o prevent t h e r a i n f a l l from washing t h e s p o i l back i n t o t h e d i t c h
a s w e l l a s t h e weight of t h e s p o i l from causing t h e caving- in of t h e supporting bank. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e s p o i l may be spread over a wider a r e a t o reduce i t s h e i g h t and t h e corresponding
u n i t a r e a p r e s s u r e on t h e supporting d i t c h bank; i n t h i s c a s e , the wider s p o i l bank should be
graded s o t h a t t h e r a i n which may f a l l upon i t w i l l run o f f t h e o u t s i d e r a t h e r than towards
t h e excavation. Smoothing t h e top of t h e s p o i l bank, while t h e r e c e n t l y excavated e a r t h i s
s t i l l s o f t , involves only a l i t t l e e x t r a labour and may g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e any subsequent
i n s p e c t i o n o r spraying of the d i t c h s i n c e t h e i n s p e c t o r s o r spraymen can walk e a s i l y and
quickly down t h e graded s p o i l bank i n s t e a d of stumbling along a rough, overgrown unfinished
bank.
Where t h e d i t c h e s run a c r o s s a s l o p e r a t h e r than down t h e f a l l l i n e , t h e s p o i l should be
placed on t h e downgrade s i d e i n a continuous p i l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y where t h e d i t c h l i n e c r o s s e s
low a r e a s , t o s e r v e a s a levee during the times when t h e nonnal c a p a c i t y of t h e waterway may
be exceeded by flood flows. I f t h e s p o i l bank must be placed on the upgrade s i d e , openings
should be l e f t i n i t a t i n t e r v a l s s o t h a t t h e runoff from h i g h e r land w i l l n o t be trapped
behind t h e s p o i l .
4.3.2

Design of drainage d i t c h e s :

some examples

The following examples a r e worked o u t using Manning's formula i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e flow

v e l o c i t y i n t h e drainage d i t c h . See s e c t i o n 4.2 of t h i s chapter f o r d e t a i l s of Manning's
formula.
3

Example 1. A pond, 0.40 m a t t h e deepest p o i n t , contains 80 m of water which i s a mosquito

source. From t h e l e v e l l i n g work i t i s found t h a t the water can be discharged i n t o a stream
300 m away and t h a t the f a l l i n e l e v a t i o n from t h e pond bottom t o t h e water l e v e l i n t h e
stream i s 0.10 m. Design t h e drainage d i t c h .
Step 1. Assume t h e d i t c h i n cross- section i s 0.3 m wide w i t h 0.4 m water depth and
0.55 m o v e r a l l depth (see Fig. VII-10). This i s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e s m a l l e s t "workable" s e c t i o n
f o r hand-dug d i t c h e s .

a
- S e e Fig. VII-9.
ponding a f t e r f l o o d s .

The berm should have a s l i g h t f a l l towards t h e d i t c h t o prevent

Fig. VII-10.

Example of t h e procedure f o r
designing a drainage d i t c h .

Bed of the ditch

300m

a-

----------- --Profile
WHO 811095

Crosssection
of the ditch

Step 2.
follows:
(1)

C a l c u l a t e t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e d i t c h by t h e use of Manning's formula a s

When t h e pond i s a t f u l l depth:

t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h e d i t c h , A = 0.3 X 0.4 = 0.12 m

t h e wetted perimeter, W.P. = 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.4 = 1.1 m

- -

A
=
= 0.109m
the hydraulic radius, R =
W.P.
1.1
0 5
2
t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t , S = O W 4300
300 = 0.00167
+

t h e roughness c o e f f i c i e n t f o r u n l i n e d e a r t h c a n a l , n = 0.025
t h e mean v e l o c i t y , V = 1
n X

x S1l2 =
=

X
0.025

0 . 1 0 9 ~ ' ~X 0.00167

112

0.373 m/sec'

2
average r a t e of d i s c h a r g e Q = AV = 0.12 m

3
0.373 m/sec = 0.0448 m / s e c

(2)

200

When t h e pond i s drained t o h a l f depth:

L

A = 0.3 X 0.2 = 0.06 m ;

A
R=-=--

W.P.

0.7

W.P.

= 0.2

0 . 3 + 0.2 = 0.7 m

0.0857 m

(3)

When t h e pond i s almost t o t a l l y drained:

(4)

Average Q =

(5)

Approx. time t o d r a i n t h e pond =

(6)

It w i l l be noted t h a t , w i t h a d i t c h of the s m a l l e s t p r a c t i c a b l e c r o s s - s e c t i o n ,
a r a i n f a l l pond w i l l be drained i n a l i t t l e over an hour, while the water could
be s t a g n a n t t h e r e f o r 7-10 days& without c r e a t i n g mosquito breeding problems.
It i s thus c l e a r t h a t f o r t h e drainage of small unfed ( s u r f a c e o r ground water)
water c o l l e c t i o n s , t h e r e would be no need t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d i t c h s i z e ; any d i t c h
t h a t can b e conveniently dug would be more than s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e purpose.

1
(0.0448 + 0.0148 + 0)
3

= 0.0199 m / s e c

+60+60
0 .Or99

= 1.12 hours

Example 2. A v i l l a g e l o c a t e d i n a v a l l e y g e t s flooded a f t e r heavy r a i n s because of i t s r a t h e r

low and enclosed topography. A stream i s about 10 km away and has a high-water l e v e l about
8 m below t h e lowest p o i n t of t h e v a l l e y . The watershed a r e a c o n t r i b u t i n g runoff t o t h e
v a l l e y i s 75 h e c t a r e s . P r o t e c t i o n i s d e s i r e d a g a i n s t a r a i n f a l l of 130 mmlhour, f o r a durat i o n of 1 4 hours. Design t h e drainage d i t c h .

Inundated after storm

-10

m
-k

Lowest point

a
I n t h i s example, i t i s assumed t h a t the l o c a l anopheline v e c t o r s would r e q u i r e
approximately 2 weeks t o develop from t h e egg t o the a d u l t s t a g e .

Step 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e volume of water t o b e drained. An approximation of t h e runoff

from a small drainage a r e a such a s t h e one i n t h i s example can be made using t h e " r a t i o n a l
method", which i s expressed by t h e formula Q ' = -!L C I A
360
3
where Q' = runoff i n m / s e c ;
C

= runoff c o e f f i c i e n t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e r a t i o of t h e r a t e of
runoff t o t h e r a t e of r a i n f a l l . The value of C ranges

from 0.10 f o r f l a t a r e a s and h i g h pervious s o i l t o 0.40

f o r small a g r i c u l t u r a l watersheds i n r o l l i n g countryside
t o 0.95 f o r c i t y pavements and r o o f s ;
I

= r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y i n mm/hour;

Thus, Q ' =

10.83

watershed a r e a i n h e c t a r e s .

x
360

0.4

130

3
75 = 10.83 m /sec.

For a r a i n f a l l d u r a t i o n of 14 hours, t h e t o t a l volume of water t o be drained i s

X 1 . 5 X 60 X 60 = 58482 m3.

Step 2. Design t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f the d i t c h . For mosquito c o n t r o l purposes, t h i s

volume of water can be drained i n say 7 d a y s s without c r e a t i n g mosquito breeding problems.
Thus t h e required r a t e of discharge :

Assume an unlined e a r t h d i t c h of the following cross- section:

A =
R=-=-A
=
W.P.

OS4

0.4 = 0.32 m2;

32
1.5314

Q = AV = 0.32

W.P.

= 0.5657

2 + 0.4 = 1.5314 m

0.2090 m;

3
0.3984 = 0.1275 m / s e c

which i s s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r than t h e r e q u i r e d r a t e of d i s c h a r g e and t h e r e f o r e should

u s u a l l y be s a t i s f a c t o r y .
a
I n t h i s example, i t i s assumed t h a t t h e l o c a l anopheline v e c t o r s would r e q u i r e
approximately 10-14 days t o develop from t h e egg t o t h e a d u l t stage.

I f t h e s o i l i s such t h a t t h e s i d e s of t h e d i t c h can be v e r t i c a l , perhaps a hand-dug d i t c h

of a r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n (0.6 m wide X 0.5 m deep) would provide a simpler s o l u t i o n .

However, i f drainage i s r e q u i r e d f o r crop p r o t e c t i o n , t h e accumulated water w i l l need t o

be removed s a y i n 2 days, i n s t e a d of i n 7 days a s r e q u i r e d f o r mosquito c o n t r o l alone. A
much l a r g e r d i t c h w i l l be needed a s shown by t h e following c a l c u l a t i o n s :
(a)

I f unlined (n = 0.025) :
The r e q u i r e d r a t e o f d i s c h a r g e =

L_---

(b)

I f l i n e d by brickwork (n = 0.015) :

3
58482
= 0.3384 m / s e c
86400

0.80111
----7

WHO811098

203

Example 3. A swamp, fed by t h r e e s p r i n g s , i s c r e a t i n g mosquito breeding problems ( s e e subchapter I I I E , s e c t i o n 4.2.3).

The maximum y i e l d of each s p r i n g i s found t o be 80 l / s e c .
Detailed d a t a on t h e s i t u a t i o n a r e given i n t h e s k e t c h below. It i s decided t o completely
dewater t h e swamp. Design t h e main drainage d i t c h and propose measures f o r improving t h e
streamlet.

ream

Profile

-A

If t h e swamp i s t o remain dry a f t e r d r a i n i n g , t h e main d i t c h must be designed and t h e

s t r e a m l e t must be deepened i n such a way t h a t they w i l l c a r r y away t h e water a s soon a s it
comes o u t of t h e s p r i n g s . Therefore t h e main d i t c h should have a c a p a c i t y of 80 X 3 = 240
l / s e c , o r 0.240 m3/sec. Assuming t h a t t h e s o i l i s such t h a t v e r t i c a l d i t c h s i d e s w i l l b e
s t a b l e , t h e following d i t c h s e c t i o n w i l l b e adequate.

- -- ---

p
p

p
p

--

---

--I
$
I
=

-10.51~---L

/---0.8m-----4

A = 0.40 m
R =

0.5

0.40
X 2 + 0.8

S
3000

S=--

v=--

0.025

= AV

= 0.2222 m

0.00167
0 . 2 2 2 2 ~X ~0~. 0 0 1 6 7 ~=~0.5997
~
m/sec

= 0.40

3
0.5997 = 0.2399 m /sec.

The s t r e a m l e t needs t o be deepened, i n p a r t i c u l a r , a t t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e swamp, and i t s bed

needs t o be a p p r o p r i a t e l y graded t o a s l o p e of 513000. I t s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a t any p o i n t should
(Note t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l top width of t h e s t r e a m l e t i s
n o t be smaller than t h e following:
about 1 m).

WHO 811101

4.3.3

S e t t i n g an alignment between two p o i n t s which a r e n o t w i t h i n s i g h t

I n case a d r a i n l i n e passes through a mound which blocks t h e s i g h t between t h e two

r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s one on each s i d e of t h e mound, t h e alignment can be s e t by a procedure of
successive c o r r e c t i o n s a s explained i n Fig. V I I - 1 1 .
Fig. V I I - 1 1 .

Procedure t o s e t an alignment between

two p o i n t s which a r e n o t w i t h i n s i g h t .

PROFILE

WHO 811102

PLAN

P o i n t A i s n o t v i s i b l e from p o i n t B and v i c e v e r s a .
'Itro men s t a n d i n A and B r e s p e c t i v e l y , and two o t h e r men move i n t o t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
a r e a s o t h a t b o t h can be seen from A and B. The man i n A s e t s h i s man a t AI;
t h e man i n B moves h i s man t o B1 s o t h a t A1 and B1 a r e a l i g n e d w i t h B.
The man i n A moves h i s man t o A2 so t h a t B1 and A2 a r e a l i g n e d with A.
The man i n B moves h i s man t o B2 s o t h a t A2 and B2 a r e aligned with B.
And s o on u n t i l t h e f o u r men a r e on a s t r a i g h t l i n e .

4.4

Improvement of s h o r e l i n e s

When water c o l l e c t i o n s cannot b e f i l l e d o r d r a i n e d , e i t h e r because of t h e i r l a r g e e x t e n t

o r t h e i r u s e f u l purpose, i t i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e t o modify t h e conditions t h a t favour mosquito
breeding by c e r t a i n environmental management works described i n subchapter IIIA. These
i n c l u d e v e g e t a t i o n c l e a r a n c e on l a k e and r e s e r v o i r s h o r e l i n e s , and t h e r e c t i f i c a t i o n of t h e
s h o r e l i n e by c u t and f i l l methods.
To s t r a i g h t e n t h e s h o r e l i n e i t i s convenient t o begin by c u t t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l from t h e
p r o j e c t i n g land where i t i s dry and above the water l e v e l . This m a t e r i a l can be used t o form
a l e v e e along t h e chosen new s h o r e l i n e t o hold t h e w e t t e r m a t e r i a l which i s l a t e r on dug and
discharged on t h e i n l a n d f a c e of t h e l e v e e . The f i l l i n g w i l l g r a d u a l l y progress from t h e
levee toward t h e o r i g i n a l s h o r e l i n e .
The c a l c u l a t i o n of e a r t h volumes i s complicated by t h e f a c t t h a t the ground s l o p e s above
and below t h e w a t e r l e v e l a r e u s u a l l y very d i f f e r e n t w i t h i n s h o r t d i s t a n c e s ; added t o t h i s ,
t h e wet m a t e r i a l s h r i n k s a s i t d r i e s and much of i t i s l o s t when i t i s c a r r i e d t o t h e s i t e of
use.
The mud and wet e a r t h used f o r f i l l i n g may crack a s they dry.
o r run o f f , t h e s e cracks may allow mosquito breeding.

4.5

When f i l l e d w i t h r a i n f a l l

Some b a s i c f a c t s about concrete

Concrete i s a mixture of water, Portland cement and aggregates. Sand i s normally used a s
the f i n e aggregate and g r a v e l o r crushed s t o n e a s t h e coarse aggregate.
Concrete has a high compressive s t r e n g t h , compared w i t h i t s t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h . To compens a t e f o r t h e r a t h e r low t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , c o n c r e t e i s u s u a l l y r e i n f o r c e d w i t h s t e e l b a r s on
t h a t s i d e of t h e s t r u c t u r e component (e.g., a beam o r a s l a b ) which i s s u b j e c t t o t e n s i o n .
This i s c a l l e d r e i n f o r c e d concrete; p l a i n concrete h a s no r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s .
The high s t r e n g t h - c o s t r a t i o of c o n c r e t e ( p l a i n o r r e i n f o r c e d , a s t h e case may r e q u i r e )
i s one of i t s most important advantages and the major reason f o r i t s wide use.
As a measure of c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h , which i n c r e a s e s w i t h age over a long period of time,
t h e compressive s t r e n g t h a t 28 days i s commonly used. It i s general p r a c t i c e t o determine
t h i s s t r e n g t h by t e s t i n g specimens i n the form of s t a n d a r d c y l i n d e r s made i n accordance w i t h
a p p l i c a b l e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . A "3000 p s i concrete" o r a "200 kg/cm2 concrete" r e f e r s t o t h e
compressive s t r e n g t h of t h e c o n c r e t e a t 28 days a f t e r being c a s t .

Concrete s t r e n g t h i s influenced c h i e f l y by the water-cement (w/c) r a t i o ; t h e h i g h e r t h i s

r a t i o , t h e lower t h e s t r e n g t h . I n f a c t , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s approximately l i n e a r ( s e e
Fig. VII-12).
For economy, t h e amount of cement used should b e k e p t t o a minimum. Generally, t h i s i s
f a c i l i t a t e d by s e l e c t i n g t h e l a r g e s t - s i z e c o a r s e aggregate c o n s i s t e n t w i t h job requirements
and good gradation. The s m a l l e r t h e volume of v o i d s , l e s s cement p a s t e i s needed t o f i l l them.
To o b t a i n a c o n c r e t e mix of a given s t r e n g t h ( i . e . , w i t h a given water-cement r a t i o ) , t h e
l e s s water used i n t h e mix t h e l e s s cement w i l l be r e q u i r e d , provided t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
proportions of t h e aggregates remain unchanged. However, a concrete mix w i t h too l i t t l e water
tends t o be dry and s t i f f , and may not have a w o r k a b i l i t y 5 s u i t a b l e f o r t h e intended job.

a
- W o r k a b i l i t y , i n essence, i s t h e e a s e w i t h which t h e i n g r e d i e n t s can be mixed and t h e
r e s u l t i n g mix handled, t r a n s p o r t e d and placed w i t h l i t t l e l o s s i n homogeneity.

Therefore, t h e amount of mixing water i s governed mainly by t h e r e q u i r e d w o r k a b i l i t y of t h e

f i n a l mix.

0.N
0.60
080
LOO
W I C BY WEIGHT
Concrete strength decreases vith
increase in watcr-ccmcnt ratio for concrete with and without entrained air.
(From "Concrdr Monual." U.S. Bureau of

IWo

Reclamation.)

Fig. VII-12

A c o n c r e t e mix i s normally proportioned by weight. For small jobs, however, i t i s o f t e n

proportioned by volume and i s i n d i c a t e d s h o r t l y by the r a t i o of cement t o sand t o coarse
aggregate (e.g., 1:2:4 o r 1:3:6) p l u s t h e minimum cement content p e r u n i t volume of c o n c r e t e
(cu yard o r cu. m)

For small jobs and where c o n c r e t e mixers a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e , c o n c r e t e can b e mixed by hand,

but thorough mixing must be ensured. During c o n c r e t e placement, precautions should be taken
t o prevent s e g r e g a t i o n when i t i s being t r a n s p o r t e d and dumped i n t o place.
The s e t t i n g ( o r hardening) of c o n c r e t e a f t e r being c a s t i s a chemical process which
r e q u i r e s water f o r hydration. Drying o u t t h e concrete a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l s e t may prevent
complete hydration and hence reduce i t s u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h . Exposed c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e s should
t h e r e f o r e b e kept continuously moist, u s u a l l y by spraying o r ponding o r by a covering of moist
e a r t h , sand, o r b u r l a p . This process i s c a l l e d "curing".
Formwork r e t a i n s concrete u n t i l it has s e t and produces t h e d e s i r e d shapes. The contract o r s u s u a l l y wish t o remove t h e forms r a t h e r e a r l y f o r quick re- use. While t h i s might be
a c c e p t a b l e i n t h e c a s e of forms on t h e s i d e s of beams, w a l l s , e t c . , t h e forms and supports
under beams and f l o o r s should n o t be removed u n t i l t h e c o n c r e t e has a t t a i n e d s u f f i c i e n t
s t r e n g t h t o c a r r y a t l e a s t i t s own weight. D e t a i l s of formwork f o r c o n c r e t e can be found i n
various r e f e r e n c e books and manuals.2
5.

Plane surveying f o r environmental management works f o r v e c t o r c o n t r o l

The procedures and methods described h e r e do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t t h e only o r t h e

most p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n s t o surveying problems. Depending upon t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e r e s u l t s
d e s i r e d , and t h e a t t e n d a n t circumstances, o t h e r "short-cut" methods may be a p p l i c a b l e which
would r e s u l t i n a s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n w i t h l e s s e f f o r t .

a
Peurifoy, R.L.

Formwork f o r c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s , 2nd ed., New York, McGraw H i l l , 1976.

ACI manual o f c o n c r e t e i n s p e c t i o n , 6 t h ed., D e t r o i t , American Concrete I n s t i t u t e , 1975.
Formwork f o r concrete, D e t r o i t , American Concrete I n s t i t u t e , 1973.

