WHAT ARE AMINO ACIDS ?

Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds containing amine

(-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side-chain (R
group) specific to each amino acid.[1][2][3] The key elements of an amino
acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, though other elements are
found in the side-chains of certain amino acids. About 500 amino acids are
known (though only 20 appear in the genetic code) and can be classified in
many ways.[4] They can be classified according to the core structural
functional groups' locations as alpha- (-), beta- (-), gamma- (-) or delta(-) amino acids; other categories relate to polarity, pH level, and side-chain
group type (aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic, containing hydroxyl or sulfur, etc.). In
the form of proteins, amino acids comprise the second-largest component
(water is the largest) of human muscles, cells and other tissues.[5] Outside
proteins, amino acids perform critical roles in processes such as
neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis.

In biochemistry, amino acids having both the amine and the carboxylic acid
groups attached to the first (alpha-) carbon atom have particular importance.
They are known as 2-, alpha-, or -amino acids (generic formula
H2NCHRCOOH in most cases, where R is an organic substituent known as a
"side-chain"); often the term "amino acid" is used to refer specifically to
these. They include the 23 proteinogenic ("protein-building") amino acids,
which combine into peptide chains ("polypeptides") to form the buildingblocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all L-stereoisomers ("left-handed"
isomers), although a few D-amino acids ("right-handed") occur in bacterial
envelopes, as a neuromodulator (D-serine), and in some antibiotics.Twenty of
the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the
genetic code and are known as "standard" amino acids. The other three
("non-standard" or "non-canonical") are selenocysteine (present in many
noneukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes, but not coded directly by DNA),
pyrrolysine (found only in some archea and one bacterium) and Nformylmethionine (which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria,
mitochondria, and chloroplasts). Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded
via variant codons; for example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon
and SECIS element. CodontRNA combinations not found in nature can also
be used to "expand" the genetic code and create novel proteins known as
alloproteins incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids.

IMPORTANCE OF AMINO ACID

The Specific Amino Acids and Their Functions

5.3.1 Specific Amino AcidsDescriptions and Sources

The following descriptions of the amino acids include their most important
functions and some of the food sources in which they are found.
ALANINE Is a factor in regulating the adrenal glands and insuring healthy
skin, particularly the scalp. It is found in almonds, alfalfa sprouts, apples,
apricots, avocadoes, carrots, celery, cucumbers, grapes, lettuces, oranges,
strawberries, sweet peppers and tomatoes.
ARGININE Is used in muscle contraction and the construction of cartilage. It
is essential in the functioning of the reproductive organs and in controlling
the degeneration of the body cells. Arginine is found in alfalfa sprouts, beets,
carrots, celery, cucumbers, lettuces, parsnips, potatoes and turnips.
ASPARTIC ACID Is used in cardiovascular functions and in the retarding of
tooth and bone destruction. It is found in almonds, apples, apricots, carrots,
celery, cucumbers, grapefruits, lemons, pineapples, tomatoes and
watermelons.
CYSTINE Is used in the formation of red blood corpuscles and is involved in
hair growth and the functioning of the mammary glands. It is found in alfalfa
sprouts, apples, brazil nuts, beets, brussels sprouts, cabbages, carrots,
currants, cauliflower, filberts, kale, pineapples and raspberries.
GLUTAMIC ACID Is used in maintaining blood-sugar levels. Anemia will not
occur if this and other nutrients are obtained and used. Glutamic acid is also
a factor in the secretion of gastric juices. It is found in brussels sprouts
cabbages, carrots, celery, green beans, lettuces and papayas
GLYCINE Is a factor in forming muscle fiber and cartilage and in regulating
sex hormones. It is found in alfalfa sprouts, almonds, carrots, celery, okra,
oranges, potatoes, pomegranates, raspberries, turnips and water melons.
HISTIDINE Is used in manufacturing glycogen and in the control of mucus.
It is a component of hemoglobin and semen. It is found in alfalfa sprouts,
applet, beets, carrots, celery, cucumbers, endive, papayas, pineapples and
pomegranates.
HYDROXYGLUTAMIC ACID Is similar to glutamic acid and is a factor in
controlling digestive juices. It is found in carrots, celery, grapes, lettuces,
plums, raspberries and tomatoes.
HYDROXYPROLINE Aids in liver and gallbladder functions, in emulsifying
fats and in the formation of red blood corpuscles. It is found in almonds,
apricots, avocadoes, brazil nuts, beets, carrots, cherries, cucumbers,
coconuts, figs, grapes, lettuces, oranges, pineapples and raisins.