Definitions
5.1.1

Plane surveying and g e o d e t i c surveying

The a r t of measuring and l o c a t i n g l i n e s and angles on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h i s c a l l e d

surveying.
When the survey i s of such l i m i t e d e x t e n t t h a t t h e e f f e c t of t h e e a r t h ' s c u r v a t u r e may be
s a f e l y neglected, t h e term p l a n e surveying i s used.
Geodetic surveying t a k e s i n t o account t h e e f f e c t of t h e e a r t h ' s c u r v a t u r e a s i n t h e survey of a s t a t e o r country.
Surveys a r e made f o r a v a r i e t y of purposes, such a s the determination of a r e a s , t h e
f i x i n g of boundary l i n e s , t h e p l o t t i n g of maps, and f o r engineering c o n s t r u c t i o n works, highways, r a i l r o a d s , b r i d g e s , b u i l d i n g s , i r r i g a t i o n and drainage systems, land l e v e l l i n g , e t c .
5.1.2

Measurement of l e n g t h s and d i r e c t i o n

I n surveying, a l l measurements of length a r e h o r i z o n t a l o r e l s e a r e subsequently reduced

t o h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o determining t h e l e n g t h of a survey l i n e , i t s d i r e c t i o n a l s o must ( i n many c a s e s ) b e determined. The d i r e c t i o n of a l i n e i s determined w i t h
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of a magnetic needle (as of a compass) which possesses t h e p r o p e r t y
of p o i n t i n g i n a f i x e d d i r e c t i o n , namely, t h e magnetic meridian. This d i r e c t i o n i s expressed
i n terms of a n a n g l e c a l l e d t h e magnetic b e a r i n g of t h e l i n e , o r simply i t s bearing. A
bearing reckoned from t h e geographical meridian i s c a l l e d t h e t r u e b e a r i n g o r azimuth and, i n
g e n e r a l , w i l l n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h the magnetic bearing of t h e l i n e . The a n g l e between t h e
magnetic meridian ( t h e f i x e d d i r e c t i o n of t h e magnetic needle) and t h e t r u e (geographical)
meridian i s c a l l e d t h e d e c l i n a t i o n of t h e needle. For example, t h i s d e c l i n a t i o n v a r i e s from
O0 t o a s much a s 24O i n v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s i n the United S t a t e s and may be e i t h e r e a s t o r west
of t h e t r u e n o r t h depending on t h e l o c a t i o n .
The two p r i n c i p a l instruments employed i n measuring d i s t a n c e s a r e t h e s t e e l tape (of
10-50 m l e n g t h s ) and a t e l e s c o p e on a t r a n s i t o r l e v e l which i s equipped w i t h a s e t of s t a d i a
h a i r s . I n present- day surveying, t h e e l e c t r o n i c d i s t a n c e meter (EDM) i s a l s o o f t e n used f o r
l a r g e - s c a l e p r e c i s i o n jobs.
The surveyor's compass i s t h e p r i n c i p a l instrument used i n measuring t h e d i r e c t i o n of
l i n e s . Most t r a n s i t s and some l e v e l s a r e equipped w i t h a compass. The h o r i z o n t a l c i r c l e of
t h e compass i s graduated t o t h e degree o r t h e half- degree and numbered from two o p p o s i t e zero
p o i n t s each way t o 90. The zero p o i n t s a r e marked w i t h t h e l e t t e r s N and S and t h e 90 points
a r e marked E and W.
The magnetic b e a r i n g of a l i n e i s reckoned from 0' t o go0, t h e 0' being e i t h e r a t t h e N
o r t h e S p o i n t and t h e 90' e i t h e r a t t h e E o r t h e W p o i n t . The quadrant i n which a b e a r i n g
f a l l s i s designated by t h e l e t t e r s NE, SE, SW, o r NW ( s e e Fig. VII-13). The magnetic b e a r i n g
of t h e l i n e OA i n t h i s f i g u r e i s N 610 05' E.
The t r u e b e a r i n g of a l i n e i s u s u a l l y reckoned5 from t h e south p o i n t , round clockwise t o
t h u s , a l i n e running due west has a n azimuth of 90 and a l i n e due n o r t h has an azimuth
360';
of 180. I n Fig. VII-13 t h e azimuth of t h e l i n e OA i s 242' 15'.

a
- Another system of azimuth i s t o measure t h e angle clockwise from t h e n o r t h , i n s t e a d of
from t h e south.

208

AZIMUTH 1800
N Magnetic

,t

10 10'

True N

(declination)

r
AZIMUTH 900

Magnetic bearing
N61005'E

AZIMUTH 2 W

S
WHO 811103

AZIMUTH O0

Fig. VII-13.

5.1.3

Direction of a line.

Measurement of angles

After the magnetic bearings of two lines have been determined by use of the surveyor's
compass, the angle between the two lines can be calculated by addition or subtraction, or a
combination of these simple mathematical computations. However, for more accurate results in
measuring horizontal (and vertical) angles an engineer's transit should be used.
5.1.4

Measurement of elevation

A level surface is really a curved surface which at every point is perpendicular to the
direction of gravity at that point, such as the surface of still water, for example. Any line
of sight which is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at a given point is therefore
tangent to the level surface at that point and is called a horizontal line.
The elevation of a point is the height of the point reckoned from some zero plane, such
as mean sea level. The plane is called the datum and its elevation is always zero. If mean
sea level is not known, a datum can be arbitrarily assumed. This is particularly applicable
for short or limited surveys which will not have to be "tied in" to an existing or future
survey. For the sake of convenience in recording and later interpreting the survey data, the
assumed datum plane (to which surface elevations are referred) should lie below the lowest
point likely to be reached on the survey.

A bench mark (B.M.), or simply bench, is a permanent mark whose elevation above the datum
plane is accurately known. It may be a bolt or similar object set into the top of a solidly
fixed stone or simply a mark on a stone, a tack driven into a projecting root of a tree, or
the top of some concrete structure such as a culvert headwall or similar irrigation works
structure.

5.2 Levelling
The process of finding the difference in elevation of any two points is called differential levelling. Levelling for the purpose of determining the changes in elevation of the
surface of the ground along some definite line is called profile levelling. In elementary
surveying and for most ordinary surveying problems, the direct levelling method is used.
Trigonometric levelling is used only in advanced surveying work and takes into account vertical
angles

The instrument chiefly used for the direct determination of differences of elevation is
the level, in combination with the levelling rod. There are three principal types of level:
the Wye level, the Dumpy level and the hand level. For more accurate measurements the two
former types are used, the hand level being used only when approximate levels are desired.
The engineer's transit, which has the long level attached to the telescope, is frequently used
for rough levelling.

A commonly used levelling rod is the self-reading type with graduations in either the
metric or the English system. The graduation lines are 1 cm wide in the metric system and
0.01 ft in the English system. The rod is graduated from 0 at the lower end to 3 m (or 7 ft
in the English system) or higher by extending at its upper end (see Fig. VII-14).

Fig. VII-14.

Levelling rods.

5.2.1

L e v e l l i n g procedure

The f i r s t s t e p i n beginning a survey which involves e l e v a t i o n s ( v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e s ) i s t o

e s t a b l i s h t h e f i r s t bench mark and record i t s e l e v a t i o n . The instrument ( l e v e l o r t r a n s i t ) i s
f i r m l y s e t up a t a moderate d i s t a n c e from t h e bench s o t h a t t h e t e l e s c o p e i s somewhat h i g h e r
t h a n t h e bench and commands a f u l l view of a rod h e l d v e r t i c a l l y upon i t . The i n s t r u m e n t i s
p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d s o t h a t t h e l e v e l bubble s t a n d s i n t h e c e n t r e of i t s t u b e (and t h e v e r t i c a l
c i r c l e r e a d s zero f o r a t r a n s i t ) d u r i n g a n e n t i r e r e v o l u t i o n of t h e t e l e s c o p e about t h e
v e r t i c a l a x i s . With t h e instrument s o a d j u s t e d , t h e l i n e of s i g h t through t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n
of t h e t e l e s c o p e ' s c r o s s - h a i r s i s known t o b e h o r i z o n t a l . The rod i s h e l d v e r t i c a l l y upon
t h e bench, t h e l i n e of s i g h t of t h e t e l e s c o p e i s turned upon t h e r o d , and t h e p o i n t on t h e rod
i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s - h a i r (reading of t h e rod) i s known t o be l e v e l w i t h t h e
c r o s s - h a i r . Therefore, t h e c r o s s - h a i r i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e bench by t h e d i s t a n c e i n t e r c e p t e d on
t h e rod from i t s lower end. Adding t h i s d i s t a n c e t o t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e bench g i v e s t h e
e l e v a t i o n (above t h e datum) of t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s - h a i r , o r h e i g h t of instrument (H.I.).
Once t h e h e i g h t of instrument has been determined, t h e e l e v a t i o n of any p o i n t lower than
t h e c r o s s - h a i r by a v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e (not exceeding t h e l e n g t h of t h e rod) i s e a s i l y a s c e r t a i n e d . The rod r e a d i n g , s u b t r a c t e d from t h e H . I . , g i v e s t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e p o i n t above t h e
datum.
But t h e e l e v a t i o n of p o i n t s on ground h i g h e r t h a n t h e c r o s s - h a i r , o r f a r t h e r below i t
t h a n t h e l e n g t h of t h e r o d , cannot be determined because i n e i t h e r c a s e t h e l i n e of s i g h t w i l l
n o t c u t t h e rod, and hence t h e r e can b e no reading. To observe such p o i n t s , t h e instrument
must be moved t o a new p o s i t i o n , h i g h e r o r lower t h a n b e f o r e , a s t h e c a s e may r e q u i r e , and t h e
new H. I. determined.
Before moving t h e instrument t o a new p o s i t i o n , however, a temporary bench c a l l e d a
t u r n i n g p o i n t (T.P.) must be e s t a b l i s h e d and i t s e l e v a t i o n a s c e r t a i n e d a s f o r any o t h e r p o i n t
b u t w i t h more accuracy. The reading having been taken and recorded f o r t h e T.P. ( t o o b t a i n
i t s e l e v a t i o n ) , t h e instrument i s c a r r i e d forward t o a new p o i n t and t h e r e p r o p e r l y l e v e l l e d .
A new rod r e a d i n g i s taken on t h e same T.P. and added t o t h e T.P. e l e v a t i o n f o r t h e new h e i g h t
of t h e instrument. The e l e v a t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s w i t h i n t h e v e r t i c a l range p r e v i o u s l y
described and w i t h i n p r a c t i c a l h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e s from t h e instrument may now be determined
simply by r e a d i n g t h e rod on t h e p o i n t s . Readings on bench marks and t u r n i n g p o i n t s should
be t o t h e n e a r e s t m i l l i m e t r e t o e n s u r e t h e accuracy d e s i r e d . E l e v a t i o n s on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
ground w i l l n o t u s u a l l y b e needed c l o s e r t h a n t o t h e n e a r e s t c e n t i m e t r e o r h a l f c e n t i m e t r e .
To f i n d t h e h e i g h t of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , add t h e r e a d i n g on a p o i n t t o t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e
p o i n t ; and t o f i n d t h e e l e v a t i o n of a p o i n t , s u b t r a c t t h e reading on it from t h e h e i g h t of
t h e instrument ( s e e F i g . VII-15).
A r e a d i n g taken f o r t h e purpose of f i n d i n g t h e h e i g h t of t h e instrument i s c a l l e d a backs i g h t (B.S.), and a reading taken f o r t h e purpose of f i n d i n g t h e e l e v a t i o n of a t u r n i n g p o i n t
Hence b a c k s i g h t s a r e always p l u s (+S) and
o r any o t h e r p o i n t i s c a l l e d a f o r e s i g h t (F.S.).
f o r e s i g h t s a r e always minus (- S). The terms b a c k s i g h t and f o r e s i g h t , a s used h e r e , do n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y r e f e r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n s i n which t h e s i g h t s a r e taken.

5.2.2

Profile levelling

P r o f i l e l e v e l l i n g i s used f o r t h e purpose of o b t a i n i n g d a t a which i n d i c a t e t h e changes i n

e l e v a t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground along some d e f i n i t e l i n e , and from which a p r o f i l e o r
v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n may be developed, showing i n d e t a i l t h e r i s e s and f a l l s of t h e s u r f a c e over
which i t p a s s e s . From such a p r o f i l e , a grade can be e s t a b l i s h e d and d e s i g n f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n
may be made. The l i n e i s f i r s t " s t a t i o n e d " , i . e . , marked a t a c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l , u s u a l l y every
30 m, by s t a k e s upon which t h e s t a t i o n number i s w r i t t e n . Surveys f o r d r a i n a g e a r e u s u a l l y
begun a t t h e lower o r downstream end, u n l e s s t h e r e i s some doubt a s t o t h e l o c a t i o n of an
adequate o u t l e t i n which c a s e t h e survey would b e g i n upstream and extend t o t h e p o i n t of

s a t i s f a c t o r y o u t l e t a s determined by t h e l e v e l s . The instrument i s s e t up and t h e H.I. d e t e r mined, a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d . F o r e s i g h t s a r e t h e n read on a s many s t a t i o n p o i n t s on t h e

l i n e a s can conveniently b e taken from t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e instrument.
Intermediate s i g h t s
a r e taken a t any p o i n t s where marked changes of s l o p e occur and t h e "plus" (+) s t a t i o n s of
t h e s e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s a r e recorded w i t h t h e rod readings. The i n s t r u m e n t i s moved forward
a s i s necessary and t h i s g e n e r a l process i s continued u n t i l t h e end of t h e l i n e i s reached.

Fig. VII-15.

Profile levelling

First Position of Rod,

Elevation of Line
throuqh Telercorre

L
-

~ l i v a t i o nof Starting Point

30.500 m

Instrument

-\

L\\

\v'

Elevation 32.500 m

'\

Second Position
\ \ of Rod

Ground Elevation \

Starting a topographic survey from a bench mark

Elevation 30.500 m
B.M.

Turning Point
31 .W0m

Elevation 33.000 m
2.300 m
30.700 m

WHO 811105

Moving instrument while making a topographic survey

The l e v e l n o t e s may be k e p t i n any convenient form t h a t i s e a s i l y understood by t h e notekeeper o r any o t h e r s who may have t o i n t e r p r e t them. The development of s a t i s f a c t o r y and
workable p l a n s f o r a c o n s t r u c t i o n job depends l a r g e l y upon t h e surveying n o t e s and d a t a a v a i l a b l e . Table VII-3 g i v e s a form of p r o f i l e l e v e l l i n g n o t e s .

Table VII-3. P r o f i l e l e v e l notes

(metric u n i t s )

Station

B.S.
(+>

H. I.

F.S.

(-1

Rod

Ground
elev.
(100.000)

B.M. 1

2.955

Description

Nail i n red oak

18 m R t . S t a .
0 + 00

98.505

1
2

+ 20
3
T.P.
(B.M. 2)

2.295

101.010

2.745

(98.715)

Top R t . D.S.
wingwall hwy

1.765

99.245

c u l v t . 15 m L t . S t a .

2.075

98.935

3 + 19

2.135

98.875

2.350

98.660

2.500

98.510

2.780

98.230

T.P.
(B.M.~)

1.250

100.105

2.155

(98.855)

10

2.175

97.930

11

2.325

97.780

2.420

+ 10
5.005

Nail i n t p . cypress
s tump
10 m R t . S t a .
9 + 8

97.685

7.320

The a d d i t i o n s and s u b t r a c t i o n s made on each page of t h e n o t e s should be proved b e f o r e

proceeding t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e next. When c o r r e c t , t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e sums of t h e
B.S.'s and F.S.'s on t h e page e q u a l s t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e f i r s t and l a s t e l e v a t i o n s on t h e
Thus, i n t h e example given i n Table VII-3,
page, i f t h e l a s t rod reading i s shown a s an F.S.
7.320-5.005 = 2.315 = 100.000-97.685.

I n t h i s p r o o f , a l l e l e v a t i o n s except t h o s e f o r T.P.'s
l a s t p o i n t on t h e page a r e ignored.

and B.M.'s,

used a s such, and t h e

A l i n e of l e v e l s should b e checked by connecting w i t h some r e l i a b l e bench mark, i f

p o s s i b l e . Bench marks a l o n g t h e l i n e of l e v e l s should be used a s t u r n i n g p o i n t s , i f convenient
o r a t l e a s t check readings should b e taken on them i n o r d e r t o d e t e c t mistakes.
5.2.3

E s t a b l i s h i n g grades

By u t i l i z i n g t h e l e v e l n o t e s , t h e p r o f i l e i s p l o t t e d on p r o f i l e paper p r i n t e d f o r t h e
purpose ( s e e F i g . VII-16). A h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e of 1 t o 1000 and a v e r t i c a l s c a l e of 1 t o 100
a r e commonly used i n road and d r a i n a g e work. This d i s t o r t i o n of s c a l e magnifies t h e v e r t i c a l
measures s o t h a t s l i g h t changes i n t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e may be d i s t i n c t l y s e e n on t h e
p r o f i l e paper.
A l i n e which i s drawn on a p r o f i l e t o correspond t o t h e f i n i s h e d s u r f a c e of a r o a d , o r
t h e flow l i n e of a d i t c h o r a c a n a l , i s c a l l e d t h e grade l i n e . Many f a c t o r s must be considered
i n d e s i g n i n g t h e grade l i n e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s and such f a c t o r s vary widely depending
upon t h e type of p r o j e c t .

The g r a d i e n t i s t h e r a t e of change of e l e v a t i o n i n t h e grade l i n e and i s u s u a l l y

expressed a s a percentage. Thus a 1 . 7 % g r a d i e n t i n d i c a t e s a r i s e o r f a l l of 1.7 m i n a h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e of 100 m. When t h e grade i s ascending, t h e g r a d i e n t i s marked p l u s (+); and
when descending, minus (-). The word grade i s f r e q u e n t l y used i n s t e a d of g r a d i e n t . I n t h e
example given above, t h e g r a d i e n t w i l l b e approximately - 0.24% which r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o of
t h e d i f f e r e n c e of e l e v a t i o n t o t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e f i r s t and l a s t s t a t i o n s

5.2.4

Cross- section l e v e l l i n g

I n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l r a i l r o a d and highway work and f o r l a r g e c a n a l s o r d i t c h e s i t i s

necessary t o r u n c r o s s - s e c t i o n l e v e l s . The d a t a thus o b t a i n e d a r e u t i l i z e d i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e
q u a n t i t y of earthwork r e q u i r e d . Cross- sections f o r t h i s purpose a r e u s u a l l y taken a t f u l l
s t a t i o n p o i n t s of t h e l i n e u s u a l l y 30 m a p a r t , o r more o f t e n i f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l s l o p e changes
c o n s i d e r a b l y , and a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e c e n t r e l i n e of t h e proposed r o a d , canal o r d i t c h .
For s m a l l e r c a n a l s and d i t c h e s , through l e v e l o r f l a t t e r r a i n i n v o l v i n g excavation o n l y , crosss e c t i o n s a r e r a r e l y necessary. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , earthwork q u a n t i t i e s may be e s t i m a t e d
f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y from t h e p r o f i l e and grade e l e v a t i o n s . The procedure f o r c r o s s - s e c t i o n
l e v e l l i n g i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t previous y d e s c r i b e d f o r p r o f i l e l e v e l l i n g . Rod readings of t h e
p o i n t s r i g h t and l e f t of t h e c e n t r e 1 n e a r e recorded along w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e s of t h e p o i n t s
from t h e c e n t r e l i n e .
5.2.5

Levelling f o r construction

I n earth-moving o p e r a t i o n s f o r highways, i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s , d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s and l a n d

l e v e l l i n g , t h e e s t a b l i s h e d grade upon t h e f i n a l p r o f i l e of a l o c a t e d l i n e i s t h e b a s i s t o
which a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n work must conform. When t h e d e s i r e d grade l i n e h a s been drawn ( i n t h e
o f f i c e ) on t h e p r o f i l e and i t s grade o r g r a d i e n t determined, t h e grade e l e v a t i o n a t each
s t a t i o n of t h e l i n e may b e computed. Before c o n s t r u c t i o n b e g i n s , t h e proposed work must be
" staked o u t " w i t h grade s t a k e s a t every f u l l s t a t i o n ( u s u a l l y 30 m a p a r t ) o r more o f t e n on t h e
c e n t r e l i n e and a t b o t h s i d e s w i t h s l o p e s t a k e s where t h e f i n i s h e d s l o p e i n t e r s e c t s t h e
The amount of t h e "cut" o r " f i l l " ("cut"
s u r f a c e of t h e ground ( s e e a l s o s e c t i o n 5.2.4).
only i n d r a i n a g e work) i s marked on t h e s e s t a k e s f o r guidance i n t h e a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n
operations.

A common practice in drainage work is to offset the grade stakes either right or left of
the centre line for a minimum distance equal to at least one-half the bottom width of the
proposed drainage ditch, with the stake extending about 15 cm above the surface of the ground.
The grade stakes then will not be disturbed while "roughing in" the ditch to the grade. Unless
there is considerable transverse slope of the land along the line, it is not always necessary
to mark the cut on the slope stakes - the marking of the grade stake will suffice. Slope
stakes in this case serve only to mark the point of intersection of the ditch side slope with
the ground line.
For determining the cuts (and fills) in the field, the level (or transit) is set up and
the H.I. is determined from some convenient B.M. in the manner as previously described. The
difference between the H.I. and the grade elevation at any given point (from the profile
prepared in the office) is called the rod reading for grade (or simply grade rod), i.e., the
rod reading which would be obtained if the lower end of the rod could be held at the given
point on the flow line of the ditch, or finished surface (grade) of the road, as the case may
be. Then the rod is held on top of the grade stake and a reading is taken to the nearest
centimetre. The difference between this rod reading and the rod reading for grade will give
the cut (or fill) at that point, as reckoned from the top of the grade stake. The cut (or
fill) is marked on the grade stake which also has the station number marked on the opposite
side. The first stake (station) is numbered 0 + 00, the second 1 + 00, the third 2 + 00, etc.
When readings are taken at intermediate points, the stakes marking these positions will be
numbered according to the number of metres each lies in advance of the preceding stake, e.g.,
2 + 10 m, which means 70 m from the first station (30 m + 30 m + 10 m).
Table VII-4 illustrates one method of note-keeping in levelling for grade stakes which
indicates the "cut" at the centre line only of a proposed drainage ditch.
For most open drains constructed through fairly flat or level terrain, the distance from
the centre line to the point of intersection of the side slope with the natural ground surface
is equal to half the ditch bottom width plus the centre line cut multiplied by the slope, the
slope being the inclination of the side slope expressed in terms of the ratio of the horizontal to the vertical distance from the edge of the ditch bottom. Thus a slope which rises 1 m
vertically in a horizontal distance of 1.5 m is called "a slope of 1.5 to 1". Slope stakes
are set right and left of each station to mark the points of intersection with the ground.
Slope stakes for adjacent stations may be connected by a string line which will provide a
continuous mark for the intersection of the slope with the ground line.
Depending upon whether the excavation is accomplished by hand or machine, various methods
of establishing the grade during construction are utilized. For hand-dug ditches a string
line, set from grade stake data, parallel to and at a given number of metres above the established grade line, will be adequate in checking for the proper depth. Targets consisting of
crossbars (batten boards) at a constant distance above the grade line serve to guide operators
of machines in digging ditches (see section 5, subchapter IIIE).
This procedure for setting grade stakes is also applicable to the installation of a drain
tile. A trench similar to that for open drains must be dug for the drain tile. However, no
sloping is required and the trench is backfilled after the tiles are laid.

5.2.6

Substitute tools for levelling

The engineer's level is essentially a device by which a person may establish a horizontal
line of sight whose precise vertical distance above a selected point of reference can be
determined. From this line of sight, which may be turned towards any compass direction while
still being held horizontal, downward vertical distances to any point may be measured,
thereby establishing the height relationship of the second point to the first. A resourceful
vector control worker who understands the principles of differential levelling can use
substitute tools to obtain usable though less accurate data when a precise tripod-mounted
surveyor's level (or transit) is not available.

Table VII-4. Level notes for grade stakes

Station

B.S.
(+)

H.I.

F.S.

(-1

Grade
elev.

Grade
rod

Rod

Cut

Description

B.M.l
Ground elev.
98.505

0
1
2
2 + 20
T.P.
3
4
5
6

Top culvert
HW, ~ t 6. + 10

T.P.
7
8
9
T.P.
10
11

Ground elev.
97.685

11 + 10

Check: 7.648 - 5.333

100.000

- 97.685

A hand level (see Fig. VII-17) is a simple instrument for levelling where high precision
is not required. It is handheld at the surveyor's eye level while rod readings are made. The
alidade of a plane-table set is a good instrument for measuring vertical distance with
moderate accuracy (see section 5.3.3.4 below).

WHO 811107

Fig. VII-17.

Hand l e v e l

Should none of t h e abovementioned i n s t r u m e n t s be a t hand, a c a r p e n t e r ' s l e v e l ( s e e

Fig. VII-18) may be t r i e d following t h e method d e s c r i b e d below, b u t a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s cannot
be expected from such a rudimentary t o o l .

Fig. VII-18.

Carpenter's l e v e l s

When u s i n g a c a r p e n t e r ' s o r a mason's l e v e l , apply a c o r n e r of t h e frame t o t h e eye and

u s e an upper edge a s t h e l i n e of s i g h t . A s m a l l m i r r o r may be a t t a c h e d t o t h e t o p , a t such a
p o s i t i o n and a n g l e t h a t i t w i l l show t h e r e f l e c t i o n of t h e bubble when t h e eye i s a t t h e
sighting point.

The o t h e r p i e c e of simple equipment f o r topographic l e v e l l i n g i s t h e graduated s t a f f f o r

measuring t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n h e i g h t of p o i n t s on t h e ground and elsewhere, from t h e h o r i z o n t a l
l i n e of s i g h t of t h e l e v e l . For s m a l l - s c a l e work, measuring s t a f f s can be r e p l a c e d by
s t r a i g h t p i e c e s of wood of 4 X 4 cm s e c t i o n and 2.1-2.4 m i n l e n g t h . These home-made s t a f f s
a r e marked w i t h bands of s e l f - a d h e s i v e t a p e i n two c o n t r a s t i n g c o l o u r s , one a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h
t h e o t h e r , t o i n d i c a t e 30 cm l e n g t h s i n t h e s t a f f . An o r d i n a r y p l a s t i c o r wooden r u l e r 30 cm
long, graduated i n m i l l i m e t r e s , i s f i x e d t o t h e s t a f f by two rubber bands s o t h a t t h e z e r o
mark of t h e r u l e r c o i n c i d e s w i t h a d i v i s i o n i n t h e s t a f f . The man who h o l d s t h e s t a f f v e r t i c a l l y s l i d e s a f i n g e r along t h e r u l e r up o r down, according t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e l e v e l man, and r e a d s t h e r e l e v a n t f i g u r e on t h e r u l e r . With some p r a c t i c e i t may b e p o s s i b l e t o
t a k e r e a d i n g s a t d i s t a n c e s of up t o 50 m.
An a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o t r y t o b u i l d and use a "water trough l e v e l " ( s e e F i g . VII-19). A
trough approximately 1 m long, 7.5 cmwide and 15 cm deep i s made of wood o r m e t a l , and h a l f
f i l l e d w i t h water. To i t s ends, i n s i d e i t , a r e f a s t e n e d v e r t i c a l l y two s t r a i g h t l e n g t h s of
wood, about 2.5 X 5 X 90 cm. These must be p r e c i s e l y t h e same l e n g t h . The trough i s placed
upon any convenient b a s e and wedged up t o b e h o r i z o n t a l . The depth of w a t e r i s a d j u s t e d u n t i l
i t s s u r f a c e j u s t touches t h e bottoms of b o t h v e r t i c a l l e n g t h s of wood. S i n c e t h e s e a r e
i d e n t i c a l i n l e n g t h , and t h e i r bottom ends j u s t touch t h e s u r f a c e of t h e water i n t h e trough,
a l i n e of s i g h t over t h e top ends w i l l b e p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r i n t h e trough,
and t h u s t o t h e average s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h a t t h a t p o i n t .

Water level.

Water trough level

The two heights hl and h2 must be equal

at their lower ends)

Water tube level

Fig. VII-19.

WHO 811109

Water trough and water tube l e v e l s

I n s t e a d of t h e water trough, a U-tube o r a p a i r of g l a s s tubes connected by rubber tubing

a t t h e i r lower ends may b e used and t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e i n t h e l e g s of t h e U-tube w i l l d e f i n e
t h e h o r i z o n t a l . The l e v e l l i n g procedure, u s i n g a w a t e r trough l e v e l o r a w a t e r U-tube l e v e l ,
would be much t h e same a s t h a t u s i n g a c a r p e n t e r ' s l e v e l .

5.3.1

Introduction

P l a n e - t a b l i n g i s a method of surveying i n which t h e f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s and p l o t t i n g

proceed simultaneously. It i s simple because n o t e s of measurements a r e n o t r e q u i r e d , and i t
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n open ground where s i g h t s a r e g e n e r a l l y unobstructed.
5.3.2

The i n s t r u m e n t

The p l a n e - t a b l e c o n s i s t s of a drawing board ( t h e t a b l e ) which c a r r i e s t h e s h e e t and i s

mounted on a t r i p o d , a s i g h t r u l e c a l l e d t h e a l i d a d e , and s e v e r a l a c c e s s o r i e s i n c l u d i n g a
s p i r i t l e v e l , a plumbing f o r k , a plumb l i n e and a compass. Two b a s i c k i n d s of t a b l e a r e used:
a small t r a v e r s e t a b l e w i t h peep- sight a l i d a d e and fixed- leg t r i p o d w i t h o u t l e v e l l i n g head,
obviously a p p r o p r i a t e only f o r rough work; and t h e s t a n d a r d p l a n e - t a b l e board, u s u a l l y
60 X 80 cm, w i t h t e l e s c o p i c a l i d a d e f i x e d w i t h s p i r i t l e v e l s , s e t on a t r i p o d having a l e v e l l i n g head which can b e l e v e l l e d , r o t a t e d about a v e r t i c a l a x i s , and clamped i n any p o s i t i o n
( s e e Figs. VII-20 and VII-21).

5. Trough Compass

2 Drawing Paper
3. Alidade (peep sight)
4. Spirit Level

6. Plumbing Fork
7. Plumb Line
WHO 811110

Fig. VII-20.

Fig. VII-21.
a

- C l a r k , D.

Plane- table

Telescopic a l i d a d e

Plane and g e o d e t i c surveying f o r engineers. Vol. I: Plane surveying,

Standard handbook f o r c i v i l e n g i n e e r s , New York,
London, Constable, 1937. M e r r i t t , F.S.
McGraw-Hill, 1968.

The v a r i o u s components of t h e p l a n e - t a b l e instrument must b e i n c o r r e c t adjustment a s

d e s c r i b e d below i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e accuracy.
The board. The upper s u r f a c e should be a p e r f e c t p l a n e and should be p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
v e r t i c a l a x i s of t h e i n s t r u m e n t .
The a l i d a d e . The f i d u c i a l edge of t h e r u l e r should b e a s t r a i g h t l i n e . The a l i d a d e s p i r i t
l e v e l s should have t h e i r axes p a r a l l e l t o t h e b a s e of t h e r u l e r . I n t h e c a s e of t h e peeps i g h t a l i d a d e , t h e s i g h t s should be p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e b a s e of t h e r u l e r .
The t e l e s c o p e . The l i n e of s i g h t should b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s of t h e t e l
scope. The h o r i z o n t a l a x i s should b e p a r a l l e l t o t h e b a s e of t h e r u l e r . The a x i s of t h e
t e l e s c o p e l e v e l should b e p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i n e of s i g h t .
The i n d e x frame.

The v e r t i c a l c i r c l e should read zero when t h e l i n e of s i g h t i s h o r i z o n t a l

Procedures f o r t e s t i n g and f o r t h e adjustment of t h e p l a n e - t a b l e can be found i n t e x t books on p l a n e surveying.

Methods of s u r v e y i n g w i t h t h e p l a n e - t a b l e

5.3.3

A l l surveys r e q u i r e some k i n d of c o n t r o l , b e i t a b a s e l i n e o r bench mark, o r both.

H o r i z o n t a l c o n t r o l c o n s i s t s of p o i n t s whose p o s i t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d by t r a v e r s e o r t r i a n g u lation.
A t r a v e r s e i s a framework c o n s i s t i n g of a s e r i e s of connected l i n e s , t h e l e n g t h s and
d i r e c t i o n s of which a r e measured. When t h e l i n e s form a c i r c u i t which ends a t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t , i t i s termed a c l o s e d t r a v e r s e ; o t h e r w i s e i t i s unclosed. Except f o r v e r y s m a l l jobs,
i t i s u s u a l l y a d v i s a b l e f i r s t t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a v e r s e i n p l a n e - t a b l e surveying. I t i s w i t h
r e f e r e n c e t o those p o i n t s on t h e t r a v e r s e t h a t f i e l d d e t a i l s a r e l o c a t e d and p l o t t e d .
Procedures f o r t h e b a s i c o p e r a t i o n s i n p l a n e - t a b l e surveying, i n c l u d i n g s e t t i n g up t h e t a b l e ,
t r a v e r s i n g , l o c a t i n g p o i n t s by " r a d i a t i o n " and by " i n t e r s e c t i o n " , and measuring e l e v a t i o n s ,
a r e d e s c r i b e d below; s p e c i a l problems i n p l a n e - t a b l e surveying such a s t h e so- called "threep o i n t problem", "two--point problem" and "method of r e s e c t i o n " a r e n o t d e a l t with.

5.3.3.1

S e t t i n g up t h e t a b l e

I n s e t t i n g up t h e t a b l e a t a s t a t i o n , t h r e e requirements have t o be met: (a) t h e t a b l e

(b) t h e t a b l e must be o r i e n t e d ; and (c) t h e p o i n t on t h e paper ( r e ~ r e s e n must be l e v e l l e d ;
t i n g t h e s t a t i o n b e i n g occupied) should b e v e r t i c a l l y over t h e p o i n t on t h e ground.
(a)

Levelling the t a b l e

The l e g s should f i r s t be spread t o b r i n g t h e t a b l e approximately l e v e l and t h e board t o

a convenient h e i g h t f o r working - p r e f e r a b l y n o t above t h e elbow. The t a b l e i s t h e n placed
over t h e s t a t i o n t o f u l f i l requirements (b) and (c) approximately, and t h e l e v e l l i n g i s
completed by means of t h e l e v e l l i n g screws, by t i l t i n g t h e board by hand i f t h e instrument has
a b a l l and s o c k e t head, o r simply by a d j u s t i n g t h e l e g s i f t h e r e i s no l e v e l l i n g head.
(b)

Orientation

The t a b l e i s s a i d t o be o r i e n t e d when i t i s s o placed, w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s v e r t i c a l a x i s ,

t h a t a l l l i n e s on t h e paper a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e corresponding l i n e s on t h e ground. Orientat i o n , i n t h i s s e n s e , i s obviously n o t r e q u i r e d a t t h e f i r s t s t a t i o n .
The o r i e n t i n g i s u s u a l l y achieved by making u s e of a b a c k s i g h t . Thus, i f t h e t a b l e b e
s e t over a s t a t i o n B, r e p r e s e n t e d on t h e paper by a p o i n t b which has been p l o t t e d by means
of a l i n e ab drawn from a p r e v i o u s s t a t i o n A, t h e o r i e n t a t i o n w i l l c o n s i s t i n b r i n g i n g ba on

t h e paper o v e r BA on t h e ground. The edge of t h e a l i d a d e i s t h e r e f o r e placed along ba, and

t h e board i s turned i n azimuth u n t i l t h e l i n e of s i g h t b i s e c t s t h e s i g n a l A, when t h e horizont a l movement is clamped.
O r i e n t a t i o n may a l s o b e e f f e c t e d (independently of a b a c k s i g h t ) by t h e employment of t h e
trough compass. A t t h e f i r s t s t a t i o n , a f t e r t h e t a b l e has been l e v e l l e d and clamped, t h e
compass box is placed on t h e b o a r d - p r e f e r a b l y o u t s i d e t h e l i m i t s of p l o t t i n g - s o t h a t t h e
n e e d l e f l o a t s c e n t r a l l y , and a f i n e p e n c i l l i n e i s r u l e d a g a i n s t t h e long s i d e of t h e box. A t
any subsequent s t a t i o n t h e compass i s placed a g a i n s t t h i s l i n e and t h e t a b l e i s o r i e n t e d by
t u r n i n g it u n t i l t h e n e e d l e a g a i n f l o a t s c e n t r a l l y . The accuracy of compass o r i e n t a t i o n i s
dependent upon t h e absence of l o c a l a t t r a c t i o n , b u t i s s u i t a b l e f o r work i n which speed i s of
g r e a t e r importance than accuracy. The compass o f t e n proves a v a l u a b l e a d j u n c t i n e n a b l i n g a
r a p i d approximate o r i e n t a t i o n t o be made p r i o r t o t h e f i n a l adjustment, u s i n g a b a c k s i g h t .
(c)

Centring

It has been assumed t h a t b i s s e t v e r t i c a l l y over B by u s e of t h e plumbing f o r k and plumb

l i n e , s o t h a t ba i s brought i n t o t h e same v e r t i c a l p l a n e w i t h BA. I f b happened t o l i e i n t h e
v e r t i c a l a x i s of t h e instrument, i t s p o s i t i o n would b e u n a f f e c t e d by t h e movement of t h e board
i n o r i e n t i n g , b u t o t h e r w i s e b w i l l b e s h i f t e d r e l a t i v e l y t o t h e mark on t h e ground. The operat i o n s of o r i e n t i n g and c e n t r i n g a r e t h e r e f o r e i n t e r r e l a t e d and, i f circumstances r e q u i r e t h a t
t h e p l o t t e d s t a t i o n p o i n t s h a l l be e x a c t l y over t h e ground p o i n t , r e p e a t e d o r i e n t i n g and
s h i f t i n g of t h e who e t a b l e a r e necessary. Commonly, however, a c c u r a t e c e n t r i n g i s a n e e d l e s s
refinement because he e r r o r introduced by i n e x a c t c e n t r i n g i s r a t h e r s m a l l .

5.3.3.2

Traversing

This method i s used f o r l a y i n g down t h e survey l i n e s of a closed o r unclosed t r a v e r s e .

The d e t a i l may then be l o c a t e d by an a p p r o p r i a t e method w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p o i n t s o r l i n e s
on t h e t r a v e r s e .
Having s e l e c t e d a system of s t a t i o n s A, B, C , D, and E ( s e e Fig. VII-22), s t a r t by s e t t i n ;
up over one of them (say A) and, having s e l e c t e d a on t h e paper, b r i n g i t over A. Clamp t h e
board and, w i t h t h e a l i d a d e touching a , s i g h t E and B and draw r a y s a e and ab. Measure AE
and AB and s c a l e o f f a e and ab. Set up a t B, w i t h b over B, and o r i e n t by l a y i n g t h e a l i d a d e
along ba, t u r n i n g t h e t a b l e u n t i l t h e l i n e of s i g h t s t r i k e s A, and then clamping. With t h e
r u l e r a g a i n s t b , s i g h t C, and draw bc t o s c a l e . Proceed i n t h i s manner a t t h e o t h e r s t a t i o n s ,
i n each c a s e o r i e n t i n g by a b a c k s i g h t b e f o r e t a k i n g t h e forward s i g h t .

WHO 811111

Fig. VII-22,

Traversing.

Normally t h e r e i s a n e r r o r of c l o s u r e a t e which i s determined a t D ( i n t h e c a s e

d e s c r i b e d ) and E need n o t b e occupied. I n t e r m e d i a t e checks should be taken whenever p o s s i b l e .
Thus i f A i s v i s i b l e from C , t h e work up t o C may b e checked t h e r e by s i g h t i n g A w i t h t h e
r u l e r a g a i n s t c and n o t i n g i f t h e edge touches a .
The e r r o r of c l o s u r e can b e a d j u s t e d g r a p h i c a l l y . I n Fig. VII-23 t h e polygon Abcdefa,
a s p l o t t e d , i s found t o have a c l o s i n g e r r o r aA. This e r r o r i s d i s t r i b u t e d by s h i f t i n g each
p l o t t e d s t a t i o n i n a d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l t o t h a t of aA and by an amount p r o p o r t i o n a l t o i t s
d i s t a n c e along t h e t r a v e r s e from t h e i n i t i a l s t a t i o n A. The c o r r e c t i o n s may b e o b t a i n e d
g r a p h i c a l l y a s shown. ABCDEFA i s t h e a d j u s t e d t r a v e r s e .

W-

-.

F i g . VII-23.

per~meler

- -'- y

Graphical adjustment of t h e
e r r o r of c l o s u r e .

Plotting the detail

(a)

Locating p o i n t s by r a d i a t i o n

Locating a p o i n t by r a d i a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e measurement of a d i r e c t i o n and a d i s t a n c e . A s

d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 5.3.3.2 above, t h e manner of l o c a t i n g and p l o t t i n g t h e s t a t i o n s (subsequent t o t h e i n i t i a l one) i s i n f a c t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e method of r a d i a t i o n .
The procedures f o r l o c a t i n g p o i n t s by r a d i a t i o n a r e a s follows: Set up and o r i e n t t h e
t a b l e a t a s t a t i o n ( s t a t i o n A i n F i g . VII-24) and clamp t h e h o r i z o n t a l movement. With t h e
a l i d a d e touching a , s i g h t t h e v a r i o u s p o i n t s L, M, N, e t c . t o b e l o c a t e d , drawing r a d i a l l i n e s
towards them. Measure d i s t a n c e s AL, AM, AN, e t c . , s e t them o f f t o s c a l e , and j o i n t h e p o i n t s
e t c . , s o obtained.

Fig. VII-24.

Locating p o i n t s by r a d i a t i o n .

(b)

Locating p o i n t s by i n t e r s e c t i o n

This method i s l a r g e l y used 05 mapping d e t a i l b u t i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r p l o t t i n g t h e

p o s i t i o n s of p o i n t s t o b e used a s subsequent instrument s t a t i o n s . The o n l y l i n e a r measurement
r e q u i r e d i s t h a t of a b a s e l i n e .
Lay o u t and measure a b a s e l i n e AB (Fig. VII-25). P l o t ab i n a convenient p o s i t i o n on
t h e s h e e t . Set up a t A w i t h a over A, and o r i e n t by l a y i n g t h e a l i d a d e along ab and t u r n i n g
t h e t a b l e u n t i l t h e l i n e of s i g h t c u t s B. Clamp, and, w i t h t h e r u l e r touching a , s i g h t t h e
v a r i o u s p o i n t s d e f i n i n g t h e surrounding d e t a i l and p o i n t s s e l e c t e d a s f u t u r e i n s t r u m e n t
s t a t i o n s , drawing a r a y from a towards each. Proceed t o B, s e t up w i t h b over B, and o r i e n t
by b a c k s i g h t i n g on A. Through b draw r a y s towards t h e p o i n t s p r e v i o u s l y s i g h t e d . Each p o i n t
i s l o c a t e d by t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e two r a y s drawn towards i t . Before l e a v i n g B, draw a
s e r i e s of f i r s t r a y s towards o t h e r p o i n t s n o t s i g h t e d from A, and t h e n proceed t o C , o r i e n t on
A o r B, and o b t a i n a new s e r i e s of i n t e r s e c t i o n s .

Fig. VII-25.

Locating p o i n t s by i n t e r s e c t i o n .

An extended survey should, whenever p o s s i b l e , b e based upon a system of p o i n t s whose

r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s have been obtained by t r a v e r s i n g . No b a s e l i n e i s t h e n r e q u i r e d , and n o t
only can such s t a t i o n s be occupied by t h e t a b l e b u t , on s e t t i n g up a t o t h e r s i t e s , t h e o r i e n t =
t i o n can b e v e r i f i e d by r e f e r e n c e t o them and accumulation of e r r o r i s avoided.
I n o r d e r t o y i e l d d e f i n i t e i n t e r s e c t i o n s , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t i n t e r s e c t i o n angles should
n o t be l e s s than 45O.
5.3.3.4

Measuring e l e v a t i o n s

With a t e l e s c o p i c a l i d a d e , e l e v a t i o n s of p o i n t s can be determined by d i r e c t l e v e l l i n g o r

computed from v e r t i c a l a n g l e s and s c a l e d map d i s t a n c e s . However, d i r e c t l e v e l l i n g u s i n g t h e
a l i d a d e i s slow.
The Indian c l i n o m e t e r , a s shown i n Fig. VII-26, i s a n instrument f o r measuring v e r t i c a l
d i s t a n c e s and i s s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d t o plane- tabling. The f r o n t s i g h t vane i s graduated i n
degrees and n a t u r a l t a n g e n t s , and t h e eyehole of t h e r e a r vane i s h o r i z o n t a l l y o p p o s i t e t h e
zero of t h e s c a l e s when t h e instrument i s l e v e l l e d . The e l e v a t i o n of t h e s t a t i o n occupied can
be determined by o b s e r v a t i o n of a p o i n t of known l e v e l a l r e a d y p l o t t e d . The surveyor p l a c e s
t h e clinometer i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e d i s t a n t p o i n t , l e v e l s i t , and, w i t h t h e eye a few inches
from t h e s i g h t i n g h o l e , observes t h e g r a d u a t i o n on t h e t a n g e n t s c a l e o p p o s i t e t h e p o i n t sight e d . The d i f f e r e n c e of l e v e l i s t h e t a n g e n t times t h e d i s t a n c e a s s c a l e d from t h e map, and t o
t h i s r e s u l t w i l l be a p p l i e d t h e h e i g h t of t h e l i n e of s i g h t from t h e ground under t h e t a b l e .