IODOGORGOIC ACID Is a factor in all glandular functions. It is found in

carrots, celery, lettuces, pineapples and tomatoes.
ISOLEUCINE Aids in the regulation of the thymus, spleen, pituitary and the
metabolism. It is also a factor in forming hemoglobin, lsoleucine is found in
.avocadoes, coconuts, papayas, sunflower seeds and almost all nuts.
LEUCINE Counterbalances the isoleucine amino acid and is found in the
same food sources.
LYSINE Aids in the functions of the liver, gallbladder and pineal and
mammary glands. It is also a factor in fat metabolism and in preventing cell
degeneration. Lysine is found in alfalfa sprouts, apples, apricots, beets,
carrots, celery, cucumbers, grapes, papayas, pears and soybean sprouts.
METHIONINE Aids in the functioning of the spleen, pancreas and lymph
glands. It is a constituent of hemoglobin and tissues and is found in apples,
brazil nuts, cabbages, cauliflower, filberts, kale and pineapples.
NORLEUC1NE Balances the functions of leucine. Synthesized within the
body if needed.
PHENYLALANINE Is involved in the functions of the kidneys and bladder
and in eliminating wastes. It is found in apples, beets, carrots, pineapples and
tomatoes.
PROLINE Involved in manufacturing white corpuscles and in the
emulsifying of fats. It is found in apricots, avocadoes. almonds, beets, brazil
nuts, carrots, cherries, coconuts, cucumbers, figs, grapes, oranges,
pineapples and raisins.
SERINE Aids in the tissue cleansing of the mucus membrane and in the
lungs and bronchial. It is found in alfalfa sprouts, apples, beets, carrots,
celery, cucumbers, cabbages, papayas and pineapples.
THREONINE Aids in the balancing of amino acids. Threonine is found in
alfalfa sprouts, carrots, green leafy vegetables and papayas.
THYROXINE Involved with the activity of the thyroid, pituitary and adrenals
and in metabolic functions. It is found in carrots, celery, lettuces, tomatoes
and pineapples.
TRYPTOPHANE Involved in the generation of cells and tissues and in the
pancreatic and gastric juices. Tryptophane is also a factor in the optic system.
It is found in alfalfa sprouts, beets, carrots, celery, green beans and turnips.
TYROSINE Is a factor in the development of the cells and tissues and in the
generation of red and white blood corpuscles. It is also found in the adrenals,

pituitary, thyroid and hair. Food sources of this amino acid are alfalfa sprouts,
almonds, apricots, apples, beets, carrots, cucumbers, cherries, figs, lettuces,
sweet peppers, strawberries and watermelons.
VALINE Involved in the functioning of the mammary glands and ovaries. It
is found in apples, almonds, beets, carrots, celery, okra. pomegranates,
squashes and tomatoes.

WHAT IS AN ONION ?
Kingdom:Plantae ,Clade: Angiosperms,Clade: Monocots,Order:
Asparagales,Family: Amaryllidaceae,Subfamily: Allioideae,Tribe:
Allieae,,Genus: Allium,Species: A. cepa,Binomial name - Allium cepa
The onion (Allium cepa L., from Latin cepa "onion"), also known as the bulb
onion or common onion, is a vegetable and is the most widely cultivated
species of the genus Allium.
It is a biennial plant, but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties
typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm (6 to 18 in). The leaves are
yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped
swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side. They
are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up, beyond which they taper
towards a blunt tip. The base of each leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath
that grows out of a basal disc. From the underside of the disc, a bundle of
fibrous roots extends for a short way into the soil. As the onion matures, food
reserves begin to accumulate in the leaf bases and the bulb of the onion
swells.
IMPORTANCE OF ONIONS
Most onion cultivars are about 89% water, 4% sugar, 1% protein, 2% fibre,
and 0.1% fat. Onions contain low amounts of essential nutrients (right table),
are low in fats, and have an energy value of 166 kJ (40 kcal) per 100 g (3.5
oz). They contribute their flavor to savory dishes without raising caloric
content appreciably.
Onions contain phytochemical compounds such as phenolics that are under
basic research to determine their possible properties in humans.
Considerable differences exist between onion varieties in polyphenol content,
with shallots having the highest level, six times the amount found in Vidalia
onions, the variety with the smallest amount. Yellow onions have the highest
total flavonoid content, an amount 11 times higher than in white onions. Red
onions have considerable content of anthocyanin pigments, with at least 25

different compounds identified representing 10% of total flavonoid content.