224

The peep- sight a l i d a d e cannot b e used f o r determining e l e v a t i o n s .

Fig. VII-26.

5.3.4

Indian clinometer

Field party

5.3.4.1

Personnel

For small s u r v e y s , t h e surveyor does n o t r e q u i r e more t h a n two men t o measure d i s t a n c e s ,

I n l a r g e s u r v e y s , t h e work may b e expedited i f t h e surveyor has a q u a l i mark s t a t i o n s , e t c .
f i e d a s s i s t a n t who can proceed w i t h t h e p l o t t i n g w h i l e t h e c h i e f r e c o n n o i t r e s t h e forward
ground. The number of men r e q u i r e d depends on t h e n a t u r e of t h e ground a s w e l l a s t h e method
of surveying. I n t a c h e o m e t r i c a l r a d i a t i o n , i t w i l l u s u a l l y be p o s s i b l e t o keep two staffmen
f u l l y occupied, and more i f t h e p o i n t s s i g h t e d a r e widely spread.
5.3.4.2

Equipment

The amount of a p p a r a t u s t o b e c a r r i e d depends upon t h e n a t u r e and magnitude of t h e survey.

A f u l l equipment c o n s i s t s o f :
P l a n e - t a b l e , t r i p o d , and a l i d a d e .
S p i r i t l e v e l , trough compass, plumb-bob , f o r k and cover.
S c a l e s , one o r two set- squares , p e n c i l s , r u b b e r , sand-paper, i n k ,
c o l o u r s , drawing pen, and small notebook.
P o r t f o l i o o r c y l i n d r i c a l case f o r sheets.
Poles and f l a g s .
For tacheometry: s t a f f and s t a d i a r e d u c t i o n t a b l e s o r diagram.
For t r a v e r s i n g , e t c . : c h a i n o r t a p e , and p i n s .
For b a r o m e t r i c l e v e l l i n g : aneroid.

II

FURTHER READING LIST

Alma-Ata 1978. Primary health care. Report of the International Conference on Primary Health
Care, Alma-Ata, USSR, 6-12 September 1978. Geneva, 1978 ("Health for All" Series, No. 1).
Clark, D. Plane and geodetic surveying for engineers.

London, Constable, 1937.

Feachem, R. & Cairncross, S. Small excreta disposal systems.

Tropical Hygiene, 1978 (Ross Bulletin, No. 8).

Merritt, F.S.

London, The Ross Institute of

Gloyna, E.F. Waste stabilization ponds. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1971 (Monograph
Series, No. 60).

WHO Technical Report Series, No. 649, 1980. (Environmental management for vector control:
third reoort of the WHO Emert Counnittee on Vector Biologv and Control).

Standard handbook for civil engineers. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1968.

World Health Organization. Manual on larval control operations in malaria programmes.

Geneva, 1973 (Offset Publication, No. 1)

. 226 .
ANNEXES
CONTENTS
Page

. . . . . . . . . . . . 227
A. Important malaria vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Table 1.1 Important malaria vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Table 1.2 Notes on the biology of the more important malaria
vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Further reading list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
B. Important vectors of lymphatic filariasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Table 1.3 Filarial parasites transmitted by mosquitos . . . . . . . . 241
Table 1.4 Notes on the biology of important filarial
vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Further reading list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
C. Important mosquito vectors of arboviral diseases . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Basic information on mosquito vectors and diseases

. . . 247
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
D. Pestmosquitos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Table 1.7 Important pest mosquitos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Table 1.8 Distribution and biology of important pest mosquitos
. . 250
Table 1.5 Important arboviral diseases transmitted by mosquitos
Table 1.6 Biology of important mosquito vectors of arboviral
diseases
Further reading list

5.

List of environmental management measures which have proved to be

useful in the prevention and control of malaria and schistosomiasis

. . 265

Matrix for the study and analysis of the environmental impact of a

reservoir in a water resources development project

. . . . . . . . . . . 269

Checklist of major steps for the prevention and control of vector-borne

diseases at each phase of water resources development projects

. . . . . 272

Equipment for environmental management

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Annex 1
BASIC INFORMATION ON MOSQUITO VECTORS AND DISEASES

A.

Important m a l a r i a v e c t o r s

The b a s i c epidemiology of m a l a r i a involves a man-Anopheles-man t r a n s m i s s i o n c y c l e .

Usually t r a n s m i s s i o n t a k e s p l a c e indoors, t h e dangerous v e c t o r e n t e r i n g t h e houses a t n i g h t t o
feed on man; it may a l s o o c c u r outdoors where people s l e e p o r spend t h e evening hours o u t s i d e
t h e i r houses. Malaria epidemiology depends on environmental f a c t o r s ( c l i m a t e , topography,
hydrology, h o u s i n g ) , on human f a c t o r s (land use and occupation, d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s and h a b i t s ,
m i g r a t i o n of people, m a l a r i a p r e v a l e n c e ) , and on entomological f a c t o r s ( d e n s i t y , f l i g h t range,
breeding, feeding and r e s t i n g h a b i t s of mosquitos, and i n f e c t i o n r a t e ) .
A l l mosquito l a r v a e r e q u i r e w a t e r f o r t h e i r development and almost a l l s o r t s of w a t e r
l o c a t i o n s have been e x p l o i t e d by t h e s e v e r a l thousands of mosquito s p e c i e s . I n t h e c h o i c e of
breeding p l a c e s , c e r t a i n s p e c i e s a r e h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e ; o t h e r s p e c i e s a r e r a t h e r i n d i f f e r e n t
and t h e i r l a r v a e may b e found i n a wide v a r i e t y of w a t e r bodies. D e s p i t e many y e a r s of
r e s e a r c h t h e r e i s s t i l l no c l e a r understanding of t h e n a t u r a l p r o p e n s i t y of t h e female mosquito
t o s e l e c t a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of water a s being most s u i t a b l e f o r o v i p o s i t i o n .

Major f a c t o r s t h a t determine h a b i t a t p r e f e r e n c e a r e shade o r sun exposure, q u i e t o r flowi n g w a t e r , temperature, s a l t c o n t e n t , s u r f a c e v e g e t a t i o n and f l o a t a g e , and o r g a n i c p o l l u t i o n .

The following c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a t t e m p t s t o i d e n t i f y t h e most common breeding h a b i t a t s and t o
i n d i c a t e f o r each t y p e t h e most s u i t a b l e environmental management measures f o r i t s c o n t r o l .

A.

Large bodies of f r e s h water i n f u l l o r p a r t i a l s u n l i g h t .

o r emergent v e g e t a t i o n o r f l o a t a g e n e a r t h e edges.
1.

Impoundments, l a k e s , p o o l s , bays, l a r g e borrow p i t s , slow r i v e r s , and pools i n

d r y i n g beds of r i v e r s and major streams.

2.

Marshes, bogs, and swamps.

Control :

B.

Larvae occur i n f l o a t i n g

S h o r e l i n e s t r a i g h t e n i n g by c u t t i n g , deepening and f i l l i n g ; s h o r e l i n e preparat i o n by l e v e l l i n g , g r a d i n g and c l e a r i n g v e g e t a t i o n ; f i l l i n g o r d r a i n i n g s i d e

p o c k e t s ; w a t e r l e v e l management; i n t r o d u c t i o n of n a t u r a l enemies and predat o r s ; d r a i n a g e , f i l l i n g , and ponding o r c a n a l i z i n g of marshes and swamps.

Small c o l l e c t i o n s of seepage w a t e r , s t a g n a n t and o f t e n muddy, b u t n o t p o l l u t e d ;

f u l l t o p a r t i a l s u n l i g h t . Vegetation p r e s e n t o r a b s e n t .
1.

Semipermanent r a i n pools o r overflow w a t e r ; r o a d s i d e d i t c h e s , clogged d r a i n a g e

d i t c h e s , small borrow p i t s , wheel r u t s , h o o f p r i n t s , n a t u r a l d e p r e s s i o n s on t h e
ground, and puddles a t t h e edge of r i c e f i e l d s .

2.

Desert s a l i n e pools.

Control:

F i l l i n g and grading;

drainage.

C.

Ricef i e l d s .

Control:

D.

Brackish o r s a l t w a t e r marshes and lagoons;

sunlight.

Control:

E.

Pools, ponds, swamps, and s l u g g i s h streams.

2.

Springs, shallow seepages and puddles on f o r e s t ground.

1.

Shallow g r a v e l l y stream beds w i t h emergent g r a s s and weeds.

2.

Margins of f o o t h i l l streams;

3.

Lowland grassy o r weedy streams and i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s .

4.

Stream bed pools and s i d e pockets w i t h abundant a l g a e mats.

5.

Pools i n drying stream beds.

6.

Rock h o l e s i n stream beds.

small i r r i g a t i o n channels of upland r i c e f i e l d s .

Stream bed c o r r e c t i o n and c l e a r a n c e , channelling, ponding, s l u i c i n g and f l u s h i n g , shading, and v e g e t a t i o n and d e b r i s clearance.

Springs ; seepages from streams, i r r i g a t i o n channels and tanks ; c l e a r water;

direct sunlight.
Drainage, f i l l i n g , r e p a i r of l e a k s i n dams and embankments, and v e g e t a t i o n
clearance.

P l a n t hollows and c a v i t i e s :

Control:

I.

Drainage, f i l l i n g , ponding, c a n a l i z i n g , v e g e t a t i o n removal, and jungle

clearance.

Running w a t e r courses, c l e a r f r e s h water, d i r e c t s u n l i g h t .

Control:

H.

f u l l or partial

Drainage, deepening and f i l l i n g , ponding, c a n a l i z i n g , changing s a l i n i t y by

u s i n g t i d e g a t e s and d i k e s , marshland reclamation, and v e g e t a t i o n clearance.

1.

Control:

G.

s a l t w a t e r f i s h ponds;

P a r t i a l l y o r h e a v i l y shaded water i n f o r e s t s o r jungles.

Control:

F.

I n t e r m i t t e n t i r r i g a t i o n of paddy f i e l d s w i t h f l o o d i n g and drying p e r i o d s ;

grading of paddies and d i t c h e s f o r r a p i d dewatering; v e g e t a t i o n c l e a r a n c e .

e p i p h y t i c a r b o r e a l and t e r r e s t r i a l bromeliads

D e s t r u c t i o n of water- holding p l a n t s .

Man-made c o n t a i n e r s : w e l l s , c i s t e r n s , water s t o r a g e tanks, ornamental bas ns , t i n s ,

p l a s t i c packages, e t c .

Control:

Tight covers o r s c r e e n s f o r e s s e n t i a l water s t o r a g e c i s t e r n s , b a r r e l s , e t c . ,

and emptying, p i e r c i n g o r fiestroying unnecessary water c o n t a i n e r s .

Table 1.1 presents a list of the Anopheles mosquitos most commonly incriminated in malaria
transmission and their chief preferences in breeding habitats; they are grouped according to
geographical distribution. The symbols used for habitats agree with the above classification.
A capital letter denotes a definite preference for such type of habitat; a small letter
indicates that, to a lesser degree, larvae of the particular species are found in this type
of habitat, either in the presence or absence of the preferred habitat.
Table 1.2 presents an alphabetical list of Anopheles species that are important in malaria
transmission, with a summary of information on the adult mosquito habits and on larval habitats.

Table 1.1.
Region

1.

Important malaria vectors

Anopheles species

Habitat**

North America
(a) Southeastern
(b) Southwestern
(c) Mexico

quadrimaculatus Say
freeborni Aitken
albimanus Wiedemann
pseudopunctipennis Theobald
aztecus Hoffman

2.

Central America and

West Ind

*albimanus Wiedemann
aquasalis Curry
pseudopunctipennis
bellator Dyar and Knab
punctimacula Dyar and Knab

3.

South Amer

"darlingi
" Root
kalbimanus Wiedemann (Ecuador),
Colombia, Venezuela)
aquasalis Curry
pseudopunctipennis Theobald
(Northern and Western)
*nuneztovari Gabaldon
(Northern)
albitarsis Lynch Arribalzaga
punctimacula Dyar and Knab
bellator Dvar and Knab
cruzii Dyar and Knab

4. North European and

Asiatic regions

**
*

labranchiae atroparvus Van Thiel

maculipennis messeae Falleroni
*sacharovi Favre
sinensis Wiedemann
(Southern China)
pattoni Christophers
(Northern China)

See pages 227-228 for explanation of symbols.

Species responsible for continuing transmission.

A1,2; bl
C; F3; G
A1,2; B1; G
F4
Al; E

El; a1,2
A1,2; B1; d

5.

Pledi t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n

6.

Desert
(North A f r i c a
and Arabia)

7.

Ethiopian region
(a) Africa

8.

9.

*sacharovi Favre
labranchiae labranchiae Falleroni
1. a t r o p a r v u s Van T h i e l
(Spain, P o r t u g a l )
*superpictus Grassi
c l a v i g e r Meigen
m. messeae F a l l e r o n i
S e r e e n t i i Theobald
h i s p a n i o l a Theobald
n s e r g e n t i i Theobald
"pharoensis Theobald
m u l t i c o l o r Cambouliu
h i s p a n i o l a Theobald

3; G
F5
2
F3; b l ; g
F4
F3; b l ; g

d t h a l i Patton
~ h a r o e n s i sTheobald
kgambiae G i l e s a r a b i e n s i s P a t t o n
*melas Theobald
(Vest c o a s t )
merus D h i t z
(East c o a s t )
*f unes t u s G i l e s
n i l i Theobald
moucheti Evans

(b) Yemen

*gambiae s . 1 .
c u l i c i f a c i e s Giles
s e r n e n t i i Theobald

B1
F4,5; B 1 ; C ; I
C ; F3; b l ; g

Middle East and

South-Eas t Asia

*culicifacies Giles
* s t e ~ h e n s iL i s t o n
minimus Theobald
* f l u v i a t i l i s James
varuna Iyengar
a n n u l a r i s van d e r Wulp
p h i l i p p i n e n s i s Ludlow
*hvrcanus P a l l a s
*pulcherrimus Theobald
*superpictus Grassi
sundaicus Rodenwaldt
d t h a l i Patton

F4,5; B1; C ; I
I; b l ; f 3 , 5
F2
F2; a2
F2
A1
A1,2; C

H i l l zones of Burma,

Thailand and Indochina

*minimus Theobald
*balabacensis b a l a b a c e n s i s Baisas
a n n u l a r i s van d e r Wulp
maculatus Theobald

10.

South-East Asia region

(Malaysia, Indonesia,
Philippines, coastal
plains from south China
to Bengal)

11.

Chinese region
(Central China, Korean
peninsula, Japan)

12.

Southern
regions

&

sundaicus Rodenwaldt
letifer Sandosham
umbrosus Theobald
*b. balabacensis Baisas
maculatus Theobald
minimus Theobald
minimus flavirostris Ludlow
(Philippines)
subpictus Grassi
sinensis Wiedemann
aconitus ~gnitz
campestris Reid
donaldi Reid
philippinensis Ludlow
leucosphyrus Dgnitz
sinensis Wiedemann
pattoni Christophers
lesteri Baisas and Hu
martinius Shingarev

Western Pacific

subpictus Grassi
karwari James

Table 1.2.

B1; C
A1,2; c
A1,2; C
A2; c; 3
A2; C
A1,2; C
El,2

B1
B1; d
B1
F3
B1
Bl; F3; al; g

Notes on the biology of the more important malaria vectors

Anopheles aconitus (Oriental region)

Adult habits:
Larval habitats:

Zoophilic, but will bite man indoors and outdoors. Resting sites: houses,
animal sheds, bushes, stream banks. Observed flight: 1 km.

icef fields, lakes, ponds, swamps, impoundments.

(continued overleaf)

An. albimanus (Mexico, Central and South America)

Adult habits:

Zoophilic and moderately anthropophilic; a significant proportion of

females enter houses to feed on man. Resting sites: houses, sheds,
rockpiles and walls, bridge abutments, tree holes. Females active through
evening hours. Observed flight: 2 km.

Larval habitats:

Open, sunlit impoundments, lakes, ponds, marshes, swamps, pools; rainfilled small depressions, hoofprints, wheel ruts.

An. balabacensis (Malaysia, Indonesia, haila and, Burma, India)

Adult habits:

A shade-loving inhabitant of dense forest and forest fringes. Strongly

anthropophilic; females bite people in or near forests, indoors and outdoors. Resting sites: shelters in forest, shrubs, stream banks; brief
periods of resting in houses before and after feeding during the night.
Flight range uncertain, but invades villages from a nearby forest.

Larval habitats:

Deeply shaded pools and seepages in densely shaded rain forests; hoofprints, mining pits, irrigation ditches; also man-made excavations
including those in open sun.

An. carnpestris(Malaysia, Thailand)

Adult habits:

Strongly anthropophilic, bites man both indoors and outdoors; peak of

activity from 20 00 to 02 00 hours.

Larval habitats:

Ricefields, swamps, marshes, ponds, pools, ditches, canals, hoofprints.

An. culicifacies(Middle East, South-East Asia, China)

Adult habits:

Recognized as the most important

the high rate of adult mortality,
densities. Adults feed on man or
stables. Resting sites: houses,
Observed flight: 1 km.

vector in the Indian region in spite of

because of its enormous population
domestic animals at night in houses or
stables, sheds; dense vegetation.

Larval habitats: Pools, borrow pits, drying stream beds, ponds, irrigation channels, ricefields.

An. darlingi (S. America)

Adult habits:

Strongly anthropophilic, endophilic, and endophagic, although in the

interior of South America there are populations that can be caught in
animal traps and which feed on animals and man out of doors. The peak of
indoor biting activity occurs from 24 00 to 02 00 hours. Observed flight:
1.5 km.

Larval habitats:

Large shaded reservoirs, ponds, irrigation canals, swamps, stream margins,

ricefields, pools.

An. dthali (Middle East, India, and East, West and Central Africa)
Adult habits:

A vector in Iran, where it bites man, and rests both indoors and outdoors.
Also suspected to be a vector in northern Somalia.

Larval habitats:

Wells, seepages, pools in river beds, grassy streams.

An. fluviatilis(Middle East, South-East Asia, China)

Adult habits:

Anthropophilic and endophilic; enters houses at night to feed and rest.

Gravid females have been observed to leave shelters at dusk to oviposit,
and to return for another blood meal within an hour. Observed flight:
1 km.

Larval habitats: Hill streams, ditches, irrigation channels, spring pools, wells, ponds,
ricefields.

An. funestus (Ethiopian region)

Adult habits:

Strongly anthropophilic, endophag c, and endophilic. Prefers man even in

the presence of sheep and cattle, although some animal feeding also occurs.
peak-of indoor biting in second half of the night. Preferred resting sites
are houses; some outdoor resting in tree buttresses, overhanging earth
banks, rock crevices, etc. Observed flight: 7 km.

Larval habitats:

Permanent, vegetated waters, including swamps, ponds, lake margins, streams,

ditches; ricefields.

An. gambiae s.1. (Ethiopian region)

Adult habits:

Six species are now recognized in the An. gambiae complex. An. gambiae
and An. arabiensis, the principal malaria vectors in tropical Africa, are
strongly anthropophilic, endophagic, and endophilic; however, outdoor
feeding and resting also occur. An. quadriannulatus appears to be entirely
exophilic and zoophilic. A. melas is a vector which is abundant near
salt-water breeding places on the west coast. A. merus is a vector in
East, Central and Southern Africa and breeds in saline and brackish water
extending well inland. Species D, the sixth member of the An. gambiae
complex, is not a vector. It breeds in mineral water springs and has been
found only in a forest in Uganda.

Larval habitats:

All kinds of water-filled depressions in the

sunlit pools, borrow pits, hoofprints, wheel
for mud bricks was excavated. A. merus and
saltwater marshes and lagoons along the east
respectively.

ground, especially shallow

ruts, and pits from which soil
A. melas breed in brackish and
and west African coasts

234

An. hyrcanus ( C e n t r a l and Northern Asia, Japan, Hungary, and Medi-rranean

region)

Adult h a b i t s :

The t y p e form has been shown t o be a v e c t o r i n n o r t h - e a s t Afghanistan;

h e r e a d u l t s do n o t r e s t i n houses because of low humidity, but do r e s t on
o u t s i d e w a l l s of houses, i n caves, hollow t r e e s , creek banks, and vegetat i o n . They become a c t i v e s h o r t l y a f t e r s u n s e t , and then a t t a c k people i n
gardens and f i e l d s . They do n o t b i t e indoors.

Larval h a b i t a t s :

R i c e f i e l d s , ponds, swamps.

An. l e s t e r i (Western P a c i f i c , China)

Adult h a b i t s :

Said t o b e t h e primary m a l a r i a v e c t o r i n t h e Changjiang (Yangtze) v a l l e y ;

strongly anthropophilic here.

Larval h a b i t a t s :

R i c e f i e l d s , ponds, swamps, l a k e s .

An. l e t i f e r ( I n d o n e s i a , Malaysia, Thailand)

Adult h a b i t s :

I n p a r t i a l l y c l e a r e d o r more open f o r e s t s of c o a s t arl Malaysia; females

e n t e r houses a t n i g h t t o feed on man; a l s o a t t a c k by day i n t h e shade.

Larval h a b i t a t s :

Shaded o r p a r t l y s u n l i t p o o l s , d r a i n s , e s p e c i a l l y with accumulations of

decaying l e a v e s and o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n .

An. leucosphyrus (South-East Asia)

Adult h a b i t s :

Shown t o b e a v e c t o r i n n o r t h e r n Sarawak; h e r e a d u l t s e n t e r houses t o

feed on people, w i t h peak a c t i v i t y between 12 00 and 02 00 hours.

Larval h a b i t a t s :

A f o r e s t species;

breeds e s p e c i a l l y i n seepages and r a i n p o o l s .

An. maculatus ( O r i e n t a l r e g i o n )
Adult h a b i t s :

A v e c t o r i n t h e f o o t h i l l s of Malaysia, e s p e c i a l l y following d e f o r e s t a t i o n .
P r e f e r s c a t t l e , but r e a d i l y a t t a c k s man both indoors and outdoors. Most
b i t i n g a c t i v i t y between 21 00 and 24 00 hours; most females l e a v e houses
b e f o r e 08 00 hours. Observed f l i g h t : 2 km.

Larval h a b i t a t s :

Small, s u n l i t stream margins, seepages, s p r i n g s , r i c e f i e l d s w i t h running

water.

An. minimus ( O r i e n t a l r e g i o n )
Adult h a b i t s :

I n f o o t h i l l s of I n d i a , minimus, f l u v i a t i l i s , and varuna formerly were

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n t e n s e m a l a r i a t r a n s m i s s i o n . An. minimus i s of
importance i n Vietnam and elsewhere i n South-East Asia, e s p e c i a l l y when
f o r e s t s a r e c l e a r e d i n h i l l y r e g i o n s . Adults feed on man b o t h indoors and
outdoors; b i t i n g a c t i v i t y occurs d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e n i g h t .

Larval h a b i t a t s :

The edges of g e n t l y moving, c l e a n , c l e a r streams.

An. minimus flavirostris (Philippines, Indonesia)

Adult habits:

The vector in foothill regions. Adults enter houses to feed on man, but
leave early in the morning so that they are seldom found in house catches.
Resting adults may be taken from overhanging creek banks and similar outdoor shelters. Commonly taken in animal-baited traps. Observed flight:
2 km.

Larval habitats:

Margins of small, sunlit streams.

An. moucheti (Central Africa)

Adult habits:

Strongly anthropophilic, endophagic, endophilic; also attacks man outdoors. Biting activity continues throughout the night.

Larval habitats: Ponds, pools, sluggish streams and large rivers in forested areas,
especially with Pistia and other horizontal vegetation.

An. nili (Ethiopian region)

Adult habits:

Anthropophilic, endophilic, and endophagic in some areas; less so in

others.

Larval habitats:

Shaded streams and river margins with surface vegetation; swamps, pits.

An. nuneztovari (South America)

Adult habits:

Two populations may represent sibling species. One bites at sunset, feeds
on man and animals mainly outdoors, and is not a vector. The other population (in northern Colombia and western Venezuela) is anthropophilic and
endophagic, with peak activity between 22 00 and 24 00 hours.

Larval habitats: Pools, puddles, ponds, small lagoons, streams, ricefields.

An. pharoensis (Ethiopian region, North Africa, Middle East)

Adult habits:

Secondary vector associated with malaria in Egypt. Adults bite man or

animals indoors and outdoors, seldom rest in houses, but are found on
reeds and other vegetation of the breeding places. Observed flight:
9 km.

Larval habitatS:

Ricefields, swamps, lakes, reservoirs.

An. pseudopunctipennis (Central and South America)

Adult habits:

Formerly of importance locally; weakly anthropophilic. Females feed

freely during the evening and night, out of doors on animals and man, and
seek shelter at dawn in houses as well as elsewhere; at dusk both unfed
and fully gravid females become active and leave the shelter. Observed
flight: 6 km.

Larval habitats: Pools in drying stream beds with Spirogyra and other surface vegetation.

An. pulcherrimus (Middle East, South-East Asia)

Adult habits:

Responsible, with hyrcanus, for continuing malaria transmission in

Afghanistan. Adults feed outdoors on man and animals from sunset through
the early part of the night. Outdoor resting sites are those shared with
hyrcanus, but pulcherrimus also rests inside sheds and houses.

Larval habitats:

Ricefields, swamps, ponds.

An. punctulatus group (Southern and Western Pacific regions)

Adult habits:

Three species: punctulatus, faranti, koliensis, with similar behaviour

patterns: homophilic, endophilic, and endophagic. Observed flight:
1 km.

Larval habitats:

Rain pools, ruts, hoofprints, pools in drying stream beds; ponds, lagoons,
seepages, swamps.

An. sacharovi (Mediterranean, Middle East)

Adult habits:

Anthropophilic and zoophilic; endophagic and exophagic; endophilic and

exophilic. Biting of people sleeping outdoors has contributed to the
persistence of malaria in some areas. Observed flight: 8-14 km.

Larval habitats:

Brackish water, coastal marshes, lagoons, pools; freshwater inland swamps

and pools.

An. sergentii (Mediterranean, Middle East, South-East Asia)

Adult habits:

Typically a desert species; a vector in oases. Adults bite man and animals indoors and outdoors, and rest in houses, sheds, caves, rockpiles,
and crevices in the ground. Observed flight: 4 km.

Larval habitats: Streams, seepages, irrigation ditches, ricefields, borrow pits.

An. stephensi (Middle East, South and South-East Asia, China)

Adult habits:

A dangerous vector throughout its range; anthropophilic, endophilic,

endophagic. Especially adaptable to urban environments and so intensely
domestic. Observed flight: 2.5 km.

Larval habitats: Stream margins, seepages, marshy areas, springs, ponds, pools, irrigation
channels; wells, cisterns, and other artificial containers.

An. subpictus (South and South-East Asia, China, and South-West Pacific)
Adult habits:

Widespread and common in South-East Asia. Considered to be an important

vector in Timor; vector role elsewhere uncertain. Adults will feed and
rest in houses, but prefer domestic animals. Observed flight: 1.5-6.2 km.

Larval habitats: Fresh and brackish water pools.

An. sundaicus (South-East Asia, China)

Adult habits:

An important vector along the sea-coasts of South-East Asia and Indonesia.

~ighlyanthropophilic; bites man indoors or outdoors, with peak activity
between 22 00 and 24 00 hours. Resting sites: houses, stables; rock
crevices, crevices in sand banks, bushes. Observed flight: 0.5-6.2 km.

Larval habitats: Brackish water marshes, lagoons, pools; salt-water fish ponds.

An. superpictus (Mediterranean, Middle East, Central Asia)

Adult habits:

Responsible for continued malaria transmission in some localities of the

Middle-East. Adults feed on man indoors and outdoors, and rest in houses,
sheds, caves, earth crevices, and under bridges. Observed flight: 2-7 km.

Larval habitats: Shallow, grassy, pebbly streams, pools, seepages.

An. varuna (India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Nepal)

Adult habits:

Formerly a dangerous vector in the hills of Bengal.

Larval habitats: Irrigation channels, seepages, wells.

Further reading list

Bhatt,H.R. et al. A pre-monsoonic outbreak of mal-aria in the Khodiar dam site labour colony,
Amreli District, Sauraeshtra (Gujarat State), Indian journal of malariology, g:215-221 (1962).
Breeland, S.G. Studies on the ecology of Anopheles albimanus. American journal of tropical
medicine and hygiene, z:751-754 (1972).
Brown, A.W.A. & Pal, R. Insecticide resistance in arthropods. 2nd edition. Geneva, World
Health Organization, 1971 (Monograph series, No. 38).
Cansey, O.R. et al. Studies on the Brazilian anophelines from the northeast and Amazon
regions. Baltimore, the Johns Hopkins Press, 1946 (American Journal of Hygiene Monograph
Series, No. 18).
Coluzzi, M. et al. Chromosomal differentiation and adaptation to human environments in the
Anopheles gambiae complex. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,
73:483-497 (1979).
Covell, G. Notes on the distribution, breeding- places,
adult habits and the relation to
.
malaria of the anopheline mosquitos of India and the Far East. Indian journal of malariology.
16:521-565 (1962).
-

Detinova, T.S. Age-grouping methods in Diptera of medical importance, with special reference
to some vectors of malaria. With an appendix on the ovary and ovarioles of mosquitos (with
glossary) by D.S. Bertram. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1961 (Monograph series, No. 47)Elliott, R. The influence of vector behavior on malaria transmission.
tropical medicine and hygiene, 2:755-763 (1972).

American journal of

Farid, M.A. The implications of Anopheles sergenti for malaria eradication programmes east of
the Mediterranean. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, g:821-828 (1956).
Garcia-Martin, G. Status of malaria eradication in the Americas.
medicine and hygiene, 21:617-633 (1972).

American journal of tropical

Garrett-Jones, C. The possibility of active long-distance migrations by Anopheles pharoensis

Theobald. ~ulletinof the World Health organization, z:299-302 (1962).
Gillies, M.T. & de Meillon, B. The Anophelinae of Africa south of the Sahara (Ethiopian zoogeographical region). Johannesburg, South African Institute for Medical Research, 1968
(Publication, No. 54).
Gramiccia, G. & Hempel, J. Mortality and morbidity from malaria in countries where malaria
eradication is not making satisfactory progress. Journal of tropical medicine and hygiene,
75:187-192 (1972).
Hackett, L.W.

Malaria in Europe:

An ecological study.

London, Oxford University Press, 1937.

Hamon, J. & Garrett-Jones, C. La resistance aux insecticides chez des vecteurs majeurs du
paludisme et son importance operationnelle. Bulletin de lf0rganisationMondiale de la Sant6,
28:l-24 (1963).
Hamon, J. & Mouchet, J. Les vecteurs secondaires du paludisme humain en Afrique.
tropicale, 2:643-660 (1961).

Medicine

Hamon, J. et al. Le paludisme dans la zone pilote antipaludique de Bobo Dioulasso (Haute
2Sme partie: Enqugtes entomologiques. Cahiers ORSTOM, Entomologie m&dicale,
Volta, A.O.F.)
1:37-61
(1959).
Ho, C. et al. The Anopheles hyrcanus group and its relation to malaria in East China.
Chinese medical journal, 81:71-78 (1962).
Iyengar, M.O.T. Vectors of malaria in Kabul, Afghanistan. Transactions of the Royal Society
of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, %:319-324 (1954).
Khalil, M. et al. On the transmission of filariasis bancrofti in Egypt. Journal of the
Egyptian Medical Association, g:317-322 (1932).
Leeson, H.S. et al. Anopheles and malaria in the Near East.
School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Memoirs, No. 7).

London, Lewis, 1950 (London

Lien, J.C. et al. Observations on natural plasmodial infections in mosquitos and a brief
survey of mosquito fauna in Belu Regency, Indonesia, Timor. Journal of medical entomology,
12:333-337 (1975).
Lysenko, A. Ya & Dang Van Ngy. Investigations on the epidemiology of malaria in North Vietnam
Communication 3. Seasonal changes in the population of Anopheles minimus and their relation
to climatic factors. Medicinskaja parazitologija: parazitarnye bolezni, %:73-81 (1965).
~ l
(In Russian, with ~ n ishsummary)

McArthur, J. The transmission of malaria in Borneo.

Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, g:537-558 (1947).
Macdonald, G.

~ransactionsof the ~ o y a lSociety of

The epidemiology and control of malaria. London, Oxford University Press, 1957.

Manoochehri, A. Anopheles dthali Patton, 1905, a new secondary vector in southern Iran.
Annals of tropical medicine and parasitology, *:537-538 (1972).
Metselaar, D. Variations in the sporozoite rate of ano~helinesof the punctulatus group.
Documents de medicina geographica et tropica (Amsterdam), 8:363-364 (1956).
Molineaux, L. et al. Assessment of insecticidal impact on the malaria mosquito's vectorial
capacity, from data on the man-biting rate and age-composition. Bulletin df the World Health
Organization, z:265-274 (1979).
Moorhouse, D.F. Some entomological aspects of the malaria eradication pilot project in
2:109-119 (1965).
Malaya. Journal of medical entomology, Mouchet, J. & Gariou, J.
m6dicale, 4:71-81 (1966).

Anopheles moucheti au Cameroun.

Cahiers ORSTOM, S6rie entomologic

Muirhead-Thompson, R.C. Recent knowledge about malaria vectors in West Africa and their
40:511-527 (1947).
control. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Peters, W. & Christian, S.H. Studies on the epidemiology of malaria in New Guinea, 4 .
Unstable highland malaria- the clinical picture. Transactions of the Royal Society of
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 54:529-536 (1960).
Puri, I.M. Anophelines of the oriental region.
Philadelphia, Saunders, 1949, pp. 483-505.

In:
- Boyd, M.F. ed., Malariology.

Rao, S.S. & Iyengar, M.O.T. Studies on influence of season on development of Filaria
bancrofti in Culex fatigans. Indian journal of medical research, c:759-768 (1930).
Rao, V.V.

Malaria in Orissa.

3:151-163 (1949).
Indian journal of malariology, -

Rouband, E. Les conditions de nutrition des Anopheles en France. A. maculipennis et le rsle

du bgtail dans la prophylaxie du paludisme. Annales de 1'Institut Pasteur, 34:181 (1920).
Russell, P.F. Epidemiology of malaria in the Philippines.
26: 1-7 (1936).

American journal of public health,

Russell, P.F. & Jacob, V.P. On the epidemiology of malaria in the Nilgris District, Madras
4:349-392 (1942).
Presidency. Journal of the Malaria Institute of India, Russell, P.F. & Rao, T.R. Observations on longevity of Anopheles culicifacies imagines.
American journal of tropical medicine, 22:517-533 (1942).
Scalon, J.E. & Udaya Sandhinand. The distribution and biology of Anopheles balabacensis in
Thailand (Diptera: culicidae). Journal of medical entomology, 2:61-69 (1965).
Service, W.M. Mosquito ecology: field sampling methods.
publishers, 1976.
Sundararaman, S. et al.
11:321-338 (1957).
-

Vectors of malaria in Mid-Java.

Barking, Essex, Applied Science

Indian journal of malariology,

Torres, G. Suarez. La campha nacional para la erradicacion del paludismo. Su importancia

para la salud publica. Primera convencion nacional salud, 16 a1 20 de Julio, 1973, Mexico,
D.F. Mexico, D.F., Secretaria de Salubridad y Asistencia. Comision Nacional para la
Erradicacion de Paludismo, 1973.
Velimirovic, B. Anatomia de un brote malarico en un area en fase de consolidation.
de la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana, %:395-404 (1965).

Boletin

Wesenberg-Lund, C. Contribution to the biology of the Danish Culicidae. Kongelige Danske

videnskabernes selskabs skriften, 1:l-120 (1921).
White, G.B. Anopheles gambiae complex and disease transmission in Africa. Transactions of
the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, %:278-298 (1974).
White, G.B. Notes on a catalogue of Culicidae of the Ethiopian region. Mosquito systematics,
7: 304-344 (1975).
WHO Technical Report Series, No. 125, 1957. (Insecticides:
Committee).

seventh report of the Expert

World Health Organization. Manual on practical entomology in malaria. Part I. Vector bionomics and organization of anti-malaria activity. Part 11. Methods and techniques. Geneva,
1975 (Offset publication, No. 13).
Zahar, A.R. Review of the ecology of malaria vectors in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization, s:427-440 (1950).
Zulueta, J. de. Malaria in Sarawak and Brunei. Bulletin of the World Health Organization,
15:651-671 (1956).
Zulueta, J. de. & Garrett-Jones, C. An investigation of the persistence of malaria transmission in Mexico. American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, %:63-77 (1965).

B.

Important vectors of lymphatic filariasis

In general, the basic epidemiology of filariasis involves a man-vector-man transmission

cycle. However, the transmission of Brugia malayi filariasis(subperiodic form) may involve
animal hosts or reservoirs such as domestic and wild cats, civets and pangolins; infection is
transmitted from animal to animal or man, and from man to man or animal by certain species of
Mansonia mosquitos.
A wide range of mosquitos, including several species of Anopheles of malaria importance,
are vectors of the various forms of filariasis. This gives a universal character to the
disease transmission; it can occur at any time of the day or night, indoors and outdoors, near
or away from human centres. Larval habitats are also most diverse; depending on the species
involved, breeding takes place in salt, brackish and fresh water, either clear or polluted, in
large water bodies, tidal lagoons, marshes, ponds, or in water contained in leaf axils, tree
holes, coconut husks, barrels, tins, etc.
In regions where different vector species are responsible for filariasis transmission,
such as the Malaysian and Australasian regions, vector control becomes an extensive and expensive operation.
Table 1.3 presents a list of filarial parasites, their distribution in geographical
regions and preferred types of environment, summary notes on the disease epidemiology and the
mosquito species most commonly involved in the transmission.
Table 1.4 presents a list of the important mosquito vectors of filariasis in alphabetical
order, with summary information on adult habits and larval habitats.

Table 1.3.
Parasite and
distribution

Filarial parasites transmitted by mosquitos

Important
vectors

Epidemiology

Wuchereria bancrof ti
periodic form,
throughout the tropics
(except Polynesia),
some subtropical areas.

Man-mosquito-man transmission cycle.

Principal vectors enter houses at
night to feed on man. In rural
areas these are Anopheles species;
in the forests and plantations of
S.E. Asia, forest-dwelling species
of Aedes (Finlaya) may be of local
importance; in urban areas the
chief vector is Culex quinquefasciatus Say.

W. bancrofti
diurnally subperiodic
form, in Polynesia and
New Caledonia; nocturnally subperiodic form,
in Thailand.

Associated especially with coconut

Ae. (S.)
plantations, where the principal
Ae. (S.)
Ae. (S.)
vector, Ae. polynesiensis, feeds
by day on people working in these
Ae. (F.)
plantations or living in nearby
Ae. ( 0 . )
houses. Locally, other species may
transmit away from coconut plantations
(see notes on vector biology, Table 1.6).

Anopheles gambiae
An. funestus
An. darlingi
An. minimus flavirostris
An. campestris
An. punctulatus group
Aedes (F.) niveus
Ae. (F.) kochi
Ae. (F.) poecilius
Culex quinquefasciatus Say
(= Cx pipiens fatigans
Wiedemann)
polynesiensis
tongae
pseudoscutellaris
f ijiensis
vigilax

Brugia malayi
nocturnally subperiodic
form, swamp forests of
Malaysia and the
Philippines (Palawan,
Sulu, Mindanao).

In addition to man, macaques and leaf

monkeys, domestic and wild cats,
civet cats and pangolins are subject
to infection. Transmission from man
to man, or animal to man, or man to
animal, by swamp forest-dwelling
species of ~ansonia. Thus transmission takes place mostly in the
swamp forest or in nearby villages
by mosquitos which bite by day or
night, indoors or outdoors, with the
peak of activity during the evening.

Man apparently is the only natural

Brugia malayi
nocturnally periodic
vertebrate host, and transmission
form, in Japan, coastal
takes place primarily in the domestic environment by night-biting
China, Korean peninsula,
South-East Asia, India;
mosquitos, either indoors or outnocturnally subperiodic
doors. Endemic foci of S. Asia
form, in western 1.lalaysia. usually associated with flat,
swampy land. In Japan, togoitransmitted foci are in communities
near coastal salt-water rock pools
and cisterns.
Brugia timori
nocturnally periodic,
in Indonesia.

Table 1.4.
Species and
distribution

Vertebrates such as monkeys, domestic

and wild cats, civets and pangolins
are included in the developmental
cycle, as well as man.

~ansoniadives
Ma bonneae
Ma. annulata
Ma. uniformis

Ma. annulifera
Ma. indiana
Ma, uniformis
Ae. (F.) togoi
An. campestris
An. donaldi

An. barbirostris

Notes on the biology of important filarial vectors

Adult habits

Larval habitats

Aedes (F .) fijiensis
Fiji Islands

Found naturally infected in Fiji.

Persistent night-time biter.

Leaf axils of Pandanus and

of some other plants

Ae. (F.) kochi

~ustralianregion

Bites man by day and night, indoors

and outdoors; especially abundant
in and near Pandanus groves.

Leaf axils of Pandanus,

Colocasia, banana

243

Ae. (F. ) niveus

Philippines,
Malaysia, Indonesia

Probable vector in forests.

Ae. (F.) poecilius

Malaysia, Indonesia

Leaf axils of abaca,

Bites by day or night, indoors and
banana, Pandanus
outdoors; especially abundant in
or near extensive abaca plantations
in the Philippines.

Ae. (F.) togoi

China (incl. Prov. of
Taiwan), Japan, and
Korean peninsula

Adults enter houses to feed on man.

Salt-water rock pools

along the coast,
artificial containers

Ae. (0.) vigilax

Australian region,
South-East Asia

Bites by day or night, indoors and

outdoors. Vector of subperiodic
W. bancrofti in New Caledonia.
Observed flight: 96 km.