Some people suffer from allergic reactions after handling onions.Symptoms
can include contact dermatitis, intense itching, rhinoconjunctivitis, blurred
vision, bronchial asthma, sweating, and anaphylaxis. Allergic reactions may
not occur in these individuals to the consumption of onions, perhaps because
of the denaturing of the proteins involved during the cooking process.
While onions and other members of the genus Allium are commonly
consumed by humans, they can be deadly for dogs, cats, guinea pigs,
monkeys, and other animals. The toxicity is caused by the sulfoxides present
in raw and cooked onions, which many animals are unable to digest.
Ingestion results in anaemia caused by the distortion and rupture of red blood
cells. Sick pets are sometimes fed with tinned baby foods, and any that
contain onion should be avoided.[40] The typical toxic doses are 5 g (0.2 oz)
per kg (2.2 lb) bodyweight for cats and 15 to 30 g (0.5 to 1.1 oz) per kg for
dogs.
Similar to garlic,onions can show an additional color after cutting.[44] This
color is pink-red. It is caused by reactions of the amino acids with the sulfur
compounds.

SECOND
Onions not only provide flavor, they also provide important nutrients and
health-promoting phytochemicals. High in vitamin C, onions are a good
source of dietary fiber, and folic acid. They also contain calcium, iron, and
have a high protein quality (ratio of mg amino acid/gram protein). Onions are
low in sodium and contain no fat.

Onions contain quercetin, a flavonoid (one category of antioxidant

compounds). Antioxidants are compounds that help delay or slow the
oxidative damage to cells and tissue of the body. Studies have indicated that
quercetin helps to eliminate free radicals in the body, to inhibit low-density
lipoprotein oxidation (an important reaction in the atherosclerosis and
coronary heart disease), to protect and regenerate vitamin E (a powerful
antioxidant), and to inactivate the harmful effects of chelate metal ions.

Major dietary sources of quercetin include apple, tea, and onion. Recent

studies at Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands, showed that

the absorption of quercetin from onions is twice that from tea and more than
three times that from apples. Based on studies conducted at The Queen's
University at Belfast, Ireland and Wageningen Agricultural University, the
content of quercetin in onions is estimated to be between 22.40 mg and
51.82 mg per medium-sized onion (100 gram). Further research at the
Agricultural University of Wageningen showed that daily consumption of
onions may result in increased accumulation of quercetin in the blood.
Studies are in progress to determine whether the increased quercetin
accumulation from eating onions translates into significant antioxidant
benefit.

Other studies have shown that consumption of onions may be beneficial for
reduced risk of certain diseases. Consumption of onions may prevent gastric
ulcers by scavenging free radicals and by preventing growth of the ulcerforming microorganism, Heliobacter pylori. University of Wisconsin-Madison
researchers found that the more pungent onions exhibit strong anti-platelet
activity. Platelet aggregation is associated with atherosclerosis,
cardiovascular disease, heart attack, and stroke. A study in progress at the
University of Wisconsin is determining the extent to which onion consumption
and specific onion compounds affect the in vivo aggregation of blood
platelets. "Using an in vivo model, we are beginning to investigate and, in
some cases, confirm the potency of the onion as a blood thinner and platelet
inhibitor. Onions may be among the vegetables that will be prized not only for
their addition to our cuisine, but for their value-added health characteristics,"
said Irwin Goldman, Associate Professor of Horticulture, University of
Wisconsin-Madison.

A recent study at the University of Bern in Switzerland showed that

consumption of one gram dry onion per day for four weeks increased bone
mineral content in rats by more than 17% and mineral density by more than
13% compared to animals fed a control diet. This data suggests onion
consumption has the potential to decrease the incidence of osteoporosis.

Several studies have shown quercetin to have beneficial effects against many
diseases and disorders including cataracts, cardiovascular disease as well as
cancer of the breast, colon, ovarian, gastric, lung, and bladder.

In addition to quercetin, onions contain the phytochemicals known as

disulfides, trisulfides, cepaene, and vinyl dithiins. These compounds have a
variety of health-functional properties, including anticancer and antimicrobial
activities.