Brackish-water marshes and

pools; fresh-water
swamps and pools

Ae. (S.) ~olvnesiensis

Polynesia

Bites man by day in coconut groves,

wooded areas, gardens, yards; and
will also enter houses to feed.
Flight limited.

Coconut half-shells discarded after removal of

copra, rat-opened coconuts, tree holes, palm
bracts, crab holes,
barrels, tins, and other
artif icial containers

Ae. (S.) pseudoscutellaris

Fiji Islands

Similar to those of Ae. polynesiensis Similar to those of

polynesiensis

Ae. (S.) tongae

Tonga Islands

Bites outdoors by day in groves and

plantations. Flight limited.

Coconut husks, tree holes,

artificial containers

Anopheles campestris
Thailand, Malaysia

Anthropophilic, endophilic.

Ricefields, marshes, ponds,

ditches, pools

Tree holes, bamboo stumps

An. darlingi

(See Table 1.2.).

(See Table 1.2.)

An. funestus

II

11

&.

An. gambiae
An. minimus flavirostris
An. punctulatus
An. donaldi
Malaysia, Thailand

Bites man indoors at night and

outdoors by day in the shade of
the forest; also attracted to
animal S.

Ricefields, shaded swamps,

drains, forest pools

Culex quinquefasciatus
(fatigans)
Worldwide in tropics
and subtropics

Especially polluted
Strongly domestic; bites man by
waters of drains, ponds,
night indoors and outdoors; rests
stagnant streams, pools;
by day in dark corners of bedrooms,
sheds, culverts, etc. Observed
also tanks, barrels,
tins, and other
flight: up to 11 km.
artificial containers

Mansonia annulata
Malaysia, Indonesia,
Philippines

Bites man by day or night, indoors

and outdoors.

Swamp forests

Ma. annulifera
South-East Asia

Enters houses at night to feed on

man.

Open swamps, marshes,

ponds; associated
especially with Pistia

Ma. bonneae
Philippines,
Malaysia, Thailand

Bites man by day or night, indoors

and outdoors; especially troublesome by day in the shade of the
forest.

Swamp forests

Ma. dives
Malaysia, South Pacific,
Indonesia, India

Strongly anthropophilic; enters

houses to bite man at night;
attacks avidly by day in the
shade of the forest.

Swamp forests

Ma. indiana
Malaysia, Indonesia,
India

Bites man indoors and outdoors, by

night or day. Capable of long
flights of several miles.

Open swamps, marshes,

ponds

Ma. uniformis
Worldwide in tropics

Bites man by day or night, indoors

and outdoors. Capable of long
flights of 32 km or more.

Swamps, pools, marshes;

associated with Pistia,
water hyacinth and
swamp grasses

Further reading list

Belkin, J.N. The mosquitos of the South pacific (Diptera :
University of California Press, 1962.

Culicidae).

Vol. 1. Berkeley,

Brengues, J. La filariose de Bancroft en Afrique de l'ouest. Paris, ORSTOM, 1975 (Mgmoires

ORSTOM, No. 79).
Brengues, J. et al. La filariose de Bancroft en Afrique, 5 Madagascar et dans les Zles
voisines. Etudes mgdicales, No. 1:3-85 (1979).
Brunhes, J. La filariose de Bancroft dans la sous-rEgion malgache (~omores-~adagascar-Gunion).
Paris, ORSTOM, 1975 (MEmoires ORSTOM, No. 81).

Bushrod, F.M. Studies on filariasis transmission in Kwale, a Tanzanian coastal village, and
the results of mosquito control measures. Annals of tropical medicine and parasitology,
73:277-285 (1979).
Chandrasekharan, A. et al. Pilot project for the control of Brugia malayi filariasis.
aspects of bionomics of vectors. Journal of communicable diseases, 8:179-188 (1976).
Dissanaike, A.S. Zoonotic aspects of filarial infections in man.
Organization, x:349-357 (1979).

1. Sane

Bulletin of the World Health

Gelfand, H.M. Studies on the vectors of Wuchereria bancrofti in ~iberia. American journal of
tropical medicine and hygiene, 4:52-60 (1955).
Grove, D.I. et al. Bancroftian filariasis in a Philippine village: clinical, parasitological,
immunological and social aspects. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, %:975-984
(1978).
Harrison, B.A. & Scanlon, J.E.
Thailand (Diptera: Culicidae).
12:l-307 (1975).
-

Medical entomology studies, 11. The subgenus Anopheles in

Contributions of the American Entomological Institute,

Hawking, F. The distribution of human filariasis throughout the world.

diseases bulletin, E:967-1016 (1976).

11. Asia.

Lambrecht, F.L. Entomological aspects of filariasis control in Sri Lanka.

51:133-143 (1974).
World Health Organization, -

Tropical

Bulletin of the

Muirhead-Thomson, R.C. Factors determining the true reservoir of infection of Plasmodium

falciparum and W. bancrofti in a West African village. Transactions of the Royal Society of
48:208-225 (1954).
Tropical Medicine and ~ygiene,Nelson, G.S. et al. Studies on filariasis in East Africa, 11. Filarial infections in man,
animals and mosquitos on the Kenya coast. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical
Medicine and Hygiene, %:202-217 (1962).
Rakai, I.M. et al. Mosquito-borne infections in Fiji. IV. Biting times of village mosquitos
and human filaria transmission potential of Aedes polynesiensis and Aedes pseudoscutellaris.
Journal of medical entomology, z:588-594 (1974).
Rao, C.K. Current knowledge on selected aspects in the epidemiology of Bancroftial filariasis
in India. Journal of communicable diseases, 9:185-lgl (1977).
Reid, J.A. et al. Studies on filariasis in Malaya: the mosquito vectors of periodic Brugia
malayi in north-west Malaya. Annals of tropical medicine and parasitology, *:323-336 (1962).
Rosen, L. Observations on the epidemiology of human filariasis in French Oceania.
journal of hygiene, J&:219-248
(1955).

American

Rozeboom, L.E. & Cabrera, B.D. Filariasis caused by Wuchereria bancrofti in Palawan, Republic
American journal of epidemiology, =:216-221 (1964).

of the Philippines.

Sasa, M.

Epidemiology of human filariasis in Japan.

Progress of medical parasitology in

Japan, 3:389
- (1966).
Sasa, M. Human filariasis:
Park Press, 1976.

a global survey of epidemiology and control.

Baltimore, Univershy

Wattal, B.L. Entomological parameters and their relevance in filariasis control. Journal of
communicable diseases, 8:328-333 (1976).

WHO Technical Report Series, No. 542, 1974 (Expert Committee on filariasis: third report).
Wijers, D.J.B. Bancroftian filariasis in Kenya. IV. Disease distribution and transmission
dynamics. Annals of tropical medicine and parasitology, 2:451-463 (1977).
Wilson, T. Filariasis in Malaya- a general review.
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 2:107-129 (1961).

Transactions of the Royal Society of

Wolfe, M.S. & Aslamkhan, M. Bancroftian filariasis in two villages in Dinajpur District, East
Pakistan. I. Infections in man. American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene,
21:22-29 (1972).
-

C.

Important mosquito vectors of arboviral diseases

The basic epidemiology of viral diseases transmitted by mosquitos involves a cycle in

which animals usually play a major role as hosts and reservoirs. In fact, many viral diseases
are originally zoonotic and only incidentally or sporadically are first transmitted to man.
For instance, monkeys are the primary hosts of yellow fever and the Haemagogus mosquito, which
is not anthropophilic, is a major monkey-to-monkey vector. However, if a monkey host is bitten
by a suitable Aedes species, such as Ae. aegypti, Ae. africanus or Ae. simpsoni, the mosquito
is able to transmit the virus to man, who becomes a host. Subsequent transmission, in a manAedes-man cycle, may be so intensive as to cause epidemic outbreaks among urban populations.
Other animals besides primates act as hosts or reservoirs for the arboviruses.
include wild and domestic fowl, equines, p igs, sheep and rodents.

They

Table 1.5 presents a list of the more important viral diseases transmitted by mosquitos,
their distribution in geographical regions, summary notes on their epidemiology, and the most
common vector species involved in the transmission.
Table 1.6 presents a list of the important mosquito species (in alphabetical order) with
summary information on adult habits and larval habitats.

Table 1.5.
Disease and
distribution

Important arboviral diseases transmitted by mosquitos

Yellow fever
In South and Central America, the
disease is enzootic in jungle
tropics and subtropics,
Central and South America, monkeys and transmitted by
and Africa
Haemagogus spp. In periurban and
urban areas, Ae. aegypti acts as
the principal vector and is
responsible for epidemics in these
situations. In Africa, monkey-tomonkey transmission in forest areas
is maintained by Ae. africanus, with
Ae. simpsoni breeding in the plantain and banana plantations at the
periphery of the forest, and acting
as vectors between monkey and man.
Periurban and urban transmission by
Ae. aepypti can reach epidemic
proportions.
Dengue
tropico- and
subtropicopolitan

Vector

Epidemiology

Explosive urban epidemics; endemic

survival in tropical cities;
diffuse endemicity in rural areas of
S.E. Asia and Oceania.

Aedes aegypti
Ae. afr icanus
Ae. simpsoni
Haemagogus spegazzini
Ae. leucocelaenus
Sabethes chloropterus

Ae.
Ae.
Ae.
Ae.

aegypti
albopictus
scutellaris
polynesiensis

Chikungunya fever
East and South Africa,
and S.E. Asia

Africa: sylvan cycle in monkeys,

baboons, and Ae. africanus; outbreaks with man-aegypti-man cycle
in villages.
S.E. Asia: urban outbreaks with manaegypti-man cycle; possible supplemental transmission by Ae. albopictus;
possible animal reservoirs.

Ae.
Ae.
Ae.
Ae.
Ae.

aegypti
albopictus
africanus
taylori
furcifer

Culex tarsalis
Western equine encephalitis Basic cycle: bird-vector-birdCuliseta melanura
North America
(man)
vector;
(equines)
Reservoir in many species of wild
birds; amplification of the virus in
birds during the nesting season;
transmission to man and equines in
summer and autumn by Cx tarsalis in
western USA; enzootic foci in swamps
in eastern USA; transmission by
CS. melanura. Man and equines are
incidental hosts.
Eastern equine encephalitis Basic cycle: bird-vector-birdEastern USA, Caribbean,
vector< (man)
(equines)
and Central and South
America
Enzootic swamp foci with wild birds
as reservoirs; transmitted by
CS. melanura; spillover to peridomestic and domestic birds;
sporadic transmission to man and
equines in or near swamp foci by
CS. melanura; outbreaks in man and
equines with Ae. sollicitans as the
chief vector.

CS, melanura
Ae. sollicitans

St. Louis encephalitis

USA, and Central and
South America

Basic cycle: bird-vector-bird-(man).

Rural epidemiology in western USA,
with Cx.tarsalis as the chief vector;
urban epidemiology
-. in central and
eastern USA, enzootic cycles in woodsinhabiting birds; transmission among
peridomestic birds and domestic fowls
and to man by domestic mosquitos.

Cx nigripalpus
Cx pipiens
Cx quinquefasciatus Say
(= Cx p. fatigans
Wiedemann)
Cx coronator
Cx tarsalis
Psorophora ferox
Sabethes chloropterus

Venezuelan encephalitis
Southern USA, and Central
and South America

Basic cycle: mammal-vectormammalvector-(man)

Reservoir in forest rodents, epizootics among equines with equines
as a source of virus for the vector;
infection of man during equine epizootics.

Cx taeniopus
Ae. serratus
Ae. taeniorhynchus
PS. ferox
PS. confinnis
Mansonia titillans

(man)
pig-vector-pig-vector(
I
l
(horses)
bird-vector
Vertebrate hosts: heron, egrets, other
birds; pigs, horses. Extensive outbreaks in man from time to time.

tritaeniorhynchus
Cx vishnui
Cx gelidus
Cx annulus

Japanese encephalitis
Siberia to India

Basic cycle:

Cx

West Nile fever

Africa to India

Basic cycle: bird-vector-bird-(man).

Reservoir in birds; man incidentally
infected.

Cx univittatus
Cx antennatus

Wesselsbron fever
Africa and Thailand

Basic cycle: transmission among sheep

and other domestic animals by
mosquitos; occasional transmission
to man.

Aedes (B.) circumluteolus

Ae. ( 0 . ) caballus

California encephalitis
N. America

Basic cycle:

Ae canadensis
Ae. trivittatus
Ae. atlanticus

vertebrate-vector-vertebrate
I
l
vector - vector

vector - (man).
Reservoir hosts: hares, rabbits, ground
squirrels, chipmunks; incidental infection in man. ~eneration-to-generation
survival of virus in mosquitos.
Murray Valley encephalitis
Australia, New Guinea

Basic cycle: bird-vector-bird-(man).

Reservoir in birds; man incidentally
infected.

Cx

Rift Valley fever

South, Central and
West Africa, and Egypt

Basic cycle: domestic animals-vectordomestic animals-(man).

Extensive outbreaks in man from time
to time.

Mansonia spp.
Cx univittatus
Cx pipiens
Cx theileri

Table 1.6.
Species and
distribution
Aedes aegypti
feral strain:
Africa
domestic strain:
tropico- and
subtropicopolitan

annulirostris

Biology of important mosquito vectors of arboviral diseases

Adult habits

Rests and bites outdoors in

African bush.
Rests and bites indoors; intimate
association with man.
Flight limited.

Larval habitats

Tree holes and other plant

cavities
Artificial containers tins, tubs, etc. in and
near houses

250

Ae. africanus and

Ae. luteocephalus
Ethiopian region

Feeds on monkeys in forest canopy

at night.

Rot holes in trees, bamboo

stumps

Ae. albopictus
Oriental and Australian
regions, Dj ibouti,
Madagascar, Seychelles
and Mauritius

Annoying bites by day in coconut

groves, bamboo thickets, outdoors
near dwellings; also inside
dwellings in some areas.
Flight limited.

Plant cavities, especially

coconut half-shells and
rat-opened coconutS ,
bamboo stumps; tubs,
tins, and other
artificial containers
near houses

Ae. atlanticus
Eastern USA

Attacks man and animals in woods

by day.

Temporary rain and flood

pools

Ae. caballus
Ethiopian region

Zoophilic, exophagic.

Rain and overflow pools,

rock pools in stream beds

Ae. canadensis
N. America

Attacks man and animals in woods

by day.

Temporary rain and flood

pools

Ae. circumluteolus
Ethiopian region

Feeds on mammals in woods and fields

with scrub vegetation.

Swamps, rain pools

Ae. leucocelaenus
S. America

A forest mosquito, biting man and

animals in the canopy but also
at ground level. Flight limited.

Tree holes

Ae. lineatopennis
Oriental, Ethiopian,
and Australian
regions

Zoophilic, exophagic.

Swamps, rain pools

Ae. polynesiensis
Polynesia

Annoying bites by day in coconut

groves, woods, yards, and also
in houses. Flight limited.

Plant cavities, especially

coconut half-shells and
rat-opened coconuts;
tree holes, palm spathes,
artificial containers,
crab holes

Ae. serratus
North, Central, and
South America

Bites man and animals by day or

night, especially in woods.
Observed flight: 1 km.

Temporary rain pools

Ae. scutellaris
Indonesia, Melanesia,
Philippines, Palau
and Caroline Islands

Annoying biter by day in woods,

coconut groves, yards, houses.
Flight limited.

Plant containers, tree

holes, coconut husks,
artificial containers

Ae. simpsoni
Ethiopian region

Attacks man and animals by day in

and near banana and other
plantations. ~l'ightlimited.

Leaf axils of taro, banana,

plantain, and pineapple;
other plant cavities

Ae. sollicitans
Eastern USA and
Greater Antilles

Vicious biter of man and animals

by day or night. Capable of
long flights, over 100 km.

Coastal salt marshes,

inland salt pools

Ae. taeniorhynchus
North, Central, and
South America

Females attack man and animals

by day or night; capable of
long flights, over 35 km.

Coastal salt marshes

Ae. trivittatus
N. America

Attacks man and animals by day in

open woods and fields.
Observed flight: 2.5 km.

Temporary rain and flood

pools

Culex annulus
Malaysia

Strongly attracted to pigs but

will bite man.

Ricefields, ponds, brackish

water pools, artificial
containers

Cx antennatus
Mediterranean and
Ethiopian regions

Feeds on man and domestic

animals.

Swamps, borrow pits, pools,

ditches

Cx

Feeds outdoors on avian and

mammalian hosts.

Ground pools, seepages,

hoofprints, tree holes,
artificial containers

Cx gelidus
Malaysia, China,
Japan and India

Enters houses to feed on man;

especially attracted to pigs.

Ricefields, marshes, ponds,

pools, streams

Cx nigripalpus
North, Central, and
South America

Females feed on avian and

mammalian hosts, including
man.

Pools, ditches, marshes,

swamps

Cx pipiens
Holarctic region

Females feed on avian and mammalian hosts; a troublesome

night-time biter, both indoors
and outdoors. Flight ordinarily
limited, but over 20 lan observed.

Contaminated or fresh-water
ground pools, ditches,
cesspools, artificial
containers

Cx quinquefasciatus
(fatigans)
Tropico- and
subtropicopolitan

Similar to those of Cx

Cx taeniopus
Central and South
America

Presumably feeds in forests,

primarily on rodents.

coronator
North, Central, and
South America

pipiens

Similar to those of
Cx pipiens

Forest rain and stream

pools

252

Cx tarsalis
N. America

In some situations, females prefer

avian hosts, especially doves and
pigeons; but in others, they
feed primarily on animals
especially cattle. They also bite
man. Observed flight: 1.6-4 km.

Grassy, sunlit pools;

irrigation ditches,
seepages, marshes, hoofprints; clear or polluted water

Cx tritaeniorhynchus
Oriental region and
Africa

Bites man and animals by night,

indoors and outdoors; especially
attracted to pigs. Blooded
adults rest in animal shelters by
day.

Rirefields, marshes, ponds,

pools, ditches, streams;
cesspools

Cx univittatus
Mediterranean and
Ethiopian regions,
Middle East and India

Ornithophilic but in some areas

feeds readily on man and domestic
animals.

Marshes, pools, grassy

streams

Cx vishnui
Oriental region

Bites man at night; also strongly

attracted to cattle and pigs;
also feeds on birds.

Ricefields, pools, ditches,

swamps, rain pools

Culiseta melanura
Eastern and
Central USA

Females feed by preference on

swamp-inhabiting birds but also
attack domestic and wild animals,
reptiles, and occasionally man.

Swamps, bogs

Haemagogus spp.
Central and South
America

Feeds on monkeys and other animals

by day in forest canopy;
occasional feeding on man at
ground level, especially after
trees are fallen. Flight limited.

Tree holes and other plant

cavities in the forest

Mansonia titillans
North, Central and
South America

Fierce biter of man and animals

from dusk to dawn. Capable of
long flights of several miles.

Ponds, lakes, impoundments

with Pistia and other
suitable plants, to which
larvae and pupae can be
attached by their air
tubes

Psorophora confinnis
North, Central and
South America

Fierce day and night-time biters

of man and animals in vicinity
of the breeding habitats.
Observed flight: 8-13 km.

Temporary rain and flood

pools

PS. ferox
North, Central and
South America

Fierce day and night-time biter

in woods near breeding places.
Observed flight: 2 km.

Temporary rain and flood

pools

Sabethes chloropterus
Central and South
America

A long-lived species with a preference for the forest canopy but

also bites man at ground level.

Rot holes in trees

Further reading list

Bates, M.
(1946).

The natural history of yellow fever in Colombia. Scientific monthly, 63:42-52

Boshnell, J.M. & Bevier, G.A. Yellow fever in the Montagua Valley, Guatemala. American
journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 7:25-35 (1958).
Chippaux, A. et al.

La fisvre jaune en Afrique.

Etudes m6dicales, No. 1:3-65 (1976).

Cornet, M. et al. DonnGes bio-Gcologiques sur les vecteurs potentiels du virus amaril au
SGnGgal oriental. RCle des differentes espsces dans la transmission du virus. Cahiers ORSTOM,
S6rie entomologie mgdicale et parasitologie, E : 315-341 (1978).
Galindo, P. et al. Observations on diurnal forest mosquitos in relation to sylvan yellow
fever in Panama. American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 30:533-574 (1950).
Geoffroy, B. & Cordellier, R. Observations sur les vecteurs potentiels de fiSvre -iaune en
RGpublique centrafricaine. Cahiers ORSTOM, S6rie entomologie mGdicale et parasitologie,
X:
- 127-144 (1972).
Gould, D.J. et al. An insular outbreak of dengue hemorrhagic fever. 111. Identification of
vectors and observations on vector ecology. American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene,
17:609-619 (1968).
Halstead, S.B. Dengue haemorrhagic fever-a public health problem and a field for research.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 58:l-21 (1980).
Hayes, R.O. et al. Arbovirus surveillance in six states during 1972. American journal of
tropical medicine and hygiene, g:463-476 (1975).
Kokernot, R.H. et al. Studies on the transmission of Wesselbron virus by Aedes (Ochlerotatus)
caballus (Theo.)
South African medical journal, 32:546-548 (1958)

LeDuc, J.W. et al. Ecology

-. of California encephalitis viruses on the Del Mar Va Peninsula.
11. Demonstration of transovarial transmission. American journal of tropical medicine and
hygiene, 24: 124-126 (1975).
Macdonald, W.W. et al. Arbovirus infections in Sarawak: further observations on mosquitos.
Journal of medical entomology, 4:146-157 (1967).
Mackerras, I.M. Transmission of dengue fever by Aedes (Stegomyia) scutellaris Walk. in New
Guinea. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, %:295-312 (1946).
Mitchell, C.J. Arthropod-borne encephalitis viruses and water resource developments. Cahiers
ORSTOM, SGrie entomologie mGdicale et parasitologie, XJ:241-250 (1977).
Monath, T.P. Arthropod-borne encephalitides in the Americas.
Organization, z:513-533 (1979).

Bulletin of the World Health

Prevention of Aedes aegypti-borne diseases in the Americas. WHO Chronicle, 25:275-279 (1971).
Ree, H.I. et al. Methods of sampling population of the Japanese encephalitis vector mosquitos
in Korea (A preliminary report). The Korean journal of parasitology, 7:25-28 (1969).
Rosen, L. et al. The transmission of dengue by Aedes polynesiensis Marks.
tropical medicine and hygiene, 3:878-882 (1954).

American journal d

Rudnick, A. Studies of the ecology of dengue in Malaysia. Bulletin of the World Health
Organization, %:78-79 (1966).
Sasa, M. & Sabin, A.B. Ecological studies in the mosquitos of Okayama in relation to the
epidemiology of Japanese B encephalitis. American journal of hygiene,
51:21-35 (1950).
Serie, C. The yellow fever epidemic in Ethiopia in 1959-61. Ethiopian medical journal,
1:28-32 (1962).
Simpson, D.I.H. Viral haemorrhagic fevers of man.
56:819-832 (1978).
-

Bulletin of the World Health Organization,

Smithburn, K.C. & Haddow, A.J. Isolation of yellow fever virus from African mosquitos.
American journal of tropical medicine, %:261-271 (1946).
Sudia, W.D. et al. Arbovirus vector ecology studies in Mexico during the 1972 Venezuelan
(1975).
equine encephalitis outbreak. America1 journal of epidemiology, =:51-58
Sudia, W.D. et al. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in North America in 1971:
studies. American journal of epidemiology, m:17-35 (1975).

Vector

Sudia, W.D. et al. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in North America in 1971:
Vertebrate field studies. American journal of epidemiology, =:36-50 (1975).
Taylor, R.M. et al. A study of the ecology of West Nile Virus in Egypt. American journal of
tropical medicine and hygiene, 5:579-620 (1956).
Tripis, M. & Hausermann, W. Demonstration of differential domesticity of Aedes aegypti (L)
(Diptera, Culicidae) in Africa by mark-release-recapture. Bulletin of entomological research,
65: 199-208 (1975)

Watts, D.M. et al. ~xperimentaltransmission of trivittatus virus (California virus group)

by Aedes trivittatus. American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, g:173-176 (1976).
Western encephalomyelitis. Canadian journal of public health, 67, supplement 1 (1976).
Yellow fever in 1980.

55:345-352 (1980).
WHO weekly epidemiological record, -

D.

Pest mosquitos

Tables 1.7 and 1.8 present the problem situations, species and distribution of some
important pest mosquitos, their biting activity, breeding habitats and other biological
characteristics.

Table 1.7.
Problem
situation
(1) Dwellings

Important pest mosquitos

Biting activity
day
night

Species

Mansonia:
afr icana
annulifera
bonneae
dives
indiana
uniformis
perturbans
titillans
Aedes (F. ) togoi
Ae. (S.) aegypti
albopictus

Ethiopian region
Oriental region
Malaysia, Philippines
Malaysia, India,
Indonesia, Australia
Malaysia, ~ n d i a ,
Indonesia
Oriental, ~ustralian
and ~thiopianregions
N. America
N., C. and S. America
Oriental region
Tropics, subtropics
Oriental region, Australasia, Marianas,
Hawaii
Polynesia

Armigeres
subalbatus

Oriental region

Culex:
pipiens

Holarctic region

pipiens fatigans Tropics, subtropics

annulirostris
sit iens

vishnui

Australasia, Indonesia,
Philippines
Oriental region, Australasia, Polynesia,
E. Africa, Madagascar
Oriental region

For an explanation of the symbols, please see page 259.

+
+

Breeding
habitats*

(2) Peridomestic;
groves, etc.

Mansonia uniformis Oriental, Australian

and Ethiopian regions
Aedes (F.)

kochi

Australasia, Indonesia

Aedes (F.)

poecilius
albopictus

Malaysia, Indonesia

Aedes(S.)

pandani
hebrideus

polynesiensis

scutellaris
simpsoni

(3) Fields,
pastures

Oriental region, Austral- +

asia, Marianas,
Hawaii
+
Marianas
New Hebrides. Solomon
+
Islands, Santa Cruz,
Torres, and Banks
Islands
+
Polynesia
Malaysia, Australasia,
~ndonesia,Philippines
Ethiopian region

+
+

Culex (Culex)
moucheti

Ethiopian region

Psorophora
con
innis

N., C. and S. America

Aedes (0.) dorsalis

nigromaculis
sollicitans

Holarctic region

Western N. America
N. America

+
+

Aedes (A).

Holarctic and Oriental

regions, Pacific
Islands

vexans

Culex (Cx)
annulirostris
tritaeniorhynchus
bitaeniorhynchus

Australasia, Indonesia,
Philippines
Oriental and Ethiopian
regions, Middle East,
~ndones
ia
Oriental and Ethiopian
regions, Australasia

( 4 ) Temperate zone Mansonia

woodlands
perturbans

(5) Tropical rain

and swamp
forests

N. America, Europe

Psorophora
cyanescens
ferox

N. America
N., C. and S. America

Aedes ( C . ) :
canadensis
cantans
communis
rusticus
sierrensis
sticticus
triseriatus
trivittatus

N. America
Europe, USSR, China
Holarctic region
Europe, N. Africa
Western N. America
Holarctic region
N. America
N. America

Mansonia:
a
ricana
annulifera
bonneae
dive S
fuscapennata
titillans
Psorophora:
con
innis

Ethiopian region
Oriental region, New
Guinea
Malaysia, Indonesia,
Philippines
Malaysia, Indonesia
Ethiopian region
N., C. and S. America
N., C. and S. America
N., C. and S. America

Eretmapodites
chrysogaster

Ethiopian region

Aedes (0.) :
scapularis
serratus

C. and S. America
C. and S. America

Ae. (A.)

Ethiopian region

tarsalis

Ae. (F.)

leucocelaenus
terrens group

Haemagogus:
chalcospilans
eauinus
spegazzinii

S. America
C. and S. America
C. and S. America
C. and S. America
S. America

Coastal
comunities,
recreational
areas, etc.

Aedes (0.): caspius

detritus
dorsalis
sollicitans
taeniorhynchus
vigilax

Palaearctic region

Ae. (F.)

Coastal Siberia, East

and South-East Asia

togoi

Palaearctic region
Holarctic region
N. America
N., C. and S. America
Australasia, Indonesia,
Malaysia

Culex (Cx) sitiens Coastal Oriental region, +

E. Africa, Madagascar,
Northern Australia,
S. and W. Pacific islands
(7) Meadows and
woods of high
mountains and
Far North

Aedes (0.) cataphylla

communiS
f itchii
hexodontus
implicatus
increpitus
pullatus
punctor
stimulans
Ae. (A.)

(8) Arctic tundra

cinereus

Aedes (0.) impiger

nigripes

Western N. America
Europe
Palaearctic region
Northern N. America
Northern N. America
Northern N. America
Western and Northern
North America
Northern Holarctic region
Northern Holarctic region
N. America

+
+
+
+

+
+
+

Northern Holarctic region +

Northern N. America
Arctic

I.A. 8,9

Notes on the larval breeding habitats of pest mosquitos

(Explanation of symbols used in Table 1.7.)
I.

Groundwater
A.

Permanent and semi-permanent quiet waters

Freshwater lakes, impoundments, ponds, borrow pits, swamps, sloughs, marshes,
bogs, ditches, stream bed ponds and backwashes.
Small pools and puddles in ditches, drains and ground depressions caused by
seepage, overflow, leaking water pipes, and rain in urban areas.
Ricefields.
Irrigated pastures.
Polluted sewage lagoons, settling ponds for industrial and agricultural wastes,
sawmill log ponds, stagnant streams and canals, pit latrines.
Rock holes in freshwater stream beds.
Saltwater-filled rock holes along the sea coast.
Brackish and saltwater coastal marshes, lagoons, pools.
Inland saltwater pools.
Crab holes.

B.

Temporary water
1.
2.

3.
C.

Snow- and ice-melt pools in the open arctic tundra.

Snow- and ice-melt pools in high mountains and the northern Palaearctic regions.
Temporary rain and flood pools, irrigated pastures, ricefields, marshes, etc.
that are subject to alternate flooding and dewatering.

Margins of running streams and canals

11. Plant water-holding cavities

Tree holes.
Leaf axils of taro, banana, Pandanus, abaca, etc.
Epiphytic bromeliads.
Bamboo internodes.
Cut or split bamboo.
Coconut husks.
Fallen palm spathes and flower bracts.
Nipa palm base.

111. Man-made, artificial water containers

Water storage tanks, cisterns, barrels, watering troughs.
Sewer inlets and catch basins, cesspools.
Storm drains and street gutters.
Roof gutters.
Discarded tins, buckets, bottles.
Flower vases, pots.
Ornamental garden pools.
Cemetery urns.
Rainwater caught in canoes, etc.

Table 1.8.

Distribution and biology of important pest mosquitos

Mansonia species
Distribution:

Cosmopolitan; temperate to tropical regions.

Adult habits:

Fierce biters in the vicinity of the breeding places, especially

during the day or in the evening; some will bite also in houses
during the night.

Breeding habitats:

lakes, swamps, quiet rivers with

Large permanent bodies of water
abundant vegetation. Larvae and pupae are attached by breathing
siphons to submerged vascular roots of aquatic plants, especially
Pistia stratiotes.

Life cycle:

Eggs are deposited in rafts on the surface of the water, or are

attached to the leaves of aquatic plants. Overwintering takes
place in the larval stage.

Important species:

Ma.
Ma.
Ma.
Ma.
Ma.
Ma.
Ma.
Ma.
Ma.

africana
annulifera
bonneae
dives
indiana
uniformis
crassipes
perturbans
titillans

Ethiopian region.
Oriental region.
Malaysian region.
S.E. Asia, Australasia.
S.E. Asia.
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, Australasia
Oriental region, Australasia.
N. America.
N., C. and S. America.

Psorophora species
Distribution:

N., C. and S. America.

Adult habits:

Fierce biters, by day or night, in fields and woods in the vicinity

of the breeding places.

Breeding habitats:

Temporary rain and flood pools; ditches and irrigated fields

subject to intermittent flooding and dewatering.

Life cycle:

Eggs are deposited singly in the dry or moist soil of dewatered

breeding places and are capable of resisting long periods of
desiccation. Overwintering as in the egg stage.

Important species:

PS. ciliata, confinnis, cyanescens, ferox.

Aedes, subgenus Ochlerotatus

Distribution:

Cosmopolitan, but predominant in the Holarctic region.

Adult habits

These are the serious pest mosquitos of the arctic and subarctic
regions, but also form an important component of the pest mosquitos
in temperate and tropical regions. The females are fierce biters
by day or night in the vicinity of the breeding places, but some
species are capable of migrating for long distances and of creating
a nuisance in communities far removed from the production sites.

Breeding habitats:

Temporary rain or flood pools, lake margins, ponds, ditches, irrigated fields, bogs, swamps, and marshes subject to intermittent
flooding and dewatering.

Life cycle:

Eggs are deposited singly on the soil of the dewatered habitat.

Those of some species are capable of surviving desiccation for as
long as 4 years. Overwintering takes place in the egg stage. In
northern regions there is one generation per year; further south
there may be two or more.

Important species:

Ae. canadensis
Ae. caspius
Ae. communis
Ae. detritus
Ae. dorsalis
Ae. excrucians
Ae. nigripes
Ae. nigromaculis
Ae. punctor
Ae. scapularis
Ae. serratus
Ae. sollicitans
Ae. sticticus
Ae st imulans
Ae. taeniorhynchus

Ae. trivittatus
Ae. vigilax

Nearctic region; freshwater pools.

Palaearctic region; freshwater pools;
coastal marshes.
Holarctic region; early spring freshwater
pools, including snow pools.
Palaearctic region; coastal saltwater
marshes and inland saltwater pools.
Holarctic region; fresh and brackish water,
snow, rain, and flood pools.
Holarctic region; freshwater pools.
Arctic regions of N. America, Europe, Asia;
snow and ice pools.
Nearctic region; rain pools, irrigated
fields, ditches.
Northern Holarctic region; snow and ice
pools, bogs.
Southern N. America, C. and S. America;
rain and flood pools.
C. and S. America; rain and flood pools.
USA; east coast salt marshes, inland salt
pools.
N. Holarctic region; rain and flood pools.
Nearctic region; snow, rain and flood pools
Atlantic coast from New England to Brazil;
Pacific coast from California to Peru;
inland salt pool areas, salt marshes and
saltwater pools.
N. America; rain and flood pools.
Malaysia and Australasia; brackish
water swamps and marshes, freshwater
ground and rock pools.

Aedes, subgenus Finlaya

Distribution:

Cosmopolitan, especially in tropics and subtropics.

Adult habits:

Adults are encountered primarily in woods, forests, and plantations

where they attack by day or night, indoors as well as outdoors-.

Breeding habitats:

Leaf axils of taro, banana, abaca, Pandanus, etc.;

rock holes, artificial containers.

Life cycle:

Eggs are deposited singly above the water line, and may survive
long periods of desiccation. In most northern regions there are
several generations per year; here winter is passed in the egg
stage. Breeding is continuous in the tropics or subtropics,
depending upon the availability of water.

Important species:

Ae.
Ae.
Ae.
Ae.
Ae.

kochi
poecilius
togoi
triseriatus
fijiensis

tree holes,

- Australian region.

S.E. Asian and Australian regions.

N. America.
Fiji.

- Oriental region.

Aedes, subgenus Stegomyia

.

Distribution:

Asian and Ethiopian regions. One species, aegypti, has achieved

a tropicopolitan distribution.

Adult habits:

Adults rest in the shelter of vegetation in the vicinity of the

breeding habitats, and bite primarily by day when their haunts are
invaded. Some species are encountered only in their sylvan
environment; others are peridomestic and bite indoors as well as
outdoors. One species, aegypti, comprises both outdoor and
domestic populations.

Breeding habitats:

Plant cavities, including leaf axils of taro, banana, and Pandanus;

palm spathes, bamboo stumps, coconut husks, tree holes, and
artificial containers including tins, jars, barrels, tanks and
vases.

Life cycle:

Eggs are deposited singly above the water line in the appropriate
container. Here they may survive desiccation for long periods of
time; dry season survival takes place in the egg stage. Breeding
is continuous depending on the availability of water.

Important species:

Ae. aegypti
Ae. albopictus

- Tropics, subtropics.

Ae. guamensis
Ae. polynesiensis
Ae. scutel'laris

Ae. simpsoni

Oriental and Australian regions, ~jibouti

and Madagascar,
Marianas.
Polynesia,
Indonesia, Melanesia, Philippines, Palau,
and ~arolineIslands.
Ethiopian region.

Aedes, subgenus Aedimorphus

Ae. vexans - Holarctic and Oriental regions, Pacific islands.
Adults bite by day or night in the vicinity of the breeding place.
Breeding habitats are rain and flood pools; winter is passed in
the egg stage; one to several broods per year depending on the
latitude.

Haemagogus species
Distribution:

Neotropical region.

Adult habits:

These are forest-inhabiting mosquitos. Adults will attack at ground

level when their haunts are invaded, but are most abundant in the
forest canopy.

Breeding habitats:

Plant cavities, including tree holes and bamboo stumps.

Life cycle:

Continuous breeding depending on the availability of water. Dry

season survival takes place in the egg stage, which can survive
desiccation.

Important species:

H. spegazzinii

H. sp. falco
-

S.America
C. and S. America.

Culex species
Distribution:

Cosmopolitan.

Adult habits:

Annoying species such as Cx pipiens and Cx quinquefasciatus are

strongly domestic, and enter houses to feed on the inhabitants by
night. Feeding may also take place out of doors during the evening
or night. Endophilic populations rest in houses, especially dark
corners of bedrooms, or in nearby shelters such as sheds, bridge
abutments, culverts, etc. Exophilic species attack during the
evening or at night in the vicinity of their breeding habitats.

Breeding habitats:

Groundwater, including lake margins, impoundments, slow streams;

ditches, pools and irrigated fields; domestic species are also
found in artificial containers such as barrels, tanks, tins, and
vases.

Life cycle:

Eggs are laid in rafts on the surface of the water. They do not
withstand desiccation and hatch within about 2 days. There are
several generations during the summer in temperate regions; in the
autumn the fertilized females accumulate carbohydrate reserves and
hibernate in a suitable shelter. In the tropics, breeding is
continuous.

Culex species (cont.)

Important species:

Cx

annulirostris
moucheti
Cx ~ i ~ i e n s
Cx quinquefasciatus
(f atigans)
Cx sitiens
Cx

Cx
Cx

Australian region, Indonesia, Philipp

Ethio~ianregion.
Worldwide in temperate regions.

- Worldwide in tropics and subtropics.

tritaeniorhynchus univittatus
-

Oriental and Ethiopian regions,

Australasia.
Oriental region, Africa, Middle-East
Ethiopian, Indian, and Mediterranean
regions.

Annex 2
LIST OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT MEASURES WHICH HAVE PROVED TO BE USEFUL
IN THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF MALARIA AND SCHISTOSOMIASIS

The following environmental management measures have been applied for the prevention and
control of malaria and schistosomiasis. They serve to create conditions unfavourable to the
breeding and propagation of vectors and intermediate hosts, to reduce opportunities for man/
mosquito contact or manlcercaria-infested water contact, and to assist in the application of
insecticides and molluscicides. Although specifically addressed to water resources development projects, the measures are equally applicable to other situations.
The letters (M) or (S) indicate that the measure is particularly applicable to malaria or
schistosomiasis control respectively. No indication is given where the measure is equally
applicable to the control of both diseases.

During the design and construction phases

A.

In reservoirs and surrounding areas

1. Removal of all trees, bushes and other plants that would emerge at maximum drawdown
water level of the reservoir.
2.

Selective clearing of vegetation in the zone of water level fluctuation about 8 m

beyond the normal full reservoir contour at heads of bights for stranding of drifts
(see subchapter IIIA), and much further on open shorelines.

3.

Straightening of margins through cutting, deepening and filling of the reservoir edge.

4.

Construction of dikes and levees to separate shallow bays from the reservoir and
dewatering of the low areas behind the dikes by the operation of gates, so that the
water flows by gravity when the reservoir is at low level or by pumping. ~ewatering
of runoff from drainage areas behind the dikes.

5.

Removal of earth from higher areas that would protrude as small islands at maximum
drawdown water level of the reservoir.

6.

Filling of natural or man-made depressions in the vicinity of the reservoir, or

draining of these depressions by ditches leading to the reservoir.

7.

Provision in the dam design for the periodic fluctuation of water level.
crest gates (Tainter gates).

8.

Paving or lining of spillways and diversion channels where they are exposed to wave
action and erosion.

9.

Use of waterproof membranes of clayey or plastic material at the base and surroundings
of the dam to reduce water seepage, and provision of drainage for possible seepage
water.

10.

Large size

Building of boat operating bases, either by the construction of jetties or by the

digging of small channels for the docking of boats. Ramps for launching of boats.

11. Provision of paths and other means of access to the reservoir edge for vegetation
clearance and pesticide application.
(S)12.

Extension into the reservoir of the drawout structure or outlet conduit so that water
is not taken from the edge.

(S)13.

Screening of intakes to prevent the passage of snails.

(S)14.

Locating intakes of large lakes and reservoirs below the euphotic zone.
zone, where sunshine does not penetrate, there should be no snails.

(S)15.

Fencing of the reservoir in the vicinity of villages to discourage people from using
the reservoir.

Below this

In irrigation systems
1. Design of main canals, laterals and sublaterals to follow straight lines with the
minimum number of bends; any necessary bends should be of ample curvature.

2.

Design of canal gradients and cross-sections to ensure water velocities that prevent
both silting and scouring.

3.

Design of canal grids without interconnexions so that water enters at the head (or
upper) end and flows in one direction only.

4.

Provision of a gate, siphon or other water control device at the tail (or lower) end
of canals so that they can be flushed and emptied to the nearest drain when necessary.

5. Provision of an effective drainage system to collect and dispose of surface and

ground surplus water.

6. Elimination of disused canals and drains, and of natural streams intercepted by the
new system.

7.

Filling or draining of borrow pits along canals and roads.

8.

Paving or lining of canals as extensively as possible; this is an irrigation improvement as well as an effective health protection measure.

9.

Consideration in the design to using covered conduits or pipes for water distribution
to cultivated plots and for surplus water drainage.

10.

Provision of a sufficient number of bridges across canals so that the villages are not
isolated from the main roads; this will also help the maintenance work and the
application of insecticides and molluscicides.

11.

Protection of the canal section at the entrance and exit of culverts, drops, chutes,
control structures, etc. against scouring that may form depressions.

12.

Designation of "dry belting" areas around villages, and land occupancy and restriction
measures.

Land levelling.

C.

In communities
Selection of sites for villages on high ground with a slight and uniform slope, with
sandy top soil that allows water infiltration; filling of any ground depressions.
Location of villages away from the edge of the reservoir or the banks of rivers and
canals. A distance of 1.5-2 km has proved to be adequate in reducing the incidence
of malaria; this same distance will discourage people from contact with schistosomeinfected water.
Location of animal sheds and stables with a view to encouraging zooprophylaxis.
Provision of a safe water supply in every settlement; the type of supply in
accordance with local conditions and importance of the community.
Provision of public facilities for laundry, bathing and recreation of suitable
capacity. If needed, provision of cattle troughs.
Provision of excreta disposal installations suitable to soil conditions and of a type
in keeping with the importance of the community.
Provision of open or closed conduits for the rapid collection, transport and disposal
of rainwater in accordance with the climate of the locality.
Mosquito proofing of houses and selection of appropriate housing designs that are
unfavourable to mosquitos.

During the maintenance and operation phases

A.

In reservoirs and surrounding areas

Clearing of submerged, emerging and floating vegetation to keep a bare zone of water
level fluctuation and a clean shoreline.
Dredging of the reservoir margin to deepen it and produce steeper slopes.
Repair of dikes and levees to keep them in proper condition.
Filling or draining of natural and man-made ground depressions of recent formation or
those that were unnoticed at the time of construction.
Straightening of courses and rectification of gradients of natural streams conveying
water from the catchment area to the reservoir.
Provision of proper management for the punctual operation of water level fluctuation.
Repair of spillways, diversion channels and other structures scoured by water, and
paving of the damaged sections.
Repair of drains that collect and convey the seepage water coming from the dan or
other structures.

(S)

9.

(S)10.
11.

B.

Repair of grids and screens at the intake structures or suction pipes.

Fencing of the reservoir may be advisable when the communities have been provided
with a proper water supply.
Repair of roads and paths of access to the reservoir edge.

In irrigation systems
1.

Dredging of canals and drains to bring them back to their original dimensions and
correct gradients, reshaping of cross-sections, and filling of bed depressions that
may retain water when empty.

2.

Frequent clearing of vegetation to ensure that the canals and drains are free from
aquatic plants, weeds, etc.

3.

Avoidance of the use of canals for night storage.

4.

Repair of control structures and gates to ensure their proper functioning.

5. Repair of culverts, siphons and bridges, and filling of bed depressions formed by
scouring at their entrances and exits.
6.

Effective control of water quantity at the intake of the irrigation reservoir and at
the gates to prevent over-irrigation.

7.

Levelling and grading of cultivated land, particularly where it is exposed to

flooding, or provision of drainage when levelling and grading is too extensive.

8.

Gradual lining of canals, starting in the sections most exposed to scouring and those
where seepage losses are greatest.

9.

Gradual transformation of open channels to covered conduits and pipes, starting in

the sublaterals and feeding canals. Promotion of subsurface drainage.

10.

(M)11.

12.

Gradual improvement of irrigation practices and methods (intermittent irrigation,

localized sprinkler irrigation, etc.); gradual improvement in agricultural practices.
Restriction of land use to daytime work in order to reduce the opportunities for
mosquito biting.
Periodic flushing of canals and drains.

C.

In communities

(S)

1.

( S ) 2.

3.

Maintenance, extension and improvement of water supply installations in accordance

with the development of the community and the amelioration of living conditions.
Improvement and transformation of waste disposal installations in accordance with the
development of the community and amelioration of living conditions.
Maintenance, extension and improvement of the rainwater collection and disposal
systems.

(M) 4. Introduction of a public service for the collection of household and other wastes.

(M) 5. Mosquito proofing of houses, and promotion of individual protection.

Annex 3
MATRIX FOR THE STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF A RESERVOIR
IN A WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

The matrix presented below is composed of two lists. One is of the actions (works and
operations) of the proposed project that may have an impact on the environment; these form
the headings of the vertical columns. The other list is of the environmental factors which
together make up the existing ecological system of twe area; each of these follows a horizontal column. A mark on one of the blocks or squares formed by the intersecting columns and
lines indicates a relation between the corresponding action (head of the vertical column) and
environmental factor (on the left).
The matrix can be used for two purposes. First, as a checklist or reminder of the full
range of actions and impacts that should be taken into account in the planning and programming
of the main studies for the analysis of the ecological impact. A mark on each relevant block
of the matrix will indicate that a particular proposed action is expected to produce an effect
on a particular factor of the existing environment. A plus (+) or minus (-) sign on the block
could indicate that a beneficial or detrimental effect (respectively) is foreseen. The
original matrix, used as a checklist to cover all possible subjects requiring study, may have
to be adjusted, shortened or extended, to conform with the findings of these studies, so that
the second matrix used for the evaluation of the impact is closer to reality.
The second use of the matrix is to present summarily the results obtained from these
studies, using a conventional scale of values to indicate the relative intensity and extent of
the expected effect. In practice, a scale of values ranging from 1 (for the lowest influence)
to 10 (for the highest) has proved to be adequate; a (+) or (-) sign added to the number will
show whether the influence will be beneficial or detrimental. Only through experience will an
evaluator acquire the skill to judge accurately and impartially the relative influence of each
effect that may intervene in the assessment of the total impact.
In each relevant block of the matrix there should be two numbers separated by a diagonal
line; one will represent the magnitude or intensity, the other will represent the importance
or extent of the effect.
The matrix covers most of the main actions involved and environmental factors affected.
It is by no means complete and should not be taken as a model but as a guide. Each situation
requires the preparation of its own particular matrix.
Other applications of the matrix
(a) The matrix can be used for the determination of the overall ecological impact of the
vector control measures of an antimalaria programme. For this the matrix should have a
column for each proposed control measure- for instance, larviciding, residual spraying,
vegetation clearance in the reservoir, drainage of the surrounding area, and desilting
and weed control in canals. Each action is analysed to assess the ecological effect it
may produce on all the environmental elements listed on the left, and the results
are recorded in the corresponding intersection boxes.
(b) Likewise, for the determination of the impact on malaria transmission that may result
from a water resources development project, the matrix should have a vertical column for
each of the proposed actions of the project that may have an effect on mosquito populations and densities and on man/vector contact. Each action is analysed to assess the
effect it may produce on malaria transmission by influencing any of the relevant environmental factors; each of the latter should have a horizontal space in the matrix.

In the application of (a) above, the matrix will give a picture of the magnitude and
importance of the ecological impact, whether beneficial or detrimental, that may be expected
from the antimalaria programme. In the application of (b), the matrix will show the impact on
malaria transmission, whether beneficial or detrimental, that may result from a water resources
development project.

MATRIX FOR THE STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF A RESERVOIR
IN A WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
Proposed actions that may cause environmental impact
Construction
activities for
land transfor-

Existing characteristics and

conditions of the environment

(Land formation
Soil constitution
Mineral resources

V)

1 I Construction materials
Recharge

Earthquakes

and Operational
land regime activities
alteration

Cont '

Annex 4
CHECKLIST OF MAJOR STEPS FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES
AT EACH PHASE OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

PLANNING PHASE
(1)

Review of existing information on health and related subjects

Epidemiology: morbidity and mortality rates, geographic distribution, vector ecology.
Health and medical services: facilities, staff, special projects and programmes,
degree of development, capacity and coverage.
Human population and characteristics: agricultural, migrant, nomadic (and other)
population growth, importance of migratory movement, displacement within the project
area.
Cattle: number and economic importance, cattle diseases.
Community and housing patterns: location, design, construction materials.
Water supply, excreta and waste disposal facilities.
Climatic patterns: temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind, etc.
Water: surface water and groundwater, quality, pollution, abundance and seasonal
variation, floods and droughts, seasonal variation in temperature.
Soil: physical and chemical characteristics, including permeability, stability,
salt content, etc.
Natural and cultivated aquatic and land vegetation, domestic and wild animals.
Economy: national and local, sources and levels of income.
Topographic maps: contour lines, roads, villages, etc. of the region and the watershed, design plans of proposed project, etc.

(2)

Surveys: To check information or fill in gaps; collection and assessment of basic data
by specialists
Detailed epidemiology of major existing diseases and biology and ecology of principal
vectors.
Health and medical services, disease and vector control programmes and activities,
evaluation of effectiveness and resources.
Human and cattle movements: migratory currents, their origin and paths.
Sanitation: sources of water supply (in use and potential), investigation of groundwater sources, active and potential sources and ways of pollution, practices with
water contact, excreta disposal, cattle watering and manure disposal.
Existing and proposed agricultural crops and practices: irrigation methods, suitable
crops, rotation in cultures and irrigation, use of pesticides and fertilizers, their
kind and amount.
Local economy: at present, and prospects of future development.
Sociocultural patterns: present level, and possible disturbance as a result of the
project
Engineering and operational reconnaissance and mapping for ecological, hydrological
and geological (or soil) studies.
Contact with agencies operating in the project area, type of their activities, and
possibility for assistance and coordination.

(3)

Decision-making for the prevention and control of diseases

Review of project proposals and preliminary designs and options.
Identification of existing health problems.
Prediction of possible future problems and of their health effects.
Determination of the importance and extent of actual and potential health problems
to establish an order of priorities in prevention and control operations.
(e) Feasibility studies of control measures, including cost/effectiveness and cost/
benefit analysis.
Selection of village sites and types of water supply and excreta disposal installa(f)
tions.
Selection
of methods of vector and disease control and estimates of manpower and
(g)
organizational requirements.
(h) Organization of field trials and pilot projects.
(i) Settlement of displaced and immigrant populations and estimates for the provision of
water supply, sanitation and other health facilities.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

DESIGN PHASE
Establishment of design criteria to minimize health hazards and to achieve the objectives
of the health programme.
Evaluation of preliminary project designs and alternatives.
Establishment of proposed practices of water system management and their effects on vector
habitats.
Preliminary design and options for canal lining, overpasses, and other health protection
structures.
Final detailed design of works in the reservoir:
(a)
Shoreline modification and improvement.
(b) Clearance and disposal of trees and brush, man-made structures and fences.
(c) Relocation of roads, villages, cemeteries, shrines, etc.
(d) Discharge structures sized for water level management and downstream flushing.
Final detailed design of works in irrigation schemes:
Equalizing reservoirs and night storage ponds, when necessary.
(a)
(b)
Canals and drains.
(c) Regulating structures, gates, sluices, etc. and distributing chambers.
(d) On-farm water use.
(e) Groundwater use and control.
(f) Potential for incorporating domestic water supp
Final detailed design of measures and works in communities:
Selection of sites (distant from water) for new communities.
Provision of safe, adequate and convenient water supply and sewage disposal systems.
~ecreation,safe ponds as alternative to infected water contact, sports grounds, etc.
(d) Other protective measures, such as house screening, surface water drainage, general
sanitation, public laundry installation, etc.
Provisions for maintenance activities and their financing.

(9) Environmental management:

(a) Regulating structures for measurement and control of water discharge and velocity.
(b) Gates required for rapid drying and flushing of irrigation subsystems.
Adjustment of water salinity in coastal breeding sites through the installation and
(c)
operation of gates.
(d) Water level management in small reservoirs by means of automatic siphon spillways.
(e) Safe crossings and bridges over canals and drains.
(f) Lining of canals and drains, closed or subsurface conduits.
(10) Improvement and simplification of chemical and biological control:
(a) Design dispensers for chemical application attached to or incorporated in regulating
structures; metal rakes and screens against snails.
(b) Provide access roads and paths for surveillance and spraying, clear water lanes and
landings for boats.
(11) Public health education and development of community participation.
(12)

Health facilities - dispensaries and hospitals.

CONSTRUCTION PHASE
(1) Health protection of the construction labour force.
(2)

Special facilities for disease control and treatment at the construction site.

(3)

Adequate housing and sanitary facilities for construction workers and their families.

(4)

Surveillance of infections in imported manpower and the local population.

(5)

Monitoring, vaccination and treatment of the loci1 population, and elimination and
control of endemic diseases, especially those with potential for intensification as a
result of the project operation.

(6)

Environmental protection, erosion, spillage, air and water pollution, disposal of wastes,
aesthetic alterations, etc.

(7)

Inspection to ensure that construction is carried out according to the health designs.

(8)

Public health education and development of community participation.

OPERATION PHASE

(1)

Allocation of funds, assignment of staff and implementation of disease control programmes.

(2)

Surveillance, screening and treatment of infected persons.

(3)

Establishment of rule curves and schedules for the control of mosquitos, snails, flies,
weeds, etc.

- 275

(6)

Application of chemical and biological methods for vector and weed control.

(7)

Drainage of all water collections around the reservoir.

(8)

Prevention and correction of excessive seepage.

(9)

On-farm water management.

(10)

Operation, maintenance, improvement and development of water supply and sewage disposal
systems, general sanitation.

(11)

Public health education and development of community participation.

(12)

Evaluation of vector and disease pattern changes, efficacy of control programmes, study
and implementation of amendments or alterations to improve results.

(13)

Preparation of periodic and special reports for information.

Annex 5
EQUIPMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

1.

Plough ditchers

Plough and blade ditchers are common. They have no moving parts, are comparatively cheap,
and are available in sizes suitable for pulling by all sizes of tractors.
The ordinary single-furrow mouldboard plough can be used to cut a roughly rectangularshaped ditch of dimensions limited by the plough components. The soil turned out from the
furrow is deposited on one or both sides depending on the design (Figs. 1 and 2). Coulters
may be either of the knife or rolling-disk type. Knives are generally preferred on stony soil
as they allow a more even working depth to be maintained. Special ploughshares to cut a
U-shaped furrow bottom are sometimes fitted and are favoured when cutting surface drains in
grass land.

2.

Furrow-type ditchers

The true "furrowing" plough, as developed in Europe, is particularly suitable for work
under very wet conditions. It has two mouldboards so arranged that half of the soil is turned
to the left and half to the right side of the ditch that is cut. To push the soil further
On the
away from the ditch wall, wings can be fitted to the rear of each mouldboard (Fig. 3).
larger model drawn by heavy tractors, the mouldboard can be extended into shaped pieces which
form the excavated soil into the required bank contour. On the larger ploughs, a third
centrally mounted coulter is sometimes fitted ahead of the shear to cut the furrow slash longitudinally before the soil is lifted up and turned by the mouldboards.
In operation with both the single and double mouldboards for ditching ploughs, the tractor
is driven along the line of the ditch. The working depth is controlled by altering the pitch
of the body and raising or lowering the plough beam in relation to the supporting wheels or
skid. On the larger tractor-drawn models, depth is controlled hydraulically or by cable and
winch.
This type of ditcher is used for cutting surface drains in soft soils and for the
preliminary drainage of very wet land before reclamation. Where the land is very soft and
both ditchers and tractors may become bogged down, especially wide wheels or tracks can be
fitted to the ditcher.

3.

The V-drag ditcher

A very simple implement, the V-drag ditcher (Fig. 4), not to be confused with the American
V-blade ditcher, can be constructed by any rural carpenter and smith. It is an inexpensive
and effective implement for both the construction and the maintenance of small ditches.
Both single and double mouldboard ditching ploughs can be used for cleaning and restoring
the profile of the ditches they have cut, providing the tractors can straddle the ditch or the
ploughs can be sufficiently offset.

4.

The V-blade ditcher

The double-blade or American V-type ditcher consists basically of two blades attached to
each other to form a "V" (Fig. 5). The lower edge of each blade is sharp, and this enables
the ditcher both to cut and to finish the ditch wall. The spoil moves upwards along the blade
and is deposited at both sides of the ditch. Depth is controlled by adjusting the drawbar to
restrict the downward movement of the beam, and the angle of penetration can also be altered.
Both deep and shallow work can be done. There are models for all sizes of tractors and they
can be trailed or mounted on the hydraulic three-point hitch. Blade ditchers, while particularly efficient and fast working in hard dry soils, are generally much less suitable than the
mouldboard type on wet soils which do not scour well.

5.

Excavators (backhoes)

Small hydraulically operated machines can be used as mobile excavators. Fitted with
suitable buckets they can both cut and clean irrigation and drainage ditches. A number of
manufacturers are now making hydraulically operated ditch-cutting and cleaning equipment for
use with standard agricultural tractors (Fig. 6).
The main advantages offered by farm-tractormounted excavators are:
(a) They are very mobile and can be moved from one worksite to another without special
transport.
(b)

Hydraulic control gives very accurate placing of the bucket, and one-man operation
can be accurate and efficient.

(c)

The tractors can be quickly converted back to their normal form and used for farm
work.

(d)

Buckets of various sizes and shapes allow the machines to be used for a wide variety
of both agricultural and civil engineering work; this makes them especially attractive to a contractor.

The majority of these machines are mounted at the rear of the tractor and the buckets are
arranged so that the digging tine or cutting edge is pulled toward the key post to which the
boom and digging arms are fastened. Reach and working depth depend largely on the length of
the boom and digger arms. On larger machines, the digging depth can be up to 5.2-6.0 m and
the reach can be from 3.6-4.3 m. With all types of bucket ditchers or backhoes, the output
falls when liquid or semiliquid spoil has to be dealt with. The best performance with these
types is obtained in fairly dry materials.
The small ditchers, designed for use with standard agricultural tractors, can be operated
from the hydraulic systems on the tractors. In most cases, small tractor-mounted ditchers are
of small capacity. Larger models are permanently mounted; they are used in civil engineering
work as well as for digging open drains.

6.

Dragline

A dragline is much used in civil engineering work. It is usually self-propelled and

mounted on tracks. Its power varies from 30 to 120 hp and digging rates vary from about 20 to
100 m3/h. In recent years, draglines have been increasingly used by irrigation and drainage
authorities for cutting and cleaning large open ditches.
Straight drag and back-acting excavators (draglines), when used for cutting, are driven
along the line of the ditch. As the bucket is virtually free-swinging from the cables, it is
seldom possible for it to finish the wall and banks to exact specifications. The walls very

often need to be trimmed by hand or by another machine such as a grader or a gradall. Despite
this seeming disadvantage, an experienced operator can do surprisingly accurate work with a
dragline, and he can considerably reduce the amount of labour required for finishing. Cableoperated or dragline excavators are suitable for cleaning ditches only under special conditions, when the ditch is narrow enough to be straddled by the excavator and when both banks
are unobstructed and able to bear the weight of the machine. A ditch to be excavated or
cleaned with a dragline (Fig. 7) should have the proper cross-section or width for the bucket
to be pulled across with the same action as a scoop ditcher or front-end bucket loader.
When used for cleaning wet ditches, the output of a dragline is greatly reduced and,
while larger buckets with drain holes may give better results, it is always better to drain
the ditch before cleaning. Secondary irrigation ditches are fairly easily drained, but those
which constantly carry water may have to be temporarily dammed and the water pumped out before
dragline cleaning starts.
7.

Trenchers for laying plastic drain tubing

Plastic tube drain installation may be done by several types of trenching machines, but
the two most commonly employed by contractors are the bucket-wheel type (Fig. 8) and the
trenchless or plough type. The bucket-wheel type of trencher has a large wheel mounted on a
frame at the rear of the machine. The wheel can be moved up and down by power to keep the
machine on grade. Attached to the wheel are excavating buckets. Immediately behind the
bucket-wheel is a cutting shoe and a shield to keep the loose earth from falling into the
trench. The cutting shoe shapes the bottom of the trench for the drain. The shield is long
enough to allow the drain tubing to be placed in a clean trench within the shield. The
excavating buckets carry the excavated material upward and place it on a conveyor which
deposits it on the ground at one side of the trench.
Different sizes of bucket-wheel-type trenchers are available for various depths and widths
of the required excavation. They may be mounted on wheels or on semicrawler or full-crawler
frames. Buckets may be changed to fit the type of soil in which the excavation is to be made.

8.

Trucks

Trucks are commonly used in irrigation projects because they can haul earth materials at
high speeds over distances as long as required. Trucks are available in small to large sizes.
The truck shown in Fig. 9 has a capacity of approximately 30 m3. It is capable of operating
off the highway and of hauling earth from any excavation site to any fill site. The truck
body is heavy and can carry large rock as well as earth materials.
9.

Rotary ditchers

The ditcher is equipped with a box of the same shape as the ditch. The box keeps the
ditcher on course and makes for true cutting. The cutting blades are mounted on a wheel on
one or both sides of the box; they cut the laterals of the ditch as the wheel rotates. The
soil is pulverized on the ditch sides 6-15 m away from the edge. The ditcher is towed by a
tractor and is free to move up or down.
Several types are available. One make can be used with tractors from 35 to 100 hp for
the single-wheel type and from 90 to 140 hp for the double-wheel type. These can dig ditches
0.7-1.9 m wide with 0.24-0.30 m base and 0.40-1.25 m depth. They weigh from 320 to 1130 kg.
The equipment is rather inexpensive(US$ 700-3000 at 1980 prices) and the most expensive one
costs less than a field vehicle (see Fig. 10).

Fig. 1.

Mouldboard plough fitted with two coulters for cutting small ditches.

Fig. 2.

Small ditching plough.

Fig. 3 .

Large furrow- type d i t c h e r w i t h wings f o r pushing t h e s o i l c l e a r

of t h e d i t c h .

Fig. 5.

American V-type ditcher.

Fig. 6.

Wheel excavator (backhoe)-loader, mounted on a farm tractor.

Fig. 7.

Dragline with weed-cleaning bucket.

Fig. 8.

Bucket-wheel trencher for installing plastic drain tubing.

Fig. 9.

Off-highway truck.

for tractors of 3 5 45 HP

for tractors of 5 0 - 6 0

Fig. 10.

HP

Rotary ditchers.

